Jump to content

Racism in China

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Summary of racism in China)

Part of a series on
Discrimination
Forms
Attributes
Social
Religious
Ethnic/national
Manifestations
Policies
Countermeasures
Related topics

Racism in China (simplified Chinese: 种族主义; traditional Chinese: 種族主義; pinyin: zhòngzú zhǔyì) arises from Chinese history, nationalism, sinicization, and other factors. Racism in the People's Republic of China has been documented in numerous situations. Ethnic tensions have led to numerous incidents in the country such as the Xinjiang conflict, the ongoing internment and state persecution of Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities, the 2010 Tibetan language protest (a protest against the sinicization of Tibet), the 2020 Inner Mongolia protests (a protest against the sinicization of Inner Mongolia), discrimination against Africans in particular and discrimination against Black people in general.

Demographic background

[edit]
Main article: Demographics of China
Further information: Institutional racism in China and List of ethnic groups in China

China is a largely homogeneous society; over 90% of its population is Han Chinese.[1]

History

[edit]

Ethnic taxonomies were an aspect of Qing dynasty governance since the 1600s.[2]: 59 

Claims about "race" being based in science and physiological differences were introduced to China by Europeans.[2]: 59  The idea of East Asian people belonging to a single "yellow race" was invented by European scientists in the 1700s and later introduced to China.[2]: 59  Chinese intellectuals initially embraced European concepts of race due to admiration of Western science.[2]: 59  These intellectuals also accepted a view categorizing Chinese as "yellow," in part due to favorable connotations of "yellow" in Chinese culture.[2]: 59 

Conflict with Uyghurs

[edit]
Main article: Xinjiang conflict

In the early 20th century, Uyghurs would reportedly not enter Hui mosques, and Hui and Han households were built together in a town; Uyghurs would live farther away.[3][4] Uyghurs have been known to view Hui Muslims from other provinces of China as hostile and threatening.[5][6][7] Mixed Han and Uyghur children are known as erzhuanzi (二转子); there are Uyghurs who call them piryotki,[6][8] and shun them.[9] The Sibe minority tend to also hold negative stereotypes of Uyghurs and identify with the Han.[10]

A book by Guo Rongxing from Chandos Publishing about the unrest in Xinjiang stated that the 1990 Barin uprising occurred after 250 forced abortions were imposed upon local Uyghur women by the Chinese government.[11]

The Chinese government and individual Han Chinese citizens have been accused of discrimination against and ethnic hatred towards the Uyghur minority.[12][13][14] This was a reported cause of the July 2009 Ürümqi riots, which occurred largely along racial lines. Several Western media sources called them "race riots".[15][16][17] According to The Atlantic in 2009, there was an unofficial Chinese policy of denying passports to Uyghurs until they reached retirement age, especially if they intended to leave the country for the pilgrimage to Mecca.[12] A 2009 paper from the National University of Singapore reported that China's policy of affirmative action had actually worsened the rift between the Han and Uyghurs, but also noted that both ethnic groups could still be friendly with each other, citing a survey where 70% of Uyghur respondents had Han friends while 82% of Han had Uyghur friends.[18] The CCP has actively pursued the policy of sinicizing religion. This policy seeks to mold all religions to align with the officially atheist CCP doctrines and the prevailing customs of the majority Han-Chinese society.[19]

It was observed in 2013 that at least in the workplace, Uyghur-Han relations seemed relatively friendly.[20] Shortly after the 2014 Kunming attack, some commentators on Weibo, including Muslim-Chinese celebrity Medina Memet, urged others not to equate Uyghurs with terrorism.[21]

According to academic David Tobin, since 2012, "Chinese education about Uyghurs tends to frame Uyghur identities as racialised, culturally external existential threats to be defeated by state violence or teaching them to be Chinese."[22]

According to the Central Asia-Caucasus Institute's founder S. Fredrick Starr, tensions between Hui and Uyghurs arose because the Qing and Republican Chinese authorities both used Hui troops and officials to dominate the Uyghurs and suppress Uyghur revolts.[23] The massacre of Uyghurs by Ma Zhongying's Hui troops in the Battle of Kashgar caused unease as more Hui moved into the region from other parts of China.[24] Per Starr, the Uyghur population grew by 1.7 percent in Xinjiang between 1940 and 1982, and the Hui population increased by 4.4 percent, with the population-growth disparity serving to increase interethnic tensions.

People's Republic of China

[edit]
Further information: Human rights in China § Ethnic minorities

Racist incidents continue to occur in the People's Republic of China (PRC) and they have become a contentious topic because Chinese state sources either deny or downplay its existence. Scholars have noted that the Chinese state's propaganda largely portrays racism as a Western phenomenon, which has contributed to a lack of acknowledgment of the existence of racism in Chinese society.[25][26][27][28] In August 2018, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination reported that PRC law does not properly define "racial discrimination" and it also lacks an anti-racial discrimination law which should be in line with the Paris Principles.[29]

Since the mid-1990s, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has utilized Peking Man as an instrument of its racial nationalist discourse.[30][31]

In November 2012, in contradiction of the Chinese Communist Party's rhetoric about equality among China's 56 recognized ethnic groups, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping released his model of the Chinese Dream, which has been criticized as Han-centric.[27]

In May 2012, the Chinese government launched A 100-day crackdown on illegal foreigners in Beijing, due to Beijing residents wary of foreign nationals due to recent crimes.[32][33] China Central Television (CCTV) host Yang Rui said, controversially, that "foreign trash" should be cleaned out of the capital.[32] A 2016 Gallup International poll had roughly 30% of Chinese respondents and 53% of Hong Kong respondents agreeing that some races were superior to others.[34][35]

Anti-Chinese sentiment

[edit]

Among some Chinese dissidents and critics of the Chinese government have used of pejorative slurs (such as shina or locust),[36][37][38] or displaying hatred towards the Chinese language, people, and culture.[39]

In Hong Kong

[edit]

Although Hong Kong's sovereignty was returned to China in 1997, only a small minority of its inhabitants consider themselves to be exclusively Chinese. According to a 2014 survey from the University of Hong Kong, 42.3% of respondents identified themselves as "Hong Kong citizens", versus only 17.8% who identified themselves as "Chinese citizens", and 39.3% gave themselves a mixed identity (a Hong Kong Chinese or a Hong Konger who was living in China).[40] By 2019, almost no Hong Kong youth identified as Chinese.[41]

The number of mainland Chinese who visit the region has surged since the handover (it reached 28 million in 2011) and many locals believe that it is the cause of their housing and job difficulties. In addition to resentment which is caused by political oppression, negative perceptions have grown through the circulation of online posts which contain descriptions of mainlander misbehaviour,[42] as well as discriminatory discourse in major Hong Kong newspapers.[43][44] In 2013, polls from the University of Hong Kong suggested that 32 to 35.6 per cent of locals had "negative" feelings for mainland Chinese people.[45] However, a 2019 survey of Hong Kong residents has suggested that there are also some who attribute positive stereotypes to visitors from the mainland.[46]

In 2012, a group of Hong Kong residents published a newspaper advertisement which depicted mainland visitors and immigrants as locusts, an ethnic slur targeting mainland Chinese people.[47] Strong anti-mainland xenophobia has also been documented amidst the 2019 protests,[48] with reported instances of protesters attacking Mandarin-speakers and mainland-linked businesses.[49][50]

During protest against mainlanders and parallel traders, local demonstrators chanted the pejorative term Cheena.[51] In October 2015, an HKGolden netizen remade the South Korean song "Gangnam Style", with lyrics calling mainland Chinese "locusts" and "Cheena people", titled "Disgusting Cheena Style" (Chinese: 核突支那Style).[52]

Inside Hong Kong university campuses, mainland Chinese students are often referred to as "Cheena dogs" and "yellow thugs" by local students.[53] Hong Kong journalist Audrey Li noted the xenophobic undertone of the widespread right-wing nativism movement, in which the immigrant population and tourists are used as scapegoats for social inequality and institutional failure.[54]

In a 2015 study, mainland students in Hong Kong who initially had a more positive view of the city than of their own mainland hometowns reported that their attempts at connecting with the locals were difficult due to experiences of hostility.[55]

In Hong Kong, some people consider hate speech and discrimination toward mainland Chinese morally justified[56] by a superiority complex influenced by Hong Kong's economic and cultural prominence during the Cold War, and nostalgia toward British rule.[54] Some protesters choose to express their frustrations on ordinary mainlanders instead of the Chinese government. With rising tribalism and nationalism in Hong Kong and China, xenophobia between Hong Kongers and mainlanders is reinforced and reciprocated.[57][58]

Anti-Japanese sentiment

[edit]
Main articles: Anti-Japanese sentiment in China and China–Japan relations

Anti-Japanese sentiment primarily stems from Japanese war crimes which were committed during the Second Sino-Japanese War. History-textbook revisionism in Japan and the denial (or the whitewashing) of events such as the Nanjing Massacre by the Uyoku dantai has continued to inflame anti-Japanese feeling in China. Anti-Japanese sentiment has been encouraged through the CCP's Patriotic Education Campaign.[59] According to a BBC News report, anti-Japanese demonstrations received tacit approval from Chinese authorities, however, the Chinese ambassador to Japan Wang Yi said that the Chinese government does not condone such protests.[60]

Anti-Muslim sentiment

[edit]
Main articles: Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party § Muslims, Freedom of religion in China § Islam, Islam in China, Islamophobia in China, and Persecution of Muslims § Xinjiang

Recent studies contend that in contemporary China, some Han Chinese have attempted to legitimize and fuel anti-Muslim beliefs and biases by exploiting historical conflicts between the Han Chinese and Muslims, like the Northwest Hui Rebellion.[61][62] Scholars and researchers have also argued that Western Islamophobia and the "War on Terror" have contributed to the mainstreaming of anti-Muslim sentiments and practices in China.[63][64] Recent studies have shown that Chinese news media coverage of Muslims and Islam is generally negative, in which portrayals of Muslims as dangerous and prone to terrorism, or as recipients of disproportionate aid from the government was common.[65][66] Studies have also revealed that Chinese cyberspace contains much anti-Muslim rhetoric and that non-Muslim Chinese hold negative views towards Muslims and Islam.[65][67][68] Discrimination against Muslims and sinicization of mosques have been reported.[69][70][71][72]

Middle Eastern youth in China who were interviewed by the Middle East Institute in 2018 generally did not encounter discrimination. However, a Yemeni national said that he received unfavorable reactions from some Chinese when he stated that he was a Muslim, something which he managed to overcome with time, especially after he made Chinese friends.[73]

Persecution of Uyghurs in China

[edit]
Main article: Persecution of Uyghurs in China
See also: History of Xinjiang § People's Republic of China (1949–present), Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China, Xinjiang conflict, and Xinjiang internment camps

Since 2014, the Chinese Communist Party under the leadership of the Xi Jinping Administration has pursued a policy which has led to the imprisonment of more than one million Muslims[74] (the majority of them are Uyghurs) in secretive detention camps without any legal process.[75][76] Critics of the policy have described it as the sinicization of Xinjiang and they have also called it an ethnocide or a cultural genocide,[75][77][78][79][80][81] and many activists, NGOs, human rights organizations, government officials, and the U.S. government have called it a genocide.[82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89] The Chinese government did not acknowledge the existence of these internment camps until 2018 and when it finally acknowledged their existence, it called them "vocational education and training centers" rather than internment camps.[90] In 2019, the name of these camps was officially changed to "vocational training centers". From 2018 to 2019, despite the Chinese government's claim that most of the detainees had been released, the camps tripled in size.[90] The Chinese Ambassador to the United States at the time, Cui Tiankai, stated that accusations of genocide which have been made by United States President Joe Biden and Secretary of State Antony Blinken are "inaccurate."[91]

There are widespread reports of forced abortion, contraception, and sterilization both inside and outside the re-education camps. NPR reports that a 37-year-old pregnant woman from the Xinjiang region said that she attempted to give up her Chinese citizenship to live in Kazakhstan but was told by the Chinese government that she needed to come back to China to complete the process. She alleges that officials seized the passports of her and her two children before coercing her into receiving an abortion to prevent her brother from being detained in an internment camp.[92] Zumrat Dwut, a Uyghur woman, claimed that she was forcibly sterilized by tubal ligation during her time in a camp before her husband was able to get her out through requests to Pakistani diplomats.[93][94] The Xinjiang regional government denies that she was forcibly sterilized.[93] The Associated Press reports that there is a "widespread and systematic" practice of forcing Uyghur women to take birth control medication in the Xinjiang region,[95] and many women have stated that they have been forced to receive contraceptive implants.[96][97] The Heritage Foundation reported that officials forced Uyghur women to take unknown drugs and to drink some kind of white liquid that caused them to lose consciousness and sometimes causes them to cease menstruation altogether.[98]

Tahir Hamut, a Uyghur Muslim, worked in a labor camp during elementary school when he was a child, and he later worked in a re-education camp as an adult, performing such tasks as picking cotton, shoveling gravel, and making bricks. "Everyone is forced to do all types of hard labor or face punishment," he said. "Anyone unable to complete their duties will be beaten."[99]

Beginning in 2018, over one million Chinese government workers began forcibly living in the homes of Uyghur families to monitor and assess resistance to assimilation, and to watch for frowned-upon religious or cultural practices.[100]

In March 2020, the Chinese government was found to be using the Uyghur minority for forced labor, inside sweat shops. According to a report published then by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), no fewer than around 80,000 Uyghurs were forcibly removed from the region of Xinjiang and used for forced labor in at least twenty-seven corporate factories.[101] According to the Business and Human Rights resource center, corporations such as Abercrombie & Fitch, Adidas, Amazon, Apple, BMW, Fila, Gap, H&M, Inditex, Marks & Spencer, Nike, North Face, Puma, PVH, Samsung, and UNIQLO have each sourced from these factories prior to the publication of the ASPI report.[102]

Discrimination against Tibetans

[edit]
Main articles: Anti-Tibetan sentiment and Human rights in Tibet
See also: Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China, History of Tibet (1950–present), and Sinicization of Tibet

Anti-Tibetan racism has been practiced by ethnic Han Chinese on some occasions. Ever since its inception, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), the sole legal ruling political party of the PRC (including Tibet), has been distributing historical documents which portray Tibetan culture as barbaric in order to justify Chinese control of the territory of Tibet, and is widely endorsed by Han Chinese nationalists.[103] As such, many members of Chinese society have a negative view of Tibet which can be interpreted as racism.[104][105] The CCP's view is that Tibet was historically a feudal society which practiced serfdom/slavery and that this only changed due to the annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China.[106]: 8 

Tibetan-Muslim violence

[edit]

Most Muslims in Tibet are Hui. Although hostility between Tibetans and Muslims stems from the Muslim warlord Ma Bufang's rule of Qinghai (the Ngolok rebellions (1917–49) and the Sino-Tibetan War), in 1949, the Communists ended the violence between Tibetans and Muslims. However, acts of Tibetan-Muslim violence have recently occurred. Riots between Muslims and Tibetans broke out over bones in soups and the price of balloons; Tibetans accused Muslims of being cannibals who cooked humans, attacking Muslim restaurants. Fires which were set by Tibetans burned the apartments and shops of Muslims, and Muslims stopped wearing their traditional headwear and they also began to pray in secret.[107] Chinese-speaking Hui also have problems with the Tibetan Hui (the Tibetan-speaking Kache Muslim minority).[108]

The main mosque in Lhasa was burned down by Tibetans, and Hui Muslims were assaulted by rioters in the 2008 Tibetan unrest.[109] Tibetan exiles and foreign scholars overlook sectarian violence between Tibetan Buddhists and Muslims.[110] Most Tibetans viewed the wars which were waged against Iraq and Afghanistan after the September 11 attacks positively, and anti-Muslim attitudes resulted in boycotts of Muslim-owned businesses.[111] Some Tibetan Buddhists believe that Muslims cremate their imams and use the ashes to convert Tibetans to Islam by making Tibetans inhale the ashes, although they frequently oppose proposed Muslim cemeteries.[112][need quotation to verify] Since the Chinese government supports the Hui Muslims, Tibetans attack the Hui to indicate anti-government sentiment and due to the background of hostility since Ma Bufang's rule; they resent perceived Hui economic domination.[113]

In 1936, after Sheng Shicai expelled 20,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang and forced them to move to Qinghai, Hui troops who were led by Ma Bufang reduced the number of Kazakhs who lived in Xinjiang to 135.[114] Over 7,000 Kazakhs fled northern Xinjiang to the Tibetan Qinghai plateau region (via Gansu), causing unrest. Ma Bufang relegated the Kazakhs to pastureland in Qinghai, but the Hui, Tibetans and Kazakhs in the region continued to clash.[115]

Discrimination against Mongols

[edit]
Main article: Anti-Mongolianism § China
See also: 2020 Inner Mongolia protests and Mongolian language in Inner Mongolia

The CCP has been accused of sinicizing Inner Mongolia by gradually replacing Mongolian languages with Mandarin Chinese. Critics have accused the Chinese government of committing cultural genocide because it is dismantling people's minority languages and eradicating their minority identities. The 2020 Inner Mongolia protests were caused by a curriculum reform which was imposed on ethnic schools by China's Inner Mongolian Department of Education. The two-part reform replaced Mongolian with Standard Mandarin as the medium of instruction in three particular subjects and it also replaced three regional textbooks which were printed in the Mongolian script, with the nationally-unified textbook series [zh] edited by the Ministry of Education, written in Standard Mandarin.[116][117][118] On a broader scale, the opposition to the curriculum change reflects the decline of regional language education in China [zh].[119]

On 20 September 2020, up to 5,000 ethnic Mongolians were arrested in Inner Mongolia for protesting against the enactment of policies that outlawed their nomadic pastoralist lifestyle. The director of the Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center (SMHRIC), Enghebatu Togochog, called the CCP's policy a “cultural genocide”. Two-thirds of the 6 million ethnic Mongolians who live in Inner Mongolia practice a nomadic lifestyle that they have practiced for millennia.[120]

Genghis Khan and his origins have been increasingly censored by the authorities within China alongside attempts to censor them outside of the country.[121][122] In October 2020, the Chinese government asked the Nantes History Museum in France not to use the words "Genghis Khan" and "Mongolia" in the exhibition project which it dedicated to the life of Genghis Khan and the history of the Mongol Empire. The Nantes History Museum conducted the exhibition project in partnership with the Inner Mongolia Museum in Hohhot, China. The Nantes History Museum halted the exhibition project. In response, the director of the Nantes museum, Bertrand Guillet, stated: “Tendentious elements of rewriting aimed at completely eliminating Mongolian history and culture in favor of a new national narrative”.[123][122]

Discrimination against Africans and people of African descent

[edit]
Main article: Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic § Mainland China

According to historian Yinghong Cheng, "a relationship between two racially superior/inferior human groups is either implied or demonstrated" in Chinese narratives and discourses toward Africans.[124] Reports of racial discrimination against Africans in China have been published by foreign media outlets since the 1970s.[26] Publicized incidents of discrimination against Africans have included the Nanjing anti-African protests in 1988 and a 1989 student-led protest in Beijing in response to an African dating a Chinese person.[125][126] Police action against Africans in Guangzhou has also been reported as discriminatory.[127][128][129][130] In 2009, accusations which were made by Chinese media in which it stated that the number of African undocumented immigrants who were residing in China could be as high as 200,000 people sparked racist attacks against Africans and mixed African-Chinese people on the internet.[131] In 2017, a museum exhibit in Wuhan was condemned for comparing Africans to wild animals and was pulled soon after amid outrage.[132][133] In 2018, the CCTV New Year's Gala sparked controversies because it included blackface performances in which Africans were portrayed as submissive recipients of the support which they received from China.[134][135] During the CCTV New Year's Gala in 2021, Chinese actors again put on blackface; the Chinese Foreign minister denied that the performance was racist.[136]

According to BBC News, in 2020, many people in China have expressed solidarity with the Black Lives Matter movement.[137] The George Floyd protests have reportedly sparked conversations about race that would have not otherwise occurred in the country,[138] including treatment of China's own ethnic minorities.[139]

In August 2023, Human Rights Watch reported that racist content against Black people is widespread on the internet in China.[140][141][142] According to academic Kun Huang, each time a mixed-race Chinese-African person has gone viral on social media, a nationalist backlash has ensued.[143]

COVID-19 pandemic

[edit]

The number of reported acts of racism against Africans and against black foreigners of African descent[144][145] both increased in China during the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China.[146][147][148][149][150][151] Black foreigners not from Africa have also faced racism and discrimination in China.[152][153] In response to criticism over COVID-19 related racism and discrimination against Africans in China, Chinese authorities set up a hotline for foreign nationals and laid out measures discouraging businesses and rental houses in Guangzhou from refusing people based on race or nationality.[154][155] Foreign Ministry spokesman Zhao Lijian claimed that the country has "zero tolerance" for discrimination.[130] CNN stated that this claim ignored the decades' long history of racism and discrimination against Africans in China which predated the COVID-19 pandemic.[156] During the 2022 Shanghai lockdown, viral locally produced videos of Africans shouting scripted, positive wishes to the Chinese audience have been criticized as stereotypical and even dehumanizing.[157]

Hong Kong

[edit]

Since 2008, it has been reported that many Africans have experienced racism in Hong Kong, such as being subjected to humiliating police searches on the streets, being avoided on public transports, and being barred from bars and clubs.[158][159]

Discrimination against South and Southeast Asians

[edit]
See also: Foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong

There have been reports of widespread discrimination in Hong Kong against South Asian minorities regarding housing, employment, public services, and checks by the police.[160] A 2001 survey found that 82% of ethnic minority respondents said they had suffered discrimination from shops, markets, and restaurants in Hong Kong.[161] A 2020 survey found that more than 90% of ethnic minority respondents experienced some form of housing discrimination.[162] Foreign domestic workers, mostly South Asians, have been at risk of forced labor, subpar accommodation, and verbal, physical, or sexual abuse by employers.[163] A 2016 survey from Justice Centre Hong Kong suggested that 17% of migrant domestic workers were engaged in forced labor, while 94.6% showed signs of exploitation.[164]

Filipina women in Hong Kong are often reportedly stereotyped as promiscuous, disrespectful, and lacking self-control.[165] Reports of racist abuse from Hong Kong fans towards their Filipino counterparts at a 2013 football game came to light, after an increased negative image of the Philippines from the 2010 Manila hostage crisis.[166] In 2014, an insurance ad, as well as a school textbook, drew some controversy for alleged racial stereotyping of Filipina maids.[167]

Some Pakistanis in 2013 reported of banks barring them from opening accounts because they came from a 'terrorist country', as well as locals next to them covering their mouths thinking they smell, finding their beard ugly, or stereotyping them as claiming welfare benefits fraudulently.[168] A 2014 survey of Pakistani and Nepalese construction workers in Hong Kong found that discrimination and harassment from local colleagues led to perceived mental stress, physical ill health, and reduced productivity.[169][170]

South Asian minorities in Hong Kong faced increased xenophobia during the COVID-19 pandemic, with media narratives blaming them as more likely to spread the virus.[171]

In 2023, a video shared by a Douyin account of the Ministry of Public Security of actors in brownface singing an Indian song received widespread criticism.[172] The video was deleted soon after.[173]

Discrimination against Jews

[edit]
Main article: Antisemitism in China

Antisemitism in China is a mostly 21st century phenomenon and is complicated by the fact that there is little ground for antisemitism in China in historical sources.[174][175][176] Public consciousness of Jews in China has a variety of historical influences.[177]: 98  Academic Eric Reinders of Emory University states that these include "Protestant missionaries, Jews as a model for Chinese immigrants, Japanese anti-Jewish articles circulated in China in the 1930s, the presence of European Jewish refugees in Shanghai, and the politics around Israel as a proxy of US imperialism."[177]: 98  Reinders writes that Chinese stereotypes of Jews are based in positive generalizations more than negative ones.[177]: 98–99  Jews are praised for valuing education like Chinese, although this is often also framed competitively.[177]: 99  Some mass market books associate Jews with wealth-building.[177]: 98–99  In the 2020s, antisemitic conspiracy theories in China began to spread and intensify.[178][179][180] Some Chinese people believe in antisemitic tropes that Jews secretly rule the world.[181]

Discrimination against and biases in favor of European and European-descended people

[edit]

Discrimination

[edit]

Russians form one of China's 56 officially recognized ethnic groups. Many Chinese citizens of Russian descent were subject to discrimination due to their perceived differences from the majority Han Chinese population and accusations of being "Soviet spies" during the 20th century.[182]

In the late 2010s, Dong Desheng, a Chinese citizen of Russian descent who was born in Heilongjiang province, become a "social media sensation" in China after posting videos of himself and his daily life under the screen name "Uncle Petrov".[183] Some Chinese internet users were "confused" by Desheng's appearance, asking him if he wore "colored contact lenses" as they could not believe that a Chinese citizen could have naturally blue eyes. As he gained more popularity online, Desheng raised discussions about what it means to be "Chinese", as the term is largely synonymous with people of Han Chinese ethnicity and stereotypical appearance.[183] In a 2022 interview, Desheng discussed how Russians and many other minorities in China have attempted to assimilate into the majority Han Chinese culture; forgoing their ancestral culture in fear of being discriminated against.[184]

Biases

[edit]
See also: White monkey

The Los Angeles Times and Vice Media alleged that a hiring preference for white English teachers over members of other groups is common in China.[185][186] In 2014, a Media Diversified article by a former English teacher in Ningbo alleged that the English teaching industry was responsible for "painting the image of ‘good English’ as a domain reserved for white people" and it also highlighted the need for a more diverse staff in the industry.[187]

International responses

[edit]

In terms of international responses to China's policies towards Tibetans, Uyghurs and Mongols in the Tibet Autonomous Region, Xinjiang, and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region respectively, many people outside Mongolia know about the Chinese government's human rights abuses against the Uyghurs and the Tibetans, but few of them know about the plight of the Mongols. An international petition which is titled "Save Education in Inner Mongolia" has currently received less than 21,000 signatures.[188] Former U.S. President Trump signed the Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act of 2020 into law, and the Tibetan Policy and Support Act of 2019 has passed the House of Representatives.[188] The Southern Mongolian Congress, an Inner Mongolian activist group based out of Japan, has since written an open letter asking the U.S. Congress to do the same for the Mongols.[188]

Much of the world has condemned the Chinese government's detention of Uyghurs.[189] In January 2021, U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo declared that China is committing crimes against humanity and genocide against the Uyghurs, making the U.S. the first country to apply those terms to the Chinese government's human rights abuses.[190] While he was campaigning, the current U.S. President Joe Biden used the term genocide in reference to the Chinese government's human rights abuses, and his secretary of state, namely Antony Blinken, affirmed Pompeo's declaration.[190]

Japan did not join the U.S. and several other nations in March 2021 in imposing sanctions on China over its repression of its mostly Muslim Uyghur majority.[191] However, in April 2021, during a 90-minute phone conversation with Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi, Japanese Foreign Minister Toshimitsu Motegi called on his Chinese counterpart to take action to improve human-rights conditions for Uyghurs.[191] This message from Tokyo came shortly before Prime Minister Yoshihide Suga traveled to the U.S. for a summit with President Biden on April 16.[191] South Korea has remained quiet about Xinjiang.[192]

Ethnic slurs

[edit]
Main article: Anti-Western sentiment in China

According to historian Frank Dikötter,

A common historical response to serious threats directed towards a symbolic universe is "nihilation", or the conceptual liquidation of everything inconsistent with official doctrine. Foreigners were labelled "barbarians" or "devils", to be conceptually eliminated. The official rhetoric reduced the Westerner to a devil, a ghost, an evil and unreal goblin hovering on the border of humanity. Many texts of the first half of the nineteenth century referred to the English as "foreign devils" (yangguizi), "devil slaves" (guinu), "barbarian devils" (fangui), "island barbarians" (daoyi), "blue-eyed barbarian slaves" (biyan yinu), or "red-haired barbarians" (hongmaofan).[193]

Graphic pejoratives about race and ethnicity

[edit]
Main article: Graphic pejoratives in written Chinese

Chinese orthography provides opportunities to write ethnic insults logographically; this is known as "graphic pejoratives". This originated in the fact that Chinese characters used to transcribe the names of non-Chinese peoples were graphically pejorative ethnic slurs, where the insult was not the Chinese word but the character used to write it. The sinologist Endymion Wilkinson says,

At the same time as finding characters to fit the sounds of a foreign word or name it is also possible to choose ones with a particular meaning, in the case of non-Han peoples and foreigners, usually a pejorative meaning. It was the practice, for example, to choose characters with an animal or reptile signific for southern non-Han peoples, and many northern peoples were given characters for their names with the dog or leather hides signific. In origin this practice may have derived from the animal totems or tribal emblems typical of these peoples. This is not to deny that in later Chinese history such graphic pejoratives fitted neatly with Han convictions of the superiority of their own culture as compared to the uncultivated, hence animal-like, savages and barbarians.[194]

List of ethnic slurs in Chinese

[edit]
  • 鬼子 (guǐzi) – "Guizi", devils, refers to foreigners
    • 日本鬼子 (rìběn guǐzi ) – literally "Japanese devil", used to refer to Japanese, can be translated as Jap. In 2010 Japanese internet users on 2channel created the fictional moe character Hinomoto Oniko (日本鬼子) which refers to the ethnic term, with Hinomoto Oniko being the Japanese kun'yomi reading of the Han characters "日本鬼子".[195]
    • 二鬼子 (èr guǐzi ) – literally "second devil", used to refer to Korean soldiers who were a part of the Japanese army during the Sino-Japanese war in World War II.[196]
  • Xiao Riben (小日本 Small Japanese/Small Japan)
  • 鬼佬 – Gweilo, literally "ghostly man" (directed at Europeans)
  • 黑鬼 (hei guǐ)/(hak gwei) – "Black devil" (directed at Africans).[197]
  • 阿三 (A Sae) or 紅頭阿三 (Ghondeu Asae) - Originally a Shanghainese term used against Indians, it is also used in Mandarin.[198]
  • chán-tóu (; turban heads) – used during the Republican period against Uyghurs[199][page needed][200][page needed]
  • Erzhuanzi (二轉子) – ethnically mixed[6][8] The term was said by European explorers in the 19th century to refer to a people descended from Chinese, Taghliks, and Mongols living in the area from Ku-ch'eng-tze to Barköl in Xinjiang.[201]
  • Gaoli bangzi (高麗棒子 Korean Stick) - Used against Koreans, both North Koreans and South Koreans.

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ "China". CIA. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2007.
  2. ^ a b c d e Laikwan, Pang (2024). One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9781503638815.
  3. ^ Safran, William (1998). Nationalism and ethnoregional identities in China. Psychology Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-7146-4921-X. Archived from the original on 25 June 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
  4. ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community matters in Xinjiang, 1880-1949: towards a historical anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL Publishers. p. 75. ISBN 978-90-04-16675-2. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  5. ^ Yangbin Chen (2008). Muslim Uyghur students in a Chinese boarding school: social recapitalization as a response to ethnic integration. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-7391-2112-2. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
  6. ^ a b c David Westerlund; Ingvar Svanberg (1999). Islam outside the Arab world. Routledge. p. 204. ISBN 0-312-22691-8. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
  7. ^ Rudelson, Justin Jon; Rudelson, Justin Ben-Adam (1997). Oasis Identities: Uyghur Nationalism Along China's Silk Road (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 63. ISBN 0231107862. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  8. ^ a b Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2007). Situating the Uyghurs between China and Central Asia. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-7546-7041-4. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
  9. ^ Justin Ben-Adam Rudelson; Justin Jon Rudelson (1997). Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China's Silk Road. Columbia University Press. p. 86. ISBN 0-231-10786-2. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
  10. ^ Rachel Harris (23 December 2004). Singing the Village: Music, Memory and Ritual Among the Sibe of Xinjiang. Oxford University Press/British Academy. pp. 45–. ISBN 978-0-19-726297-9. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  11. ^ Guo, Rongxing (15 July 2015). China's Spatial (Dis)integration: Political Economy of the Interethnic Unrest in Xinjiang. Chandos Publishing. ISBN 9780081004036. Archived from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
  12. ^ a b "No Uighurs Need Apply". The Atlantic. 10 July 2009. Archived from the original on 13 July 2009. Retrieved 12 July 2009.
  13. ^ "Uighurs blame 'ethnic hatred'". Al Jazeera. 7 July 2009. Archived from the original on 11 July 2009. Retrieved 12 July 2009.
  14. ^ "Ethnic Minorities, Don't Make Yourself at Home". The Economist. 15 January 2015. Archived from the original on 25 July 2017. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
  15. ^ "Race Riots Continue in China's Far West". Time. 7 July 2009. Archived from the original on 11 July 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2009.
  16. ^ "Deadly race riots put spotlight on China". The San Francisco Chronicle. 8 July 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2009.
  17. ^ "Three killed in race riots in western China". The Irish Times. 6 July 2009. Archived from the original on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 13 July 2009.
  18. ^ The Urumqi Riots and China's Ethnic Policy in Xinjiang (PDF). National University of Singapore. 2009. pp. 20, 21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  19. ^ Mackinnon, Amy (20 March 2023). "The Witness". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 10 June 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  20. ^ Finley, Joanne N. Smith (9 September 2013). The Art of Symbolic Resistance: Uyghur Identities and Uyghur-Han Relations in Contemporary Xinjiang. United Kingdom: BRILL Publishers. p. 164. ISBN 978-90-04-25678-1. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  21. ^ Tang, Kevin (3 March 2014). "China's Netizens React To Kunming Station Attacks With Anger, Grief". BuzzFeed News. Archived from the original on 12 December 2019.
  22. ^ Tobin, David (23 January 2024). "Visualising insecurity: the globalisation of China's racist 'counter-terror' education". Comparative Education. 60: 195–215. doi:10.1080/03050068.2023.2298130. ISSN 0305-0068.
  23. ^ Starr (2004), p. 311
  24. ^ S. Frederick Starr (2004). Xinjiang: China's Muslim borderland. M.E. Sharpe. p. 113. ISBN 0-7656-1318-2. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  25. ^ Peck, Andrew (2012). Ai, Ruixi (ed.). Nationalism and Anti-Africanism in China. Lulu.com. pp. 29–38. ISBN 978-1-105-76890-3. OCLC 935463519. Archived from the original on 24 August 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  26. ^ a b Sautman, Barry (1994). "Anti-Black Racism in Post-Mao China". The China Quarterly. 138 (138): 413–437. doi:10.1017/S0305741000035827. ISSN 0305-7410. JSTOR 654951. S2CID 154330776.
  27. ^ a b "China portrays racism as a Western problem". The Economist. 22 February 2018. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  28. ^ Dikötter, Frank (1 January 1997). The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. University of Hawaii Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-8248-1919-4.
  29. ^ "Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination reviews the report of China". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 13 August 2018. Archived from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2019.
  30. ^ Sautman, Barry (2001). "Peking Man and the Politics of Paleoanthropological Nationalism in China". The Journal of Asian Studies. 60 (1): 95–124. doi:10.2307/2659506. JSTOR 2659506. PMID 19086346.
  31. ^ Cheng, Yinghong (2019), "Is Peking Man Still Our Ancestor?—Race and National Lineage", Discourses of Race and Rising China, Cham: Springer International Publishing: 99–159, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05357-4_3, ISBN 978-3-030-05356-7, PMC 7123927
  32. ^ a b Steinfeld, Jemimah (25 May 2012). "Mood darkens in Beijing amid crackdown on 'illegal foreigners'". CNN. Archived from the original on 10 June 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  33. ^ "Beijing Pledges to 'Clean Out' Illegal Foreigners". The Wall Street Journal. 15 May 2012. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 10 June 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  34. ^ "GLOBAL VALUES: RELIGION, RACE, CULTURE" (PDF). Gallup International Association. October–December 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2022. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  35. ^ "This Is Where Intolerance Is Highest on Religion, Culture, Race". Bloomberg News. 1 June 2017. Archived from the original on 2 May 2022. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
  36. ^ Tang, Jingtai (8 September 2022). "When Translation Misleads". Sixth Tone. Shanghai United Media Group.
  37. ^ Ng, Joyce (25 October 2016). "Hong Kong Legco president makes U-turn on oath-taking by localists". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 5 January 2017.
  38. ^ "Gov't argues in court that Youngspiration duo 'declined' to take their oaths as lawmakers". Hong Kong Free Press. 3 November 2016.
  39. ^ Liu, Ran (28 April 2018). "The Man Who Burned His Chinese Passport". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 5 May 2016.
  40. ^ "HKU POP releases latest survey on Hong Kong people's ethnic identity". Hong Kong University. 22 December 2014. Archived from the original on 22 March 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
  41. ^ "Almost nobody in Hong Kong under 30 identifies as "Chinese"". The Economist. 26 August 2019.
  42. ^ jim.smith (27 August 2013). "Phone cams and hate speech in Hong Kong". Gates Cambridge. Archived from the original on 4 April 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
  43. ^ Leung, Wing Yeung Vivian (18 July 2018). "Discriminatory Media Reports Against Mainland Chinese New Immigrants in Hong Kong". ISA World Congress Of Sociology.
  44. ^ Holdstock, Nick (13 June 2019). China's Forgotten People: Xinjiang, Terror and the Chinese State. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-78831-982-9.
  45. ^ "Hongkongers still 'negative' about mainland visitors, HKU poll shows". South China Morning Post. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
  46. ^ Tung, Vincent Wing Sun; King, Brian Edward Melville; Tse, Serene (23 January 2019). "The Tourist Stereotype Model: Positive and Negative Dimensions". Journal of Travel Research. 59 (1). PolyU School of Hotel and Tourism Management: 37–51. doi:10.1177/0047287518821739. hdl:10397/94502. ISSN 0047-2875. S2CID 150395266.
  47. ^ Liu, Juliana (8 February 2012). "Surge in anti-China sentiment in Hong Kong". BBC News. Retrieved 4 October 2013.
  48. ^ Jing Wu, Nelson Moura (30 August 2019). "Corrected: Mainland Chinese uni students in Macau afraid of discrimination in HK". Macau News Agency - DeFicção Multimedia Projects. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
  49. ^ "Will violence kill Hong Kong's pro-democracy movement? (at 22:07 minutes)". DW News. November 2019. Archived from the original on 21 December 2021.
  50. ^ "Chinese students flee HK in fear of attack after death". Bangkok Post. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
  51. ^ "中国驻港军营首遭示威者冲击引网民大哗". BBC News (in Chinese). 28 December 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2021.
  52. ^ "支那STYLE擺明歧視". MetroUK (in Cantonese). 25 October 2012. Archived from the original on 30 December 2013.
  53. ^ "岭大夜鬼嘈亲内地生投诉反被骂「支那狗」". Apple Daily. 23 October 2016. Archived from the original on 24 October 2016.
  54. ^ a b Kuo, Frederick (18 June 2019). "The Hong Kong conundrum". Asia Times.
  55. ^ Xu, Cora Lingling (1 September 2015). "When the Hong Kong Dream Meets the Anti-Mainlandisation Discourse: Mainland Chinese Students in Hong Kong". Journal of Current Chinese Affairs. 44 (3). University of Cambridge: 15–47. doi:10.1177/186810261504400302. ISSN 1868-1026.
  56. ^ Wong, Wai-Kwok (2015). "Discrimination against the mainland Chinese and Hong Kong's defense of local identity". AChina's New 21st Century Realities: Social Equity in a Time of Change: 23–37.
  57. ^ Hung, Yu Yui (2014). "What melts in the "Melting Pot" of Hong Kong?". Asiatic: IIUM Journal of English Language and Literature. 8 (2): 57–87. doi:10.31436/asiatic.v8i2.489.
  58. ^ "香港與內地的融合" (PDF). 19 June 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 22 July 2021. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  59. ^ Allen-Ebrahimian, Bethany (12 July 2022). "Chinese nationalist celebration of Abe's death underscores anti-Japan sentiment". Axios. Archived from the original on 10 June 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
  60. ^ "China's anti-Japan rallies spread". BBC News. 10 April 2005. Archived from the original on 12 May 2006. Retrieved 28 May 2007.
  61. ^ Qian, Jingyuan (6 June 2019). "Historical Ethnic Conflicts and the Rise of Islamophobia in Modern China". University of Wisconsin-Madison. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3450176. SSRN 3450176. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  62. ^ Theaker, Hannah (2 August 2019). "Wounds that fester: Histories of Chinese Islamophobia". University of Nottingham Asia Research Institute. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
  63. ^ Hammond, Kelly Anne (24 May 2019). "The history of China's Muslims and what's behind their persecution". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
  64. ^ Brophy, David (9 July 2019). "Good and Bad Muslims in Xinjiang". Made in China Journal. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
  65. ^ a b Luqiu, Rose; Yang, Fan. "Anti-Muslim sentiment is on the rise in China. We found that the Internet fuels — and fights — this". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 26 February 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2019.
  66. ^ Luqiu, Luwei Rose; Yang, Fan (28 March 2018). "Islamophobia in China: news coverage, stereotypes, and Chinese Muslims' perceptions of themselves and Islam". Asian Journal of Communication. 28 (6): 598–619. doi:10.1080/01292986.2018.1457063. ISSN 0129-2986. S2CID 149462511 – via Tandfonline.
  67. ^ Luqiu, Luwei Rose; Yang, Fan (9 December 2019). "Anti-muslim sentiment on social media in China and Chinese Muslims' reactions to hatred and misunderstanding". Chinese Journal of Communication. 13 (3): 258–274. doi:10.1080/17544750.2019.1699841. ISSN 1754-4750. S2CID 213492511.
  68. ^ Miao, Ying (2 September 2020). "Sinicisation vs. Arabisation: Online Narratives of Islamophobia in China" (PDF). Journal of Contemporary China. 29 (125). Aston University: 748–762. doi:10.1080/10670564.2019.1704995. ISSN 1067-0564. S2CID 212794869. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023 – via Tandfonline.
  69. ^ "Islamophobia is on the rise in China". The Independent. 10 April 2017. Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
  70. ^ Myers, Steven Lee (21 September 2019). "A Crackdown on Islam Is Spreading Across China". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 24 September 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
  71. ^ "'Afraid We Will Become The Next Xinjiang': China's Hui Muslims Face Crackdown". NPR. Archived from the original on 8 October 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
  72. ^ "China Targets Muslim Scholars And Writers With Increasingly Harsh Restrictions". NPR. Archived from the original on 21 November 2020. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
  73. ^ Yellinek, Roie (10 April 2018). "Middle Eastern Students and Young Professionals in China: A Mutual Investment in the Future". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  74. ^ Stroup, David R. (19 November 2019). "Why Xi Jinping's Xinjiang policy is a major change in China's ethnic politics". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 20 November 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
  75. ^ a b "'Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education'". The Independent. 5 July 2019. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
  76. ^ "UN: Unprecedented Joint Call for China to End Xinjiang Abuses". Human Rights Watch. 10 July 2019. Archived from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  77. ^ "'Cultural genocide' for repressed minority of Uighurs". The Times. 17 December 2019. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
  78. ^ "China's Oppression of the Uighurs 'The Equivalent of Cultural Genocide'". Der Spiegel. 28 November 2019. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
  79. ^ "Fear and oppression in Xinjiang: China's war on Uighur culture". Financial Times. 12 September 2019. Archived from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
  80. ^ Finnegan, Ciara (2020). "The Uyghur Minority in China: A Case Study of Cultural Genocide, Minority Rights and the Insufficiency of the International Legal Framework in Preventing State-Imposed Extinction". Laws. 9: 1. doi:10.3390/laws9010001.
  81. ^ Fallon, Joseph E. (Summer 2019). "China's crime against Uyghurs is a form of genocide". Fourth World Journal. 18 (1): 76–88. Archived from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
  82. ^ Carbert, Michelle (20 July 2020). "Activists urge Canada to recognize Uyghur abuses as genocide, impose sanctions on Chinese officials". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
  83. ^ Steger, Isabella (20 August 2020). "On Xinjiang, even those wary of Holocaust comparisons are reaching for the word "genocide"". Quartz. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
  84. ^ "Menendez, Cornyn Introduce Bipartisan Resolution to Designate Uyghur Human Rights Abuses by China as Genocide". foreign.senate.gov. United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. 27 October 2020. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  85. ^ "Blackburn Responds to Offensive Comments by Chinese State Media". U.S. Senator Marsha Blackburn of Tennessee. 3 December 2020. Archived from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  86. ^ Alecci, Scilla (14 October 2020). "British lawmakers call for sanctions over Uighur human rights abuses". International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  87. ^ "Committee News Release - October 21, 2020 - SDIR (43-2)". House of Commons of Canada. 21 October 2020. Archived from the original on 24 October 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  88. ^ Pompeo, Mike (19 January 2021). "Genocide in Xinjiang". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 19 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  89. ^ Gordon, Michael R. (19 January 2021). "U.S. Says China Is Committing 'Genocide' Against Uighur Muslims". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  90. ^ a b Maizland, Lindsay. "China's Repression of Uighurs in Xinjiang". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021.
  91. ^ "Chinese Ambassador emphasizes potential for China-US relations in addressing global challenges". People's Daily. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  92. ^ "'They Ordered Me To Get An Abortion': A Chinese Woman's Ordeal In Xinjiang". NPR. Archived from the original on 3 December 2019. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
  93. ^ a b Ivan Watson, Rebecca Wright and Ben Westcott (21 September 2020). "Xinjiang government confirms huge birth rate drop but denies forced sterilization of women". CNN. Archived from the original on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
  94. ^ "First she survived a Uighur internment camp. Then she made it out of China". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 5 December 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
  95. ^ "China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization". Associated Press. 28 June 2020. Archived from the original on 16 December 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  96. ^ "China 'using birth control' to suppress Uighurs". BBC News. 29 June 2020. Archived from the original on 29 June 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  97. ^ "China accused of genocide over forced abortions of Uighur Muslim women as escapees reveal widespread sexual torture". The Independent. 6 October 2019. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 9 December 2019.
  98. ^ Enos, Olivia; Kim, Yujin (29 August 2019). "China's Forced Sterilization of Uighur Women Is Cultural Genocide". The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 2 December 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  99. ^ Umar Farooq. "China profiting off of forced labor in Xinjiang: report". Anadolu Agency. Washington D.C. Archived from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 9 December 2019.
  100. ^ Westcott, Ben; Xiong, Yong (22 July 2019). "Xinjiang's Uyghurs didn't choose to be Muslim, new Chinese report says". CNN. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  101. ^ Xu, Vicky Xiuzhong; Cave, Danielle; Leiboid, James; Munro, Kelsey; Ruser, Nathan (February 2020). "Uyghurs for Sale". Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Archived from the original on 24 August 2020. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
  102. ^ "China: 83 major brands implicated in report on forced labour of ethnic minorities from Xinjiang assigned to factories across provinces; Includes company responses". Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
  103. ^ Tuttle, Gray (20 April 2015). "China's Race Problem". Foreign Affairs. Vol. 94, no. 3. ISSN 0015-7120. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
  104. ^ Law, Ian (14 January 2016). "Racial Sinicisation: Han Power and Racial and Ethnic Domination in China". Red Racisms: Racism in Communist and Post-Communist Contexts. Springer. pp. 97–131. doi:10.1057/9781137030849_4. ISBN 978-1-137-03084-9.
  105. ^ Roche, Gerald (January 2021). "Lexical necropolitics: The raciolinguistics of language oppression on the Tibetan margins of Chineseness". Language & Communication. 76: 111–120. doi:10.1016/j.langcom.2020.10.002. S2CID 229405601.
  106. ^ Powers, John (28 October 2004). History As Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles versus the People's Republic of China (1 ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/0195174267.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-517426-7.
  107. ^ Demick, Barbara (23 June 2008). "Tibetan-Muslim tensions roil China". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 22 June 2010. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  108. ^ Mayaram, Shail (2009). The other global city. Taylor Francis US. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-415-99194-0. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
  109. ^ "Police shut Muslim quarter in Lhasa". CNN. LHASA, Tibet. 28 March 2008. Archived from the original on 4 April 2008.
  110. ^ Fischer (2005), pp. 1–2
  111. ^ Fischer (2005), p. 17
  112. ^ Fischer (2005), p. 19
  113. ^ "The living picture of frustration". The Economist. 11 November 2012. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
  114. ^ The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Volume 277. American Academy of Political and Social Science. 1951. p. 152. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 29 September 2012. A group of Kazakhs, originally numbering over 20000 people when expelled from Sinkiang by Sheng Shih-ts'ai in 1936, was reduced, after repeated massacres by their Chinese coreligionists under Ma Pu-fang, to a scattered 135 people.
  115. ^ Lin (2011), p. 112, [1]
  116. ^ Qin, Amy (31 August 2020). "Curbs on Mongolian Language Teaching Prompt Large Protests in China". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 16 December 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
  117. ^ "全区民族语言授课学校小学一年级和初中一年级使用国家统编《语文》教材实施方案政策解读" [Policy Interpretation: the Implementation of Nationally-unified Textbook Series on "Language and Literature" in Ethnic schools across Inner Mongolia starting from First and Seventh Grade] (in Chinese). Government of Wuda District, Wuhai City, Inner Mongolia. Inner Mongolia Daily (内蒙古日报). 31 August 2020. Archived from the original on 4 September 2020.
  118. ^ ""五個不變"如何落地 自治區教育廳權威回應" [How "Five things unchanged" is implemented? Inner Mongolia's Department of Education Authoritative Response]. The Paper (澎湃新聞). Archived from the original on 12 September 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
  119. ^ "Students in Inner Mongolia protest Chinese language policy". Taipei: The Japan Times. Associated Press. 3 September 2020. Archived from the original on 4 September 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  120. ^ "Thousands arrested in Inner Mongolia for defending nomadic herding lifestyle". Apple Daily. 20 September 2020. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
  121. ^ "Xi's Quest for Ethnic Unity Turns Genghis Khan Into New Danger". Bloomberg News. 7 December 2023. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
  122. ^ a b Victor, Mallet (17 December 2023). "China's Mongolian culture wars backfire in France". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
  123. ^ Beauvallet, Ève (12 October 2020). "Nantes History Museum resists Chinese regime censorship". Archyde. Archived from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2020.
  124. ^ Cheng, Yinghong (2019), "Discovering China in Africa: Race and the Chinese Perception of Africa and Black Peoples", Discourses of Race and Rising China, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 161–237, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05357-4_4, ISBN 978-3-030-05356-7
  125. ^ Sullivan, Michael J. (June 1994). "The 1988–89 Nanjing Anti-African Protests: Racial Nationalism or National Racism?". The China Quarterly. 138 (138): 438–457. doi:10.1017/S0305741000035839. ISSN 0305-7410. JSTOR 654952. S2CID 154972703.
  126. ^ Kristof, Nicholas D. (5 January 1989). "Africans in Beijing Boycott Classes". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 9 June 2019. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
  127. ^ Huang, Guangzhi (1 March 2019). "Policing Blacks in Guangzhou: How Public Security Constructs Africans as Sanfei". Modern China. 45 (2): 171–200. doi:10.1177/0097700418787076. ISSN 0097-7004. S2CID 149683802.
  128. ^ Marsh, Jenni (26 September 2016). "The African migrants giving up on the Chinese dream". CNN. Archived from the original on 14 July 2019. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
  129. ^ Chiu, Joanna (30 March 2017). "China has an irrational fear of a "black invasion" bringing drugs, crime, and interracial marriage". Quartz. Archived from the original on 10 April 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2020.
  130. ^ a b Marsh, Jenni. "China says it has a 'zero-tolerance policy' for racism, but discrimination towards Africans goes back decades". CNN. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
  131. ^ Cheng, Yinghong (September 2011). "From Campus Racism to Cyber Racism: Discourse of Race and Chinese Nationalism*". The China Quarterly. 207. Cambridge University Press: 561–579. doi:10.1017/S0305741011000658. ISSN 1468-2648. S2CID 145272730.
  132. ^ Goldman, Russell; Wu, Adam (13 October 2017). "Chinese Museum Pulls Exhibit Comparing Animals to Black People". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  133. ^ "Chinese museum accused of racism over photos pairing Africans with animals". The Guardian. 14 October 2017. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2021.
  134. ^ "Lunar New Year: Chinese TV gala includes 'racist blackface' sketch". BBC News. 16 February 2018. Archived from the original on 18 July 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2021.
  135. ^ Castillo, Roberto (2 July 2020). ""Race" and "racism" in contemporary Africa-China relations research: approaches, controversies and reflections". Inter-Asia Cultural Studies. 21 (3): 310–336. doi:10.1080/14649373.2020.1796343. ISSN 1464-9373.
  136. ^ "China New Year gala show sparks new racism controversy with blackface performance". Reuters. 12 February 2021. Archived from the original on 5 September 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
  137. ^ "Investigation into US professor sparks debate over Chinese word". BBC News. 10 September 2020. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  138. ^ "'How George Floyd's death changed my Chinese students'". BBC News. 28 June 2020. Archived from the original on 2 December 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  139. ^ "Has the killing of George Floyd sparked a 'racial awakening' in China?". Deutsche Welle. July 2020. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  140. ^ Yang, William (16 August 2023). "Chinese Social Media Platforms Fail to Control Racism Against Black People: Report". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 17 August 2023. Retrieved 16 August 2023. HRW analyzed hundreds of videos and posts on popular Chinese social media platforms, including Bilibili, Douyin, Kuaishou, Weibo and Xiaohongshu, since late 2021. It found that content portraying Black people based on offensive racial stereotypes has become rampant.
  141. ^ "China: Combat Anti-Black Racism on Social Media". Human Rights Watch. 16 August 2023. Archived from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 20 August 2023. Another common type of racist content reviewed denigrates interracial relationships. Black people married to Chinese people are accused of "contaminating" and threatening the Chinese race. Perceived relationships between Black men and Chinese women are particularly vilified.
  142. ^ Zhou, Zhiqiu Benson (28 March 2023). "Patriarchal racism: the convergence of anti-blackness and gender tension on Chinese social media". Information, Communication & Society. 27 (2): 223–239. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2023.2193252. ISSN 1369-118X.
  143. ^ Huang, Kun (29 June 2020). ""Anti-Blackness" in Chinese Racial-Nationalism: Sex/Gender, Reproduction, and Metaphors of Pathology". Praxis. Archived from the original on 19 August 2023. Retrieved 19 August 2023.
  144. ^ Chambers, Alice; Davies, Guy. "How foreigners, especially black people, became unwelcome in parts of China amid COVID crisis". ABC News. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
  145. ^ Kanthor, Rebecca. "Racism against African Americans in China escalates amid coronavirus". Public Radio International. Archived from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
  146. ^ Shikanda, Hellen; Okinda, Brian (10 April 2020). "Outcry as Kenyans in China hit by wave of racial attacks". Daily Nation. Archived from the original on 10 April 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2020.
  147. ^ "'They deny us everything': Africans under attack in China". BBC News. Archived from the original on 10 April 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2020.
  148. ^ "Coronavirus: Africans in China subjected to forced evictions, arbitrary quarantines and mass testing". Hong Kong Free Press. Agence France-Presse. 12 April 2020. Archived from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  149. ^ "China: Covid-19 Discrimination Against Africans". Human Rights Watch. 8 November 2020. Archived from the original on 10 November 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  150. ^ "'We Need Help': Coronavirus Fuels Racism Against Black Americans in China". The New York Times. 2 June 2020. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  151. ^ "Racist incidents against Africans in China amid coronavirus crackdown spark outcry". CBS News. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  152. ^ Chambers, Alice; Davies, Guy. "How foreigners, especially black people, became unwelcome in parts of China amid COVID crisis". ABC News. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
  153. ^ Kanthor, Rebecca. "Racism against African Americans in China escalates amid coronavirus". Public Radio International. Archived from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
  154. ^ Asiedu, Kwasi Gyamfi (5 May 2020). "After its racism to Africans goes global, a Chinese province is taking anti-discrimination steps". Quartz Africa. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  155. ^ "China province launches anti-racism push after outrage". The Hindu, Agence France Presse. 4 May 2020. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 23 June 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  156. ^ Marsh, Jenni (26 May 2020). "China says it has a 'zero-tolerance policy' for racism, but discrimination towards Africans goes back decades". CNN. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
  157. ^ Asen Velinov (6 May 2022). "The Shanghai Lockdown's Viral Trend: 'African Warrior' Videos". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 7 May 2022.
  158. ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (14 July 2008). "HK's Half-Baked Anti-Racism Law". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  159. ^ "What it's like to be black and African in Hong Kong". South China Morning Post. 2 August 2020. Archived from the original on 19 November 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  160. ^ Jessie Yeung. "Spat at, segregated, policed: Hong Kong's dark-skinned minorities say they've never felt accepted". CNN. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  161. ^ "Topic: Situation of racial discrimination in Hong Kong - A background paper for the Social Science Forum held on 1 November 2001". City University of Hong Kong. 2001. Archived from the original on 29 March 2017. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  162. ^ "Discrimination rampant for members of Hong Kong minority groups seeking housing, survey finds". South China Morning Post. 5 October 2020. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  163. ^ Hampshire, Angharad (14 March 2016). "Forced labour common among Hong Kong's domestic helpers, study finds". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  164. ^ Ho, Kelly (6 April 2020). "Hungry and indebted: Kenyan domestic worker falls victim to forced labour in Hong Kong". Hong Kong Free Press. Archived from the original on 17 November 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  165. ^ Rutherford, Kylan (19 January 2019). "Forced Labor in Hong Kong". Brigham Young University - Marriott Student Review. 2 (3). Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  166. ^ Kelvin Chan (June 2013). "HK investigates racism at Philippines friendly". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  167. ^ "'Racist' maid ad draws anger in Hong Kong". Philippine Daily Inquirer, Agence France-Presse. 18 June 2014. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  168. ^ Crabtree, Sara Ashencaen; Wong, Hung (1 July 2013). "'Ah Cha'! The Racial Discrimination of Pakistani Minority Communities in Hong Kong: An Analysis of Multiple, Intersecting Oppressions". The British Journal of Social Work. 43 (5): 945–963. doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcs026. ISSN 0045-3102. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  169. ^ "Construction Workplace Discrimination: Experiences of ethnic minority operatives in Hong Kong construction sites". Deloitte, Emerald Group Publishing. 2014. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  170. ^ "Factors Affecting the Equality and Diversity of Ethnic Minority Women in the UK Construction Industry: An Empirical Study" (PDF). International Conference on Sustainable Futures: 3. 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020 – via CORE.
  171. ^ Lau, Jessie (22 January 2022). "In Hong Kong, COVID-19 and Racism Make an Ugly Mix". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 6 May 2022.
  172. ^ Wang, Fan (11 May 2023). "Chinese ministry deletes brownface video post after criticism". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  173. ^ "Chinese Ministry Deletes 'Turban', 'Brownface' Controversial Ad After Criticism". The Quint. 12 May 2023.
  174. ^ Brekke, Torkel (26 April 2021). "Islamophobia and Antisemitism are Different in Their Potential for Globalization". Journal of Religion and Violence. 9: 80–100. doi:10.5840/jrv202142689. S2CID 236624482.
  175. ^ Medzini, Meron (1 January 2013). "China, the Holocaust, and the Birth of the Jewish State". Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs. 7 (1): 135–145. doi:10.1080/23739770.2013.11446543. ISSN 2373-9770. S2CID 141756296.
  176. ^ "China: A Land Without Anti-Semitism". Museum of Jewish Heritage. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  177. ^ a b c d e Reinders, Eric (2024). Reading Tolkien in Chinese: Religion, Fantasy, and Translation. Perspectives on Fantasy series. London, UK: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781350374645.
  178. ^ Ainslie, Mary J. (March 2021). "Chinese Philosemitism and Historical Statecraft: Incorporating Jews and Israel into Contemporary Chinese Civilizationism". The China Quarterly. 245: 208–226. doi:10.1017/S0305741020000302. ISSN 0305-7410. S2CID 218827042.
  179. ^ "The Chinese Thinker Who Claims That the Jews Are His Country's Number-One Enemy". Mosaic. 31 March 2023. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
  180. ^ Haime, Jordyn (18 July 2023). "Jewish Conspiracy Theories are Finding an Audience in China". China Media Project. Archived from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
  181. ^ Davis, Bob (14 May 2014). "Is China Anti-Semitic? One Jew's Reflections". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 9 January 2023. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  182. ^ Li Yijuan; Fan Yiying (2 June 2022). "Blood Brothers: The Scarred History of China's Ethnic Russians". Sixth Tone. Archived from the original on 21 June 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022. The family also hid their Russian roots for more practical reasons. Ethnic Russians, with their distinct facial features, were often targets of discrimination and political campaigns
  183. ^ a b "'Uncle Petrov' is the ethnic Russian streaming star making China question what it means to be Chinese". CNN. 23 June 2019. Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2024. But more than creating a social media star, Petrov's videos have stirred debate online about what it means to be "Chinese" in a society where ethnic homogeneity and social conformity are the norm.
  184. ^ Li Yijuan; Fan Yiying (2 June 2022). "Blood Brothers: The Scarred History of China's Ethnic Russians". Sixth Tone. Retrieved 27 September 2022. This is common among Bianjiang's Russian community. It's the legacy of a traumatic history, one that highlights the complexity of modern China's racial and political dynamics ... "Everyone wants to be normal ... You marry a Han person, and your children basically won't look Russian".
  185. ^ "Where English teachers have to look the part". Los Angeles Times. 29 October 2007. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2020.
  186. ^ "White People with No Skill Sets Wanted in China". Vice Media. 7 January 2014. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  187. ^ "Teaching English in China While Black". Media Diversified. 16 July 2014. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  188. ^ a b c Graceffo, Antonio (4 September 2020). "China's Crackdown on Mongolian Culture". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 4 September 2020. Retrieved 16 May 2021.
  189. ^ "Nearly 40 nations criticize China's human rights policies". The Asahi Shimbun. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  190. ^ a b "US accuses China of 'genocide' of Uyghurs and minority groups in Xinjiang". CNN. 19 January 2021. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  191. ^ a b c Gale, Alastair (5 April 2021). "Japan Calls on China to Improve Conditions for Uyghurs, Hong Kong". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  192. ^ Caksu, Ali (2020). "Islamophobia, Chinese Style: Total Internment of Uyghur Muslims by the People's Republic of China". Journal of Islamophobia Studies. 5 (2): 176–98. doi:10.13169/islastudj.5.2.0175. S2CID 235033160.
  193. ^ Dikötter, Frank (1 August 2015). The Discourse of Race in Modern China. Oxford University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-19-023113-2.
  194. ^ Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (2000). Chinese History: A Manual. Harvard Univ Asia Center. ISBN 978-0-674-00249-4. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
  195. ^ "萌系日本鬼子 反攻中國". Liberty Times. 1 November 2010. Archived from the original on 3 November 2010. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
  196. ^ 第一滴血──從日方史料還原平型關之戰日軍損失 (6) Archived 2014-02-03 at the Wayback Machine, People's Daily, December 16, 2011
  197. ^ Cummings, Patrick J.; Wolf, Hans-Georg (1 June 2011). A Dictionary of Hong Kong English: Words from the Fragrant Harbor. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-988-8083-30-5. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  198. ^ "上海滩的"红头阿三"". Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 1 August 2010.
  199. ^ Forbes, Andrew D. W.; Forbes, L. L. C. (9 October 1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-25514-1. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  200. ^ Garnaut, Anthony. "From Yunnan to Xinjiang:Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals" (PDF). Pacific and Asian History, Australian National University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
  201. ^ Roerich Museum; George Roerich (2003). Journal of Urusvati Himalayan Research Institute, Volumes 1-3. Vedams eBooks (P) Ltd. p. 526. ISBN 81-7936-011-3. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2010.

References

[edit]
Library resources about
Racism in China

Further reading

[edit]
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_China&oldid=1257559747"