Religion in Manchukuo
Religion in Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state, included State Shinto, Chinese folk religion, Buddhism, shamanism, along with both Russian Orthodoxy and Catholicism. Puyi, the Emperor of Manchukuo, took an interest in traditional Chinese religions, such as Confucianism and Buddhism,[1] but this was disallowed by the Japanese who enforced a policy of State Shinto.[2][incomplete short citation] Puyi was known to consult oracles and recite prayers.[3]
The Human Rights Protection Law of 1932 (Jinken hoshōhō 人権保障法)) promised to defend the people's right to life, business, and declared equality of race and religion. It also guaranteed the right to petition the government and protection from corrupt officials.[4][5] However, these rights were poorly defined and able to be taken away by the state during "war and times of crisis".[5]
Christianity
[edit]Catholicism
[edit]In the 1930s, Manchukuo was home to approximately 120 missionaries, 800 catechists and 120,000 baptized people.[6] However, the Japanese invasion had it made it nearly impossible to contact the Apostolic Delegation in Beijing.[6] On 28 May 1931 as Apostolic Administration of Harbin was founded, on territory split off from the Apostolic Vicariate of Siberia.[7] By 1938, Japan sent Admiral Yamamoto Shinjiro to the Vatican in order to request a representative of the Catholic Church arrive in Manchukuo, Shinjiro claimed that "there are many important Catholic interests" in the nation.[8] In addition, he spoke with Pope Pius XI regarding matters of militarism in Japan.[9]
The Vatican soon after recognized the independence of Manchukuo by the Congregation De Propaganda Fide (a purely religious body responsible for missions) and not by the Secretariat of State responsible for diplomatic relations with states.[10][11] The Vatican also appointed André Sagard to manage relations and for his service, Emperor Puyi gave Sagard the medal of Commander of the Order of the Pillars of the State of Manchukuo, a high honor for foreigners.[6]
Notable Catholic Churches
[edit]- Sacred Heart of Jesus Cathedral
- Harbin Nangang Christian Church (formerly Catholic, now Protestant)
Orthodoxy
[edit]
From approximately 1898, the city of Harbin had a majority-Russian population, initial settlers were mostly the builders and employees of the Chinese Eastern Railway. Many of these Russians brought their Orthodox religion with them.[12] In the time between 1913 and 1923, Russia went through World War I, the Russian Revolution, and the Russian Civil War. In the 1920s Harbin was flooded with 100,000 to 200,000 White émigrés fleeing from Russia.[13]
Notable Orthodox Churches
[edit]State Shinto
[edit]The Japanese Government built a total of 345 Shinto shrines across Manchukuo.[14]
Starting with the Religions Law of May 1938, a cult of Emperor-worship closely modeled after the Imperial cult in Japan where Hirohito was worshiped as a living god, began in Manchukuo.[15] Just as in Japan, schoolchildren began their classes by praying to a portrait of the emperor while imperial rescripts, and the imperial regalia become sacred relics imbued with magical powers by being associated with the god-emperor.[15] As the Emperor Puyi was considered to be a living god, his will could not be limited by any law, and the purpose of the law was starkly reduced down to serving the will of the emperor rather than upholding values and rules.[15]
As in Japan, the idea governing the legal philosophy in Manchukuo was the Emperor was a living god who was responsible to no-one and who delegated some of his powers down to mere human beings who had the duty of obeying the will of the god-emperors. In Japan and Manchukuo, the actions of the god-emperors were always just and moral because gods could never do wrong, rather than because the god-emperors were acting to uphold moral values that existed a priori.[15] Puyi later stated that Shinto was "a dangerous cult" and a tool for the Japanese to "control the world" while testifying to an International Military Tribunal, he also declared that the Japanese government restrained him and coerced into issuing Pro-Japanese laws.[16]
Folk Religion and Shamanism
[edit]Manchukuo also promoted a racially centered, ethnic religion for each of the races inhabiting Manchuria. For example, under the suggestions of Ogasawara Shozo [ja] that the Mongols "need(ed) a new religion, specifically a new god" they promoted the worship of Genghis Khan that continues today in northern China. The Shinto shrine of Kalgan (now Zhangjiakou, Hebei) incorporated Genghis Khan worship and was opened to local Mongols.[17]
Judaism
[edit]The Jewish community in Manchukuo was not subjected to the official persecution that Jews experienced under Japan's ally Nazi Germany, and Japanese authorities were involved in closing down local anti-Semitic publications such as the Russian Fascist Party's newspaper Nash Put.[18] However, Jews in Manchukuo were victims of harassment by antisemitic elements among the White Russian population, one notable incident being the murder of Simon Kaspé. In 1937 the Far Eastern Jewish Council was created, chaired by the Harbin Jewish community leader Dr. Abraham Kaufman.[19] Nearly 70% of Jews in Harbin fled China as a result of Kaspé's murder.[15]
References
[edit]- ^ Pu Yi 1988, p. 307[incomplete short citation]
- ^ Pu Yi 1988, p. 298
- ^ Blakeney, Ben Bruce (19 July 1945). "Henry Pu Yi". Life Magazine: 78–86.
- ^ Arslan, Sartak (December 10, 2020). "The Interpretation Article of Manchuria's Human Rights Protection Act". Kingly Way Monthly.
- ^ a b Siverson, Rolf I. (27 April 2020). "From Chimera's Womb: The Manchukuo Bureaucracy and Its Legacy in East Asia". International Journal of Asian Studies. 17 (1): 39–55. doi:10.1017/S1479591420000133. ISSN 1479-5914.
- ^ a b c Dumoulin, Marie-Alpais (2021-12-09). "Vatican diplomacy in Manchukuo: an investigation based on the portrait of Father André Sagard (1937)". IRFA. Retrieved 2024-06-18.
- ^ "Harbin [Harbin] (Apostolic Administration) [Catholic-Hierarchy]". www.catholic-hierarchy.org. Retrieved 2024-06-18.
- ^ "Vatican Urged to Send Envoy to Manchukuo". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2024-06-18.
- ^ "L'Homme libre : journal quotidien du matin / rédacteur en chef, Georges Clemenceau; directeur, Fr. Albert". Gallica. 1938-01-18. Retrieved 2024-06-18.
- ^ "30Giorni | Vatican-Manchukuo, mea culpas are not necessary (by Gianni Valente)". 2014-02-03. Archived from the original on 2014-02-03. Retrieved 2024-06-18.
- ^ Pollard, John F. (John Francis) (2014). The papacy in the age of totalitarianism, 1914-1958. Internet Archive. Oxford; New York, NY : Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920856-2.
- ^ Bakich, Olga Mikhailovna (2000). "Emigre Identity: The Case of Harbin". The South Atlantic Quarterly. 99 (1): 51–73. doi:10.1215/00382876-99-1-51. ISSN 1527-8026.
- ^ Moustafine, Mara (2010). "Russians from China: Migrations and Identity". The International Journal of Diversity in Organizations, Communities, and Nations: Annual Review. 9 (6): 173–186. doi:10.18848/1447-9532/CGP/v09i06/39780. hdl:10453/10601. ISSN 1447-9532.
- ^ Japan’s “Spiritual Front”: Overseas Shinto and Shrines in Manchuria, 1931– 1945
- ^ a b c d e Dubois, Thomas David (2008). "Rule of Law in a Brave New Empire: Legal Rhetoric and Practice in Manchukuo". Law and History Review. 26 (2): 285–318. doi:10.1017/S0738248000001322. ISSN 1939-9022.
- ^ "SHINTO TRADITIONS INSULTED BY PU-YI; Former Manchukuo 'Emperor' Says He Was Coerced, His Wife Murdered by Japanese". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2024-06-18.
- ^ 杜博思, Thomas David DuBois. "(2006) Local Religion and the Imperial Imaginary: The Development of Japanese Ethnography in Occupied Manchuria". American Historical Review.
- ^ Kearney, Gerald David (1993). "Jews Under Japanese Domination, 1939–1945". Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies. 11 (3): 54–69. doi:10.1353/sho.1993.0047. S2CID 159653300.
- ^ Ember, M.; Ember, C.R.; Skoggard, I., eds. (2005). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Springer. p. 159. ISBN 9780306483219.