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Philippine English vocabulary

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As a historical colony of the United States, the Philippine English lexicon shares most of its vocabulary from American English, but also has loanwords from native languages and Spanish, as well as some usages, coinages, and slang peculiar to the Philippines. Some Philippine English usages are borrowed from or shared with British English or Commonwealth English, for various reasons. Due to the influence of the Spanish language, Philippine English also contains Spanish-derived terms, including Anglicizations, some resulting in false friends, such as "salvage". Philippine English also borrowed words from Philippine languages, especially native plant and animal names (e.g. ampalaya, balimbing), and cultural concepts with no exact English equivalents (e.g. kilig); some borrowings from Philippine languages have entered mainstream English, such as abaca and ylang-ylang.

Words unique to Philippine English[edit]

Here are some examples of words that are unique to Philippine English:

  • abaca[1] — The Manila hemp.
  • adidas — An informal term which is a generalized trademark used to refer to chicken skewered and grilled chicken feet sold as street food. The use of this term is most likely due to the association made with chicken feet and Adidas shoes.
  • aggrupation[2][3] — A group or an organization.
  • aircon[4][5] — Short for air conditioner. This word is shared with British English.
  • ambush interview[6] — surprise interview
  • alcalde[1] — mayor (especially during the Spanish Colonial period). From Spanish.
  • Aling[2] — a title of a woman roughly equivalent to Miss or Mrs. From Tagalog.
  • Amboy[5] — a Filipino perceived to be too pro-American
  • anito[1] — anitism
  • anting-anting[7] — an amulet
  • apartelle[3] — A budget hotel based on an apartment building. Also spelled as apartele or apartel.
  • apo[8] — grandchildren.[8] From Tagalog.
  • arnis[9][2] — martial arts practiced in the Philippines employing sticks, bladed weapons, and bare hands
  • asian utility vehicle — A light four-wheel vehicle based on sport utility vehicles. created for commercial usage.
  • Asianovela[10] — Any television drama series made in Asia.
  • ate[11][2] — older sister[10] From Tagalog.
  • backriding — The action of traveling on the back seat of a motorcycle.
  • bagoong[4][2] — fermented fish or shrimp paste
  • baguio[1] — A typhoon. This word is a borrowing from Philippine Spanish.
  • balete[7] — A Philippine tree
  • balikbayan[12]
  • balikbayan box[2] — A carton shipped or brought to the Philippines from another country by a Filipino who has been living overseas, a balikbayan, typically containing items such as foods, clothing, toys, and household products.
  • ballpen[13] — clipping of ball point pen
  • balut[4][2]
  • banaba[12] — A Southeast Asian tree with medicinal leafs.
  • banana cue — A Philippine snack made by coating a deep-fried banana in caramelized brown sugar, served on a skewer.
  • banca[1] — A dug-out canoe.
  • bangkal[7] — A Philippine tree
  • baon[12][2] — packed lunch or money taken to school, work, or a journey.[9] From Tagalog.
  • barangay[2] — The smallest local government unit in the Philippines.
  • barkada[12][2] — a group of friends[10]
  • barong[2] – shortened form of barong tagalog. From Tagalog.
  • barong tagalog[2] — a formal shirt made of piña; the national dress shirt of the Philippines. From Tagalog.
  • baro't saya[2] — national dress of the Philippines worn by Filipino women. From Tagalog.
  • barrio[1] — A hamlet; a rural barangay or neighborhood. From Spanish.
  • basi[4] — An Ilocano alcoholic beverage or wine.
  • bayanihan[12][2] — Mutual cooperation for the public good. From Tagalog.
  • bedspacer[4] — A person who rents a bed in a shared room or dormitory.
  • bihon[2] — A Philippine type of noodle.
  • blocktime — Units of air time sold by a broadcaster sold for use by another entity, often an advertiser or politician.
  • bolo[1] — a long machete-like heavy knife
  • bongga[9][2] – extravagant, flamboyant, impressive, stylish
  • boodle fight — A large communal meal where food is placed directly on top of banana leaves across a long table where diners typically eat standing with their hands or using plastic gloves usually without cutlery. Initially adopted from the U.S. Military Academy by the Philippine Military Academy, which spread across the AFP (Armed Forces of the Philippines) before spreading to the populace.
  • brownout[14] — A power outage. This is shared with Hong Kong English and Australian English.
  • buko[2] — coconut. From Tagalog.
  • buko juice[2] — coconut juice.
  • buri[1] — A species of palm and its fiber.
  • cabaret — A strip club.
  • calachuchi[15] — The Frangipani.
  • camote[16] — sweet potato
  • carinderia[2] — A small restaurant, typically in a market or roadside, serving Filipino dishes.
  • carnap[14] — To steal a motor vehicle.
  • cartolina[2] — A large sheet of colored paper. From Portuguese.
  • cedula[16] — originally, tax receipt; residence certificate. From Spanish.
  • centavo[1] — cent. From Spanish.
  • center island — A barrier or structure on the median strip dividing opposing lanes of a road. It is typically lined with plants, trees, streetlights, and/or pillars supporting road or railroad overpasses.
  • chika[8] — stories; light gossip.[8] From Tagalog.
  • chinita[10] — A person who has squinty, Asian eyes.
  • class adviser — The main teacher of a class in a system where each subject is taught by different teachers.
  • coconut milk[15] — coconut water
  • cockfighter — One who engages in a cockfight.
  • comfort room[15][2] — A bathroom or a restroom. Abbreviated as CR usually in speech.
  • community quarantine — A cordon sanitaire or stay-at-home order. Devised by the IATF-EID to distinguish a series of lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic from military lockdowns resulting from civil disorder or armed conflict, the latter being associated with Martial law.[17] Compare with Malaysian English movement control order or Singaporean circuit breaker measure.
  • compadre[12] — A friend or close associate. From Spanish.
  • compañero[1] — A companion. From Spanish.
  • condotel[18] — A budget hotel based on a condominium.
  • cotton bud — A cotton swab. This word is shared with British English.
  • dean's lister[19] — A person awarded a dean's list
  • despedida[4][2] — A farewell party. The word despedida is a borrowing from Spanish. Also called a despedida party.
  • dirty kitchen[12][2] — A kitchen where everyday cooking is done by household staff, as distinct from a kitchen that is purely for show or for special use by the owner of the house. Also a kitchen, sometimes auxiliary or situated outside the house, used primarily for preparing messy and smelly dishes or cooking with firewood or charcoal. This is also used for cooking for a large group of people and found in some west asian countries
  • dirty ice cream[12][2] — Loocal ice cream often made using coconut milk and sold by street hawkers.
  • dormmate[15] — A person who stays at the same dormitory with someone.
  • Dutertard — A derogatory term for a fanatic supporter of Rodrigo Duterte.[20]
  • eat-all-you-can[12] — all-you-can-eat
  • economic plunder[6] — The embezzlement of public funds.
  • elem — A short term for elementary or elementary school. elementary and elementary school are also used. The two said words are shared with American English.
  • encargado[15]
  • endo — A labor contracting system where workers are hired by employment agencies to work for a specific period of time until being replaced and prohibited from being re-hired.
  • ensaimada[2] — A Filipino spiral-shaped pastry topped with grated cheese and sugar. From Spanish.
  • estafa[15] — The legal term for fraud. This term is borrowed from Spanish.
  • fabric conditioner— A fabric softener. This word is shared with British English.
  • fantaserye[21] — fantasy series
  • Filipinism[15] — Filipino nationalism
  • five-six/5-6[6] — A moneylending scheme stereotypically associated with Indian nationals, especially Punjabis. Named after the high interest rate where ₱6 must be returned if ₱5 is borrowed.
  • flyover — An overpass. This word is shared with British English. The term overpass, which is shared with American English, is also used.
  • gobernadorcillo[15] — A municipal mayor during the Spanish colonial period. From Spanish.
  • government-owned and controlled corporation — A state-owned enterprise.
  • graduate — A person who is recognized to have completed any level of education, regardless of what level he or she graduated from.
  • grease money[15] — A small bribe.
  • guyabano[12] — The soursop. From Tagalog.
  • haciendero[15] — A landlord or estate owner. From Spanish.
  • halo-halo[15][2] — A Philippine dessert consisting of a mixture of shaved ice and milk with various boiled sweet beans and fruits, served cold in a tall glass or bowl.
  • handcarry — carry-on luggage
  • hardware — A short term for a hardware store.
  • hold-departure order/HDO — criminal travel injunction
  • holdupper[22][2] — One who carries a robbery at gunpoint.
  • hurados[8] — panel of judges in talent/musical competitions.[8] From Tagalog.
  • ice candy — A freeze pop.
  • ice scramble — A Filipino shaved ice dessert with banana extract, sugar, evaporated milk or condensed milk, topped with a variety of ingredients. Called an iskrambol in Tagalog.
  • ilang-ilang[1] — A Philippine tree.
  • ilustrado[22] — A wealthy and elite Filipino during the Spanish colonial period.
  • Imeldific[5] — Something ostentatious or in bad taste.[12] Named after Imelda Marcos.
  • ipil[22] — A Philippine and Pacific island tree (Intsia bijuga) yielding a valuable brown dye and having a very hard and durable dark wood.
  • Japayuki[12] — A Filipina who travels to Japan to work as an entertainer, with implications of prostitution.
  • jeepney[23] — A vehicle used as public transport in the Philippines, originally made from US military Jeeps left over from World War II and well known for their flamboyant decoration and crowded seating.
  • jogging pants — sweatpants
  • jueteng[23] — An illegal numbers game lottery, using a tombolá container that is spun or a receptacle, sometimes shaped like a bottle or small-necked phial, that is shaken with the winning number from 1 to 37 on a ball or raffle ticket paper drawn after all bets are submitted. From Hokkien. The gambling game traces back to China.
  • kilig[2] — romantic thrill
  • kinder[5] — A clipping of kindergarten.
  • kababayan[8] — fellow Filipinos[8]. From Tagalog.
  • kare-kare[2] — A Philippine dish.
  • kareton[23]
  • kikay[2] — A girl or woman interested in fashion and beauty products; a flirtatious girl or woman; girly. From Tagalog.
  • kikay kit[2]
  • kropek — prawn crackers
  • kundol[22] — winter melon
  • kuya[11][2] — older brother.[21] From Tagalog.
  • lambing[8] — sweetness.[8] From Tagalog.
  • lanzones[12] — The fruit of the Lansium domesticum.
  • lapu-lapu[14] — The brown-marbled grouper.
  • leche flan[2] — A Philippine dessert.
  • lechon[22][2] — A roasted suckling pig.
  • lola[8][2] — grandmother.[8] From Tagalog.
  • lolo[8][2] — grandfather.[8] From Tagalog.
  • loveteam — A pair of actors or television presenters who are promoted as a romantic couple.
  • lukban[1] — pomelo
  • lumpia[22] — spring rolls
  • macapuno[12] — A coconut sport or a tree propagated from such sport; a naturally occurring mutant coconut with an abnormal development of the endocarp, prized for its soft coconut meat. From Spanish.
  • macho dancer[4] — A male stripper who works in a strip club.
  • maestro/a[1] — teacher. From Spanish.
  • magic sugar — A name given to sodium cyclamate.
  • Mang[2] — a title of a man roughly equivalent to Mr. From Tagalog.
  • masteral[4] — master’s degree[19]
  • McDo — Short for McDonald’s, an American fast-food chain.
  • merienda[12] — snack time. From Spanish.
  • Mickey Mouse money — The currency used during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines in World War II.
  • molave[1] — A Philippine tree
  • monthsary[19] — monthly celebration of an anniversary or important event[19]
  • morena[21] — tanned skin[21]
  • musang[22] — A cat-like animal in South Asia and Africa.
  • narra[22] — Any of the pantropical genus Pterocarpus of trees in the family Fabaceae, but especially Pterocarpus indicus.
  • nata de pinya[22] — pineapple cream
  • necrological service — memorial service
  • ninja cop — A police officer involved in the illicit resale of confiscated illegal drugs. So-called due to their ability to climb the perimeter fences of warehouses where the confiscated drugs are stored like ninjas. This term was first used from about the 1990s.
  • ninang[11] — godmother
  • ninong[11] — godfather
  • nipa hut[1] — A kind of stilt house indigenous to the cultures of the Philippines.
  • off-day[22] — A day away from work.
  • Original Pilipino Music/OPM — Any musical composition created by a Filipino, whether the lyrics be in Filipino, English, or in any other language or dialect.
  • padre[1] — father. From Spanish.
  • palay[2] — rice prior to husking.
  • pampers[24] — Generalized trademark for disposable diapers
  • pan de sal[16][2] — Salted bread. From Spanish.
  • pancit[12][2] — A Filipino dish of stir-fried egg noodles with meat, vegetables, soy sauce and other seasonings.
  • panciteria[2] — A restaurant typically serving Filipino noodles.
  • pasalubong[4][2] — A Filipino tradition of giving gifts or souvenirs to family or friends after being away for a period of time. From Tagalog.
  • patis[7] — Fish sauce which is a by-product of bagoong.
  • pekpek shorts — Extremely short shorts, worn by women, that exposes the buttocks. This is a slang word.
  • pentel pen[25] — color marker
  • phone pal[12]
  • pili[16] — A Philippine tree and its edible nut.
  • pinakbet[22] — A Philippine dish.
  • Pinoy[4]
  • po[8] — Philippine word for courtesy and respect.[8] From Tagalog.
  • practicumer — intern
  • presidencia[1] — A town hall (especially during the Spanish colonial period). From Spanish.
  • presidentiable[2] — A likely or confirmed candidate for President. First used in the 1970s.
  • promodizer — A merchandiser who promotes products.
  • pulutan[2] — Food eaten as an accompaniment to alcoholic drinks. From Tagalog.
  • puto[2] — A Filipino steamed rice cake.
  • querida[2] — A mistress. From Spanish.
  • red egg — Salted eggs with shells dyed magenta. This is a translation of Tagalog itlog na pula.
  • red-tagging — The ad hominem practice of branding, naming or accusing individuals or organizations critical or not fully supportive of the government's position as communists, leftists, subversives or terrorists in an attempt to discredit or suppress them.
  • Redemptorist Church — National Shrine of Our Mother of Perpetual Help
  • reelectionist[5] — Someone who runs for reelection. Anglicized from Spanish reeleccionista.
  • ref[26] — clipping of refrigerator
  • rubber shoes — sneakers
  • sala[22] — living room
  • sala set — living room furniture
  • sampaguita[12] — The Arabian jasmine.
  • santol[12] — The fruit of Sandoricum koetjape.
  • sari-sari store[12][2] — A small variety store. The term sari-sari is from Tagalog,
  • senatoriable[27] — A likely or confirmed candidate for the Senate.
  • sinigang[2] — A Philippine dish.
  • sisig[2] — A Philippine dish.
  • socmed — Like in Singapore, this is the abbreviation of social media.
  • sorbetes[2] — A Philippine ice cream made from coconut milk or carabao milk. From Spanish.
  • spandrel — soffit; specifically metal or corrugated plastic types of soffit
  • stampita[28] — small religious picture
  • suki[2] — a regular customer. From Tagalog.
  • supermart[4] — A supermarket
  • tabo[2] — A small plastic or metal water dipper.
  • Taglish[28] — A bilingual English-Tagalog code-switching phenomenon mainly encountered in Metro Manila.
  • talisay[1] — The Indian almond or Tropical almond.
  • tapa[28] — sliced dried meat
  • technical sergeant — A non-commissioned officer ranking above staff sergeant and below master sergeant.
  • teleserye[10][2] — television drama series
  • tenured — experienced; specifically at a workplace
  • tita[2] — aunt. From Tagalog.
  • tito[2] — uncle. From Tagalog.
  • trapo[4][2] — A corrupt politician. From a clipping of traditional politician.[12]
  • tricycle — An autorickshaw.
  • trouser pants — A term coined in 2022 to refer to casual slacks.
  • tuba[7] — An alcoholic drink.
  • turbo broiler — tabletop convection oven
  • Turco — Generalized trademark for anti-rust paint used in roofs.
  • turon[2] — A Philippine street food consisting of ripened bananas wrapped in spring roll wrappers.
  • under the saya — henpecked
  • unli — Clipping of unlimited. Usually found in offers such as unli load or unli rice.
  • up and down house — A two-storey house.
  • utang na loob[2][28] — A Filipino cultural trait that may roughly mean an internal debt of gratitude or a sense of obligation to reciprocate. From Tagalog.
  • vetsin — Generalized trademark for monosodium glutamate.
  • via-satellite — Used by some Philippine television channels to refer to satellite-fed foreign shows delayed by several minutes or hours in contrast to live television broadcasts.
  • videoke — A form of entertainment popular in clubs, at parties, etc, in which individual members of the public sing along to pre-recorded instrumental versions of popular songs, the lyrics of which are displayed for the singer on a screen in time with the music. Blend of video and karaoke. This term was coined in the 1990s.
  • waiting shed — A passenger waiting area providing shade or shelter from rain.
  • West Philippine Sea/WPS — South China Sea
  • xerox[24] — Generalized trademark for photocopier
  • yaya[28][2] — A female employee who looks after the employers' children.
  • Yellowtard — A derogatory term for a supporter of Benigno Aquino III.[20]
  • yosi boy — An ambulant male cigarette vendor.
  • zipper lane — A temporary highway lane (usually demarcated with traffic cones) on the opposite side wherein vehicles going forward can bypass traffic, thereby making vehicles counterflow.

Meanings unique to Philippine English[edit]

Here are some examples of words with meanings unique to Philippine English:

  • accomplish[2] — To fill out a form.
  • advanced[4][2] — Indicates that a clock or watch is ahead of the standard time. (Original meaning: state-of-the-art)
  • attorney — An honorific given to lawyers and notaries public, or those holders by profession who also do other jobs. Usually capitalized or abbreviated as Atty. This is also occasionally used in the US. (Original meaning: one who advises or represents others in legal matters as a profession)
  • batch — A graduating class. (Original meaning: a group or collection of things of the same kind, such as a batch of letters or the next batch of business)
  • blowout[14] — To treat somebody with a meal;[29] a birthday party. (Original meaning: a sudden puncturing of a tire)
  • bold[2] — erotic; titillating.
  • catering — A British English term used to refer to foodservice. (Original meaning: the act of one who caters to something)
  • commute — To take public transportation. (Original meaning: to regularly travel from one's home to one's workplace or school, or vice versa)
  • close — To turn off. (Original meaning: To move a thing, or part of a thing, nearer to another so that the gap or opening between the two is removed)
  • debut — The coming-of-age celebration of a woman's eighteenth birthday. (Original meaning: a performer's first performance to the public, in sport, arts, or some other area)
  • duster — A loose dress wore in (and near) one’s house. (Original meaning: a cleaning tool)
  • gimmick[2] — A night out with one's friends. (Original meaning: a trick or ploy)
  • green — Indicates that something has sexual connotations.[12] (Original meaning: of a green hue; with a hue which is of grass or leaves)
  • guest relation officer — A bargirl. (Original meaning: an employee of a hotel who meets arriving guests and escorts them to their rooms)
  • helper — Like in Singapore and Hong Kong, this word is used to refer to a person who does cleaning and cooking in a family home, or in a market. (Original meaning: one who helps)
  • high blood[6] — enraged, furious, agitated
  • hyper — hyperactive (Original meaning: slang term for energetic)
  • ice bag — A thin plastic bag, of varying sizes, used primarily for freezing water to be sold as ice. Possibly translated from a Philippine language. (Original meaning: A waterproof bag with a wide-mouthed stopper designed to hold ice)
  • inhibition — recusal (Original meaning: act of inhibiting)
  • jumper cable — jump wire (Original meaning: a pair of insulated electrical wires with alligator clips at each end)
  • kindergarten— The two levels between nursery and prep; the second and third years of preschool. (Original meaning: An educational institution for young children, usually between ages 4 and 6)
  • load — prepaid phone credits (Original meaning: a burden)
  • maniac — pervert (Original meaning: insane person, especially one who suffers from a mania)
  • marketing[22] — shop for food and daily needs
  • motel[29] — a hotel usually for premarital or extramarital sex[29]
  • nightclub — strip club (Original meaning: a public or private establishment that is open late at night to provide entertainment, food, drink, music, or dancing)
  • nosebleed[30] — mental overload (Original meaning: hemorrhage from the nose)
  • number two[12] — mistress (Original meaning: the number after 1)
  • open — To turn on. Shared with Malaysian English. (Original meaning: to make something accessible or allow for passage by moving from a shut position)
  • pass by — To drop by. (Original meaning: to travel past without stopping)
  • pistolized — With shoulder stock removed and replaced with a pistol grip on a long gun such as a shotgun or carbine. (Original meaning: armed with pistols)
  • plastic[27] — Two-faced, insincere
  • remembrance — A souvenir. (Original meaning: act of remembering something)
  • rotonda[2] — A traffic circle.
  • salvage[29][27] — To perform summary execution. From Spanish. (Original meaning: to rescue)
  • sando — A sleeveless shirt. From Tagalog. The term’s origin is unknown, but this is possibly a borrowing from Japanese, like the Tagalog term. Earliest attestation in English is from 1943. (Original meaning: slang term for sandwich)
  • toga — A ceremonial gown or robe worn by a graduate, lawyer, judge, or professor. From the resemblance of the white ceremonial gowns worn by graduates of institutions to the loose outer garment worn by the citizens of Ancient Rome. (Original meaning: ancient roman garment)
  • village — A gated community. From the use of this word in many gated community names. (Original meaning: rural habitation of size between a hamlet and a town)
  • viand[14][5] — A side dish or a rice topping. Anglicization of Spanish vianda. Used to translate the Tagalog word ulam. (Original meaning: item of food)
  • while — An uncertain short moment. (Original meaning: an uncertain long period of time)

Abbreviations unique to Philippine English[edit]

Here are some examples of abbreviations unique to Philippine English :

  • Asec — assistant secretary
  • Cong[31] — congressman[31]
  • CR[5][26] — comfort room; refers to bathroom or restroom
  • Dra.[10] — female doctor
  • GMRC — good manners and right conduct
  • GRO[5] — guest relations officer; refers to a bargirl
  • KJ[5] — killjoy
  • LBM — loose bowel movement; diarrhea
  • OA[26] — overacting
  • OFW — Overseas Filipino Worker
  • OR — official receipt
  • SG — security guard
  • QC — Quezon City
  • Solgen/SolGen — solicitor general
  • Usec — undersecretary

Expressions unique to Philippine English[edit]

  • aiyee — Used to tease someone in a romantic relationship.
  • bahala na[2] — From Tagalog.
  • mabuhay[2] — From Tagalog.
  • power — Cheer used to express support.
  • sayang[28] — Used to express something that was wasted.[12] From Tagalog.
  • yehey — Used to express joy or elation. Possibly a blend of yey and hey.

Phrases unique to Philippine English[edit]

  • fall in line — A phrase used to mean line up. The phrase line up is also used.
  • for a while — To hold on for some time.
  • use one’s coconut — A dated phrase that means “use someone’s head”.

Philippine English terms encountered regionally[edit]

Some Philippine English terms are only used in some regions. Examples are bringhouse (bringing food home from fiestas), which is only used in the Visayas, and haggard (police on motorcycles), which is used only in Visayas and Mindanao.

Here are some examples of Philippine English terms used regionally :

  • bringhouse — Take-home leftover food such as from a party. Mainly encountered in the Visayas.
  • haggard — Police on motorcycles. Only encountered in Visayas and Mindanao.
  • highlander — the Igorot people, referring to them coming from the Cordillera Mountain Range. Mainly encountered in Cordillera.
  • lowlander — A somewhat derogatory term mainly encountered in Cordillera to refer to anyone who is not living on the Cordillera Mountain Range.
  • tablea — Ground cocoa shaped into a disc that is used mainly for making sikwate. Chiefly encountered in Cebu.

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Bautista 2008, p. 180.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn Borlongan 2023, p. 194.
  3. ^ a b Cabansag 2013, p. 46.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Bautista 2008, p. 184.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i Tadeo 2012, p. 194.
  6. ^ a b c d Bautista 2008, p. 182.
  7. ^ a b c d e Bautista 2008, p. 181.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Dimaculangan 2024, p. 1255.
  9. ^ a b c Ahn 2023, p. 157.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Gustilo 2019, p. 95.
  11. ^ a b c d Tadeo 2012, p. 209.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Tadeo 2012, p. 195.
  13. ^ Low 2012, p. 95.
  14. ^ a b c d e Bautista 2008, p. 183.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Bautista 2008, p. 185.
  16. ^ a b c d Bautista 2008, p. 178.
  17. ^ Esguerra 2020.
  18. ^ Dimaculangan 2024, p. 1260.
  19. ^ a b c d Dimaculangan 2024, p. 1259.
  20. ^ a b Butuyan 2016.
  21. ^ a b c d Gustilo 2019, p. 96.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Bautista 2008, p. 186.
  23. ^ a b c Tadeo 2012, p. 208.
  24. ^ a b Tadeo 2012, p. 193.
  25. ^ Low 2012, p. 94.
  26. ^ a b c Bautista 2008, p. 147.
  27. ^ a b c Bernardo 2015, p. 88.
  28. ^ a b c d e f Bautista 2008, p. 187.
  29. ^ a b c d Guray 2022, p. 3.
  30. ^ Bernardo 2015, p. 88–89.
  31. ^ a b Dimaculangan 2024, p. 1257.

Bibliography[edit]

Books and journals
News articles

External links[edit]

For a list of words relating to Philippine English vocabulary, see the Philippine English category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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