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Mau movement in American Samoa

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The Mau movement in American Samoa or American Samoa Mau (Samoan: O le Mau), was an anti-colonial movement[1] and an independence movement formed in American Sāmoa in the 1920s, which was suppressed by the United States.[2] Established in early 1920, it aimed to challenge the overreach of the U.S. Navy's authority.[3]

The Mau movement has also been known in American Sāmoa by several other names, including The Committee of Samoan Chiefs, The Samoan Movement, The Samoan Cause,[4] The Samoan League,[5] and The Committee of the Samoan League.[6]

After revelations surfaced that U.S. officials had misappropriated public funds, prominent Samoan figures — supported by those who opposed the U.S. Navy's influence — mounted the widespread protest known as the Mau movement. They initiated a boycott of copra, a critical revenue source, effectively crippling the U.S. naval administration.[7] Launched under the guidance of Mauga Moi Moi, the highest-ranking chief in Pago Pago, the movement took shape through his influential leadership.[8][9] When Samuel Sailele Ripley returned to Leone in July 1920, he became the leader of the Mau movement.[10][11] Following Mauga Moi Moi's death in 1935, Governor Otto Dowling asserted that the Mau movement had come to an end.[12]

The movement originally took shape in Pago Pago, then evolved and moved its headquarters from Pago Pago to Leone, and eventually settled in Nuʻuuli.[13] Most of its followers were based in the Western District on Tutuila Island.[14]

In the end, the Mau movement in American Sāmoa turned out to be less violent and extensive than the Mau movement in Western Sāmoa.[15][16][17]

Origins

[edit]

Opposition to colonial domination in Sāmoa predated 1920. Once the eastern islands came under U.S. authority, Samoans grappled with safeguarding their cultural, economic, and political autonomy. Moreover, disputes regarding fair wages for construction work played a significant role in igniting the Mau movement.[18]

In 1902, discontent over the copra levy began among Tutuilans, especially in the Western District and Tuālāuta County — an area that would later play a pivotal role in the Mau movement. Seeking to quash this resistance, Governor Uriel Sebree imprisoned three local leaders and removed a Samoan judge who had lodged a formal complaint with the U.S. Navy. Sebree went on to characterize Samoans as “grown-up children who love form and ceremony.” By 1904, chiefs from both the Western and Eastern Districts met in official assemblies, urging the reduction of the copra tax and demanding accountability for how the funds were spent. Demonstrating unity, they undertook a malaga — traveling between Pago Pago and Leone — to collectively press their grievances.[19]

Between June 1919 and November 1920, Governor Warren Terhune faced widespread disapproval, and his governing style and decisions significantly contributed to the emergence of the Mau movement.[20]

Formation

[edit]

In February 1920, Mauga Moi Moi's leadership ignited the Mau movement when he questioned A. M. Noble’s and Luther Cartwright’s suitability under U.S. Navy authority. Although Noble justified that year's six-cent-per-pound copra rate as the highest on record, Police Officer Ta‘amu voiced concerns that the inflated price suggested government misuse of Samoan resources. These suspicions hinted at inconsistencies stretching back to 1919 or earlier. Commandant Uriel Sebree had previously noted local mistrust of copra taxes, particularly when imposed by foreign administrators. Allegations arose that Noble spoke disparagingly about the Samoan people. Tensions escalated by February 1920, with Mauga demanding Noble's dismissal and even threatening force against him.[21]

In June 1920, escalating tensions reached a peak at a fono meeting convened in Pago Pago. Chief Satele and Mauga — both of whom had clashed with Noble — called into question how malaga funds were being used. Over several days, Samoans came by land and sea, some carrying weapons and others bringing ceremonial items like tapa cloth. Mauga declared that legislative power belonged exclusively to the Samoan chiefs, presenting a direct challenge to U.S. governance. Governor Warren Terhune tried unsuccessfully to ban all fono (assembly). Recognizing the seriousness of the confrontation, Noble viewed this moment as a defining act of collective Samoan defiance against American rule.

Key figures

[edit]

Some key figures of the Mau movement in American Sāmoa were:[22]

Aims

[edit]

Samoans sympathetic to the Mau movement often gathered to share their grievances and articulate a range of objectives intended to preserve their autonomy and challenge colonial policies. These aims included:[43]

  • Exposing financial exploitation.[44]
  • Restoring legislative authority to Samoan chiefs.[45]
  • Abolishing labor without compensation.[46]
  • Ending U.S. Navy rule and establishing a civilian government.[47][48]
  • Promoting cooperative governance between Samoans and Americans.[49]
  • Securing the release of imprisoned chiefs (the “Faleniu conspirators”).[50]
  • Repealing contentious laws, including those banning interracial marriages and malagas (organized inter-village visits).[51]
  • Challenging the U.S. Navy's copra monopoly.[52]
  • Organizing a copra boycott, effectively disabling the revenue-dependent U.S. naval administration.[53]
  • Opposing the revocation of chiefly titles.[54]
  • Questioning the legitimacy of U.S. Navy authority in Sāmoa.[55]
  • Ending perceived American exploitation of Samoans.[56]
  • Resisting the deportation and exile of Mau leader Samuel Sailele Ripley.[57]
  • Safeguarding Faʻa Sāmoa — including chiefly (matai) titles and ceremonial protocols — from external interference.
  • Advocating for equal rights for both Samoans and Americans.[58]
  • Seeking unification of the Samoan Islands.[59]
  • Engaging in civil disobedience. In 1927, the Mau movement intensified its efforts by sending Governor Stephen Victor Graham a letter announcing that its members would no longer pay taxes until a civilian government—an outcome they strongly supported—was put in place.[60][61] A number of matais were arrested for tax evasion.[62]

U.S. Response

[edit]

In an effort to suppress the Mau movement, U.S. authorities adopted a containment strategy that involved co-opting certain Samoan leaders and employing various coercive measures. These tactics included the following:[63]

  • Arrests. The U.S. Navy administration apprehended multiple Mau supporters, including Samuel Tulele Galea‘i,[64] Lieutenant Commander Creed Boucher,[65] and 100 protestors in Pago Pago in 1922.[66] Governor Waldo A. Evans also charged seventeen of the so-called “Faleniu conspirators” with conspiracy and rebellion.[67]
  • Deportations. Several Mau advocates were exiled from American Sāmoa, notably Samuel Sailele Ripley, Madge A. Ripley, Arthur A. Greene, Gretchen Falke Greene, and Lieutenant Commander Creed Boucher.
  • Restrictions on Travel to Western Sāmoa. To deter coordination with the Western Mau, American Samoans faced travel limitations and close surveillance. The 1903 Malaga Regulation prohibited parties of more than eight individuals from traveling from Tutuila to Upolu without prior authorization.[68]
  • Deployment of U.S. Armed Forces. In 1922, Governor E. T. Pollock dispatched a landing force from the U.S.S. Ontario, comprising U.S. Marines, to suppress a protest in Pago Pago.[69]
  • Restrictions on Inter-Village Travel. Governor Henry Francis Bryan enacted a ban on malagas — organized travels between villages.[70]
  • Monitoring Public Gatherings. Governor Warren Terhune attempted to prohibit all fono (councils or assemblies).[71]
  • Removal of Chiefs from Office. Governor Warren Terhune dismissed Mauga Moi Moi and Satele from their roles as district governors of the Western and Eastern districts and replaced them with new appointees.[72]
  • Targeting the Media. Governor Warren Terhune attributed the “virtual revolt” to a Honolulu-based newspaper.[73] The United States Navy accused the editor of the Honolulu Star-Bulletin of inciting Samoans to protest and spreading misinformation.[74]

In 1930, the United States sent a committee to American Sāmoa. Among its members were individuals from Hawai‘i who had previously played a significant role in the coup d'état against Queen Lili‘uokalani in the Kingdom of Hawai‘i. Their report, which favored the U.S. position, substantially influenced American policy in Sāmoa, leading to the decisive suppression of the Mau movement.[75][76]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Page 200. ISBN 9780674263338.
  2. ^ Barker, Joanne (2005). Sovereignty matters: locations of contestation and possibility in indigenous struggles for self-determination. University of Nebraska Press. Page 119. ISBN 9780803251984.
  3. ^ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Page 199. ISBN 9780674263338.
  4. ^ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 194. ISBN 9780870210747.
  5. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 251. ISSN 0030-8684.
  6. ^ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 208. ISBN 9780870210747.
  7. ^ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Page 199. ISBN 9780674263338.
  8. ^ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa - History Of American Samoa And Its United States Naval Administration  (1st ed.). Page 140. United States Naval Institute. ISBN 9780870210747.
  9. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 233. ISSN 0030-8684.
  10. ^ Minahan, James (2010). The complete guide to national symbols and emblems. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press. Page 10. ISBN 9780313344978.
  11. ^ Barker, Joanne (2005). Sovereignty matters: locations of contestation and possibility in indigenous struggles for self-determination. University of Nebraska Press. Page 119. ISBN 9780803251984.
  12. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 255. ISSN 0030-8684.
  13. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 232. ISSN 0030-8684.
  14. ^ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa - History Of American Samoa And Its United States Naval Administration (1st ed.). Page 227. United States Naval Institute. ISBN 9780870210747.
  15. ^ Campbell, I. C. “Resistance and Colonial Government: A Comparative Study of Samoa.” The Journal of Pacific History 40, no. 1 (2005): p. 59. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25169729.
  16. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 232. ISSN 0030-8684.
  17. ^ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Page 200. ISBN 9780674263338.
  18. ^ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Pages 200-201. ISBN 9780674263338.
  19. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Pages 228-229. ISSN 0030-8684.
  20. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2). ISSN 0030-8684.
  21. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 233. ISSN 0030-8684.
  22. ^ Campbell, I. C. “Resistance and Colonial Government: A Comparative Study of Samoa.” The Journal of Pacific History 40, no. 1 (2005): p. 45–69. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25169729.
  23. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 255. ISSN 0030-8684.
  24. ^ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa - History Of American Samoa And Its United States Naval Administration (1st ed.). Page 140. United States Naval Institute. ISBN 9780870210747.
  25. ^ Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Page 81. ISBN 9829036022.
  26. ^ Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Page 186. ISBN 9829036022.
  27. ^ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 202. ISBN 9780870210747.
  28. ^ Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Page 172. ISBN 9829036022.
  29. ^ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa - History Of American Samoa And Its United States Naval Administration (1st ed.). Page 228. United States Naval Institute. ISBN 9780870210747.
  30. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2). ISSN 0030-8684.
  31. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2). ISSN 0030-8684.
  32. ^ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa - History Of American Samoa And Its United States Naval Administration (1st ed.). Page 203. United States Naval Institute. ISBN 9780870210747.
  33. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 239-240. ISSN 0030-8684.
  34. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 236. ISSN 0030-8684.
  35. ^ Campbell, I. C. “Resistance and Colonial Government: A Comparative Study of Samoa.” The Journal of Pacific History 40, no. 1 (2005): p. 61. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25169729.
  36. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 244. ISSN 0030-8684.
  37. ^ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Page 200. ISBN 9780674263338.
  38. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 236. ISSN 0030-8684.
  39. ^ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 199. ISBN 9780870210747.
  40. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 238. ISSN 0030-8684.
  41. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 251. ISSN 0030-8684.
  42. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 252. ISSN 0030-8684.
  43. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2). ISSN 0030-8684.
  44. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 233. ISSN 0030-8684.
  45. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 233. ISSN 0030-8684.
  46. ^ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Pages 200-201. ISBN 9780674263338.
  47. ^ Field, Michael (1991). Mau: Samoa’s Struggle for Freedom. Polynesian Press. Page 105. ISBN 9780908597079.
  48. ^ Sunia, Fofo I.F. (2009). A History of American Samoa. Amerika Samoa Humanities Council. Page 204. ISBN 9781573062992.
  49. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Pages 242-245. ISSN 0030-8684.
  50. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 245. ISSN 0030-8684.
  51. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Pages 242-245. ISSN 0030-8684.
  52. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Pages 239-240. ISSN 0030-8684.
  53. ^ Droessler, Holger (2022). Coconut Colonialism: Workers and the Globalization of Samoa. Harvard University Press. Page 199. ISBN 9780674263338.
  54. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 244. ISSN 0030-8684.
  55. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Pages 239-240. ISSN 0030-8684.
  56. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Pages 239-240. ISSN 0030-8684.
  57. ^ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 202. ISBN 9780870210747.
  58. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 236. ISSN 0030-8684.
  59. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 251. ISSN 0030-8684.
  60. ^ Field, Michael (1991). Mau: Samoa’s Struggle for Freedom. Polynesian Press. Page 105. ISBN 9780908597079.
  61. ^ Sunia, Fofo I.F. (2009). A History of American Samoa. Amerika Samoa Humanities Council. Page 204. ISBN 9781573062992.
  62. ^ Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Page 81. ISBN 9829036022.
  63. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2). ISSN 0030-8684.
  64. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 251. ISSN 0030-8684.
  65. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 238. ISSN 0030-8684.
  66. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 245. ISSN 0030-8684.
  67. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 241. ISSN 0030-8684.
  68. ^ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 154. ISBN 9780870210747.
  69. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 245. ISSN 0030-8684.
  70. ^ Sunia, Fofō Iosefa Fiti (2001). Puputoa: Host of Heroes - A record of the history makers in the First Century of American Samoa, 1900-2000. Suva, Fiji: Oceania Printers. Pages 18-19. ISBN 9829036022.
  71. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 233. ISSN 0030-8684.
  72. ^ Gray, John Alexander Clinton (1960). Amerika Samoa: A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. United States Naval Institute. Page 197. ISBN 9780870210747.
  73. ^ Chapell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920–1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): Page 235. ISSN 0030-8684.
  74. ^ Chappell, David A. (2000). "The Forgotten Mau: Anti-Navy Protest in American Samoa, 1920-1935". Pacific Historical Review. 69 (2): p. 236. ISSN 0030-8684.
  75. ^ Minahan, James (2010). The complete guide to national symbols and emblems. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Press. Page 10. ISBN 9780313344978.
  76. ^ Campbell, I. C. “Chiefs, Agitators and the Navy: The Mau in American Samoa, 1920—29.” The Journal of Pacific History 44, no. 1 (2009): 41–60. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40346687.
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