List of volcanic eruptions in the 21st century
Appearance
This is a list of volcanic eruptions in the 21st century with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 4 or higher, and smaller eruptions that resulted in fatalities, significant damage or disruptions.
As of 19 December 2024, the largest volcanic eruption of the 21st century is the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption and tsunami, and the deadliest are the 2018 Volcán de Fuego eruption and the 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami.
Large eruptions (VEI of 4 or higher, or plume height of at least 15 km)
[edit]VEI | Volcano | Country | Year | Max plume height (km) | Material volume (km3) | Fatalities | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
4? | Mount Ruang[1] | Indonesia | 2024 | 23[2] | Thousands of homes were destroyed.[3] Volcanic ash was reported as far away as Manado and several areas in Gorontalo. Airlines from West Malaysia and Singapore cancelled flights to Sabah and Sarawak on 18 April due to reduced visibility.[4][5] The eruption also prompted the shutdown of Sam Ratulangi International Airport in North Sulawesi.[6] All 843 residents of Ruang island were evacuated to Manado, while 12,000 residents of Tagulandang were relocated to Siau Island by ship.[7] On 17 and 30 April, authorities raised the volcano's alert level to four, the highest in Indonesia and issued a tsunami alert which led to orders for 11,000 residents and evacuees in Tagulandang to be moved to Manado in mainland Sulawesi, citing the risk of the volcano collapsing into the sea.[8] | ||
4? | Sheveluch[9] | Russia | 2023 | 20 | An eruption on April 11 ejected a cloud of volcanic gas and ash that reached a height of 20 km (12 mi) and spread over an area of 108,000 km2 (42,000 sq mi).[10] Pyroclastic flows from the eruption traveled up to 19 km (12 mi) away from the volcano.[11] | ||
3 | Bezymianny[12] | Russia | 2022 | 15 | An eruption on May 28 sent ash to an altitude of 15 km, causing some disruptions to flights in the North Pacific, including an American Airlines flight from Dallas to Tokyo that diverted back to Los Angeles midway across the Pacific, landing after approximately 12 hours in the air.[citation needed] | ||
5-6 | Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai[13] | Tonga | 2022 | 58 | 6–10[14][15][16] | 6 | The explosive submarine eruption began on December 20, 2021, with the largest explosion occurring on January 15, 2022. Satellite measurements recorded an eruption column of at least 30,000 m (98,000 ft) into the atmosphere.[17] The explosion was hundreds of times more powerful than the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima,[18] and was heard as far as Fairbanks, Alaska, nearly 10,000 km away. Fluctuations in air pressure were recorded all over the world as the pressure wave fully circled the world several times. Two people were killed in Peru by a 2-metre tsunami wave. A British woman was found to have been killed by the tsunami in Tonga.[19] |
4 | Mount Semeru[20] | Indonesia | 2021 | 12 | 57 | An eruption began on December 4, and ejected a cloud of volcanic ash 12,000 m (40,000 ft) into the air, killing at least 57 people and injuring more than 100 others. | |
4 | Fukutoku-Okanoba[21] | Japan | 2021 | 16 | Submarine volcano approximately 1,300 km south of Tokyo. In October, a large amount of pumice was seen to have been released in this eruption, and washed ashore on Okinawa and Amami Islands.[22][23][24] | ||
4 | La Soufrière[25] | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 2021 | 16 | 0.3 | 2021 eruption of La Soufrière | |
4 | Taal[26] | Philippines | 2020 | 15 | 39 | A phreatomagmatic eruption from the main crater spewed ashes to Calabarzon, Metro Manila, Central Luzon and Pangasinan. 39 people were killed.[27] | |
4 | Ulawun[28] | Papua New Guinea | 2019 | 19.2 | On 26 June Ulawun erupted, sending an ash plume to at least 19,000 m (63,000 ft).[29] Other large eruptions occurred on 2 August, also sending ash to 19,000 m (63,000 ft).[30] | ||
4 | Raikoke[31] | Russia | 2019 | 17 | First eruption since 1924. At approximately 4 am, 22 June it erupted, with a plume of ash and gas reaching between 13,000 m (43,000 ft) and 17,000 m (56,000 ft), passing the tropopause and allowing stratospheric injection of ash and sulfur dioxide.[32] | ||
3 | Volcán de Fuego | Guatemala | 2018 | 15 | 190–2,900 | At least 190 people were killed in the volcano's most powerful eruption since 1974. Ash forced the closure of La Aurora International Airport in Guatemala City.[33][34] | |
4 | Volcán Wolf[35] | Ecuador | 2015 | 15 | |||
4 | Calbuco[36] | Chile | 2015 | 21 | 0.3–0.6[37] | First eruption since 1972. At least 4,000 people evacuated. No casualties reported.[38] | |
4 | Manam[39] | Papua New Guinea | 2014-ongoing | 19.8 | |||
3 | Sangeang Api[40] | Indonesia | 2014 | 15.2 | Ash drifted SE, grounding flights between south-east Asia and Darwin, Australia.[41] | ||
4 | Kelud[42] | Indonesia | 2014 | 26 | 0.2–0.3[43] | 7 | Ash was ejected to an altitude exceeding 26 km. 7 people were killed and at least 100,000 people were evacuated. At least one commercial aircraft flew into the plume, later landing safely but incurring costly engine damage.[44] |
4 | Mount Sinabung[45] | Indonesia | 2013-2019 | 16.8 | 23 | Mount Sinabung's eruptions caused many pyroclastic flows, one resulting in the loss of 16 lives.[46] An eruption on May 22, 2016, resulted in the loss of 7 lives.[47] | |
4 | Nabro[48] | Eritrea | 2011 | 18 | 0.47[49] | 31[50] | 2011 Nabro eruption |
5 | Cordón Caulle[51] | Chile | 2011-2012 | 14 | 0.75–1.3[52] | The 2011–2012 Puyehue-Cordón Caulle eruption began on June 4, 2011, causing major flight disruptions across the southern hemisphere, including South America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. | |
4 | Grímsvötn[53] | Iceland | 2011 | 20 | 0.7[54] | 2011 eruption of Grímsvötn | |
4 | Mount Merapi[55] | Indonesia | 2010 | 18.3 | 353 | 2010 eruptions of Mount Merapi | |
4 | Eyjafjallajökull[56] | Iceland | 2010 | 9 | 0.25[57] | A series of eruptions between March and June caused the worst flight disruption over Europe since the Second World War.[58] Over an eight-day period, an estimated 107,000 flights, representing 48% of total air traffic and 10 million passengers, were canceled.[59] According to the IATA, The total loss to the airline industry was around $1.7 billion.[60] | |
4 | Sarychev Peak[61] | Russia | 2009 | 21 | 0.4[62] | ||
3 | Mount Redoubt[63] | Alaska, United States | 2009 | 20 | 2009 Mount Redoubt eruptive activity | ||
4 | Kasatochi[64] | Alaska, United States | 2008 | 13.7 | 0.15–0.28[65] | ||
4 | Chaitén[66] | Chile | 2008 | 30 | 0.5–1[67] | 1[68] | The town of Chaitén, located about 10 km southwest of the eruption site, was blanketed with ash. About 4,000 people who lived there were evacuated by boat. One elderly person died during the evacuation efforts. On May 6, the eruption became more forceful and generated a wider and darker gray ash plume to an estimated altitude of 30,000 m (98,400 ft) into the stratosphere. All remaining people in Chaitén were ordered to evacuate, as well as anyone within 50 km of the volcano. |
4 | Mount Okmok[69] | Alaska, United States | 2008 | 20 | 0.26[70] | ||
4 | Mount Tavurvur[71] | Papua New Guinea | 2006-2010 | 18 | |||
4 | Manam[39] | Papua New Guinea | 2004 | 24 | |||
4 | Volcán el Reventador[72] | Ecuador | 2002 | 17 | 0.37[73] | ||
4 | Mount Ruang[1] | Indonesia | 2002 | 16 |
Smaller explosive eruptions resulting in fatalities or significant damage
[edit]VEI | Volcano | Country | Year | Fatalities | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
3 | Kanlaon | Philippines | 2024 | None | 2024 Kanlaon eruption |
? | Lewotobi | Indonesia | 2024 | 9 | On 4 November 2024, the volcano spewed molten debris at several villages some 4 km (2.5 mi) away, destroying homes and killing at least nine.[74] The Centre of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation recommended that a 7 km (4.3 mi) radius around the volcano be evacuated.[75] Seven villages were affected by the eruption.[76] A larger eruption occurred on 7 November.[77] On 8 November, the volcano erupted several times, one bearing an ash plume with a height reaching 10 km (6.2 mi).[78] On 9 November, it erupted again, scrambling authorities to evacuate approximately 16,000 people from nearby villages.[79] |
2 | Mount Marapi[80] | Indonesia | 2023 | 23[81] | 2023 eruption of Mount Marapi |
2 | Popocatépetl[82] | Mexico | 2022 | 1 | One woman was killed and 2 other climbers were injured after being hit by hot volcanic rock during an ascent to the crater on June 22.[83] |
2 | Whakaari / White Island[84] | New Zealand | 2019 | 22 | On 9 December a phreatic eruption launched rock and ash into the air, killing 22 of the 47 people on the island, including two who are missing and declared dead. A further twenty-five people suffered injuries, including severe burns. |
2 | Mount Stromboli[85] | Italy | 2019 | 1 | A hiker was killed and several others were injured after the volcano's strongest eruption since 2002. The Italian Navy was deployed and evacuated dozens of the island's residents.[86] |
3 | Krakatoa[87] | Indonesia | 2018 | 426 | A major eruption triggered a tsunami that killed at least 420 people and injured 14,000 others.[88][89] As a result of the landslide, the height of the volcano was reduced from 338 meters to 110 meters.[90] |
3 | Ambae[91] | Vanuatu | 2018 | During a series of eruptions, volcanic ash blackened the sky, buried crops and destroyed homes. Over the course of the year, the island's 11,000 population was forced to evacuate several times.[92] | |
3 | Mount Agung[93] | Indonesia | 2017-2019 | Eruptions from 2017 - 2019 caused thousands to be evacuated, disrupted flights and a decline in tourism to Bali. | |
1 | Dieng Volcanic Complex[94] | Indonesia | 2017 | 8 | On July 2 a rescue helicopter crashed, killing all 4 crewmen and 4 rescuers on board. 11 tourists near the crater were injured.[95] |
2 | Mount Etna[96] | Italy | 2017 | An eruption on 16 March injured 10 people, including a BBC News television crew, after magma exploded upon contact with snow.[97][98] | |
3 | Mount Ontake[99] | Japan | 2014 | 63 | A phreatic eruption and pyroclastic flow occurred without warning, killing 63 people. Deadliest eruption in Japan since 1902, first volcano-related deaths in Japan since 1991. |
2 | Gamalama[100] | Indonesia | 2011 | 4[101] | |
3 | Pacaya[102] | Guatemala | 2010 | 3[103] | On May 27, at approximately 20:00 hours there was a strong eruption ejecting debris and ash columns up to 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) followed by several tremors. Ash rained down in many cities to the northwest of the volcano, including Guatemala City.[104] The volcanic ash fall pelted the capital and La Aurora International Airport. The National Coordinator for Disaster Reduction (CONRED) declared a red alert for the communities near the volcano and recommended the evacuation of some of them. Noti7 reporter Anibal Archila, one of the first to cover the event, was reportedly killed by volcanic debris.[105] |
3 | Jabal al-Tair[106] | Yemen | 2007 | 7 | An eruption on the Red Sea island killed at least 7 soldiers and spewed lava and ash hundreds of metres into the air.[107] |
1 | Raoul Island[108] | Kermadec Islands, New Zealand | 2006 | 1 | An eruption on 17 March killed conservation worker Mark Kearney, who was measuring the water temperature of Green Lake.[109] |
3 | Santa Ana[110] | El Salvador | 2005 | 2 | Two farmers were killed when chunks of earth and boiling water flowed down the slopes of the volcano.[111] |
2 | Mount Bromo[112] | Indonesia | 2004 | 2 | An eruption on June 8 killed two people who had been hit by rocks from the explosion.[113] |
Effusive eruptions
[edit]VEI | Volcano | Country | Year | Fatalities | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | Sundhnúkur[114] | Iceland | 2023-2024 | 2023–2024 Sundhnúkur eruptions | |
0 | Mauna Loa[115] | Hawaii, United States | 2022 | 2022 eruption of Mauna Loa | |
3 | Cumbre Vieja[116] | Canary Islands, Spain | 2021 | 1 | Strombolian fissure eruption resulting in one person dead, over one billion dollars in damage and the destruction of over 2,500 buildings. |
1 | Mount Nyiragongo[117] | Democratic Republic of the Congo | 2021 | 32 | Effusive eruption resulting in the destruction of 1,000 homes. |
3 | Kilauea[118] | Hawaii, United States | 2018 | Most destructive volcanic event in the United States since the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Lava flows forced the evacuation of populated areas, destroyed over 700 homes, roads and utilities, causing at least $800 million (2018 USD) of property damage. | |
3 | Pico do Fogo[119] | Cape Verde | 2014-2015 | 2014–15 Fogo eruption | |
0 | Holuhraun[120] | Iceland | 2014-2015 | 2014–2015 eruption of Bárðarbunga | |
1 | Havre Seamount[121] | Kermadec Islands, New Zealand | 2012 | 2012 Kermadec Islands eruption | |
2 | Tagoro[122] | Canary Islands, Spain | 2011-2012 | 2011–12 El Hierro eruption | |
1 | Mount Nyiragongo[117] | Democratic Republic of the Congo | 2002 | 245 | Large effusive eruption. At least 15% of Goma comprising 4,500 buildings was destroyed, leaving about 120,000 people homeless. |
See also
[edit]- List of volcanic eruptions 1500–1999
- List of large Holocene volcanic eruptions
- List of largest volcanic eruptions
- List of natural disasters by death toll
- List of volcanic eruptions by death toll
- Lists of volcanoes
References
[edit]- ^ a b "Ruang". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. 7 August 2017. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
- ^ "Global Volcanism Program | Ruang".
- ^ "Dampak Erupsi Gunung Ruang, Tak Ada Korban Jiwa tapi Ribuan Rumah Warga Rusak". Narasi Tv (in Indonesian). Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ Liputan6.com (30 April 2024). "Partikel Abu Vulkanik Gunung Ruang Meluas hingga Gorontalo". liputan6.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 28 May 2024.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "Scoot cancels some flights between Singapore and East Malaysia after eruption of Indonesia's Ruang volcano". CNA. 18 April 2024. Archived from the original on 18 April 2024. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ "Indonesia evacuating thousands after volcano erupts, causing tsunami threat". France 24. 18 April 2024. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ "Thousands evacuated, flights disrupted as Indonesian volcano erupts again". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ "Tsunami alert after a volcano in Indonesia has several big eruptions and thousands are told to leave". AP News. 17 April 2024. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ "Sheveluch". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. 8 May 2017. Retrieved 14 June 2017.
- ^ "На Камчатке произошло извержение вулкана Шивелуч" (in Russian). Ведомости. 11 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
- ^ Smithsonian / Sally Kuhn Sennert (5 April 2019). "Report on Sheveluch (Russia) — 5 April-11 April 2023 / US Geological Survey Weekly Volcanic Activity Report, 5 April-11 April 2023". volcano.si.edu. Retrieved 19 March 2019.
- ^ "Bezymianny". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Tonga volcano triggered seafloor debris stampede". BBC News. 8 September 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2023.
- ^ Cronin, Shane (12 January 2023). "A year on, we know why the Tongan eruption was so violent. It's a wake-up call to watch other submarine volcanoes". The Conversation. Retrieved 9 September 2023.
- ^ "Tonga volcanic eruption reshaped Pacific seafloor". NIWA/Shane Cronin/University of Auckland/Tonga Geological Services. BBC News. 25 May 2022.
- ^ "Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai volcano (Tonga) activity update: latest measurements confirmed 30 km column height containing 0.4 Tg SO2". www.volcanodiscovery.com. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ^ "Tonga volcano: Eruption more powerful than atomic bomb, Nasa says". BBC News. 24 January 2022. Archived from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
- ^ "Tonga tsunami: Body of British woman swept away by wave found". Sky News. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ^ "Semeru". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Fukutoku-Okanoba". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "「福徳岡ノ場」噴火、戦後最大級と判明 桜島「大正噴火」に次ぐ規模". 毎日新聞. 23 October 2021. Archived from the original on 23 October 2021.
- ^ "沖縄・北大東島を取り巻く灰色ライン 謎の漂着物の正体は?". 琉球新報. 8 October 2021. Archived from the original on 8 October 2021.
- ^ "1450キロ離れた沖縄本島にも「軽石」漂着 小笠原の海底火山噴火の影響か". 琉球新報. 14 October 2021. Archived from the original on 14 October 2021.
- ^ "La Soufriere". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Taal". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ Recuenco, Aaron (2 February 2020). "39 deaths recorded during Taal Volcano's eruption". Manila Bulletin. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
- ^ "Ulawun". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Ulawun volcano (New Britain, Papua New Guinea) activity update: Major subplinian eruption- ash to at least 19km (63,000ft)". www.volcanodiscovery.com. Retrieved 3 August 2019.
- ^ "Ulawun volcano (New Britain, Papua New Guinea) activity update: Another large eruption to 19km (63,000ft)". www.volcanodiscovery.com. Retrieved 3 August 2019.
- ^ "Raikoke". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Raikoke Erupts". www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 24 June 2019. Retrieved 27 July 2019.
- ^ Perez, Sonia (4 June 2018). "Death toll rises to 25 in Guatemala volcano eruption". Stuff. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
- ^ "Guatemala's Fuego volcano erupts killing 25 and injuring hundreds". The Guardian. 4 June 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2018.
- ^ "Wolf". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Calbuco". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ Morgado, Eduardo; Morgan, Daniel J.; Harvey, Jason; Parada, Miguel-Ángel; Castruccio, Angelo; Brahm, Raimundo; Gutiérrez, Francisco; Georgiev, Bogomil; Hammond, Samantha J. (2019). "Localised heating and intensive magmatic conditions prior to the 22–23 April 2015 Calbuco volcano eruption (Southern Chile)". Bulletin of Volcanology. 81 (4). doi:10.1007/s00445-019-1280-2.
- ^ Pyle, David (27 April 2015). "Volcán Calbuco: what do we know so far?". Blogs.egu.eu. Retrieved 14 January 2016.
- ^ a b "Manam". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Sangeang Api". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Eruption of Sangeang Api volcano | EUMETSAT".
- ^ "Kelud". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Ash fallout from the 2014 Kelut eruption: A Preliminary Analysis" (PDF). Retrieved 3 January 2024.
- ^ "Kelud". Global Volcanism Program. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
- ^ "Sinabung". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Mount Sinabung erupts in Indonesia". The Guardian. 3 February 2014.
- ^ "Search for survivors after deadly Mount Sinabung volcanic eruption". ABC News. 23 May 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
- ^ "Nabro". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ Hamlyn, Joanna; Wright, Tim; Walters, Richard; Pagli, Carolina; Sansosti, Eugenio; Casu, Francesco; Pepe, Susi; Edmonds, Marie; McCormick Kilbride, Brendan; Keir, Derek; Neuberg, Jürgen; Oppenheimer, Clive (2018). "What causes subsidence following the 2011 eruption at Nabro (Eritrea)?". Progress in Earth and Planetary Science. 5. doi:10.1186/s40645-018-0186-5. hdl:2158/1136555.
- ^ "ERITREA-ETHIOPIA: Thousands need aid after volcano eruption". 6 July 2011.
- ^ "Cordón Caulle". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ Pistolesi, Marco; Cioni, Raffaello; Bonadonna, Costanza; Elissondo, Manuela; Baumann, Valerie; Bertagnini, Antonella; Chiari, Laura; Gonzales, Rafael; Rosi, Mauro; Francalanci, Lorella (22 January 2015). "Complex dynamics of small-moderate volcanic events: the example of the 2011 rhyolitic Cordón Caulle eruption, Chile". Bulletin of Volcanology. 77 (1): 3. Bibcode:2015BVol...77....3P. doi:10.1007/s00445-014-0898-3. hdl:11568/800962. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 128420641.
- ^ "Grímsvötn". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "The 2010 Eyjafjallajokull eruptions". www.visiticeland.com. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
- ^ "Mount Merapi". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Eyjafjallajökull". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ Klemetti, Erik. "More on Eyjafjallajökull and the St. Helens Anniversary". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
- ^ "2010's Volcano-Induced Air Travel Shutdown Was Justified". www.science.org. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ^ "Volcanic Eruptions: Science And Risk Management | Science 2.0". www.science20.com. 27 August 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ^ "Ash chaos 'cost airlines $1.7bn'". 21 April 2010. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
- ^ "Sarychev Peak". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ Report on Sarychev Peak (Russia) — June 2009. Global Volcanism Program (Report). Smithsonian Institution. doi:10.5479/si.GVP.BGVN200906-290240.
- ^ "Redoubt". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Kasatochi". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ Waythomas, Christopher F.; Scott, William E.; Prejean, Stephanie G.; Schneider, David J.; Izbekov, Pavel; Nye, Christopher J. (2010). "The 7–8 August 2008 eruption of Kasatochi Volcano, central Aleutian Islands, Alaska". Journal of Geophysical Research. 115. doi:10.1029/2010JB007437.
- ^ "Chaitén". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ Alfano, Fabrizio; Bonadonna, Costanza; Volentik, Alain; Connor, Charles; Watt, Sebastian; Pyle, David; Connor, Laura (1 July 2011). "Tephra stratigraphy and eruptive volume of the May, 2008, Chaitén eruption, Chile". Bulletin of Volcanology. 73 (5): 613–630. doi:10.1007/s00445-010-0428-x. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 67801554.
- ^ "One dead as Chilean volcano spews ash for third day". Uk.reuters.com. 4 May 2008. Archived from the original on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 9 June 2017.
- ^ "Mount Okmok". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ Larsen, Jessica F.; Śliwiński, Maciej G.; Nye, Christopher; Cameron, Cheryl; Schaefer, Janet R. (15 August 2013). "The 2008 eruption of Okmok Volcano, Alaska: Petrological and geochemical constraints on the subsurface magma plumbing system". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 264: 85–106. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2013.07.003. ISSN 0377-0273.
- ^ "Tavurvur". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Reventador". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. 7 August 2017. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
- ^ Ramón, M. Almeida (18 March 2019). "Ecuador's El Reventador Volcano Continually Remakes Itself". Eos. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
- ^ "Indonesia volcano erupts again after killing nine day earlier". France 24. Retrieved 5 November 2024.
- ^ "Volcano erupts in eastern Indonesia, killing 9". South China Morning Post. 4 November 2024. Retrieved 4 November 2024.
- ^ "At least 10 dead after volcano erupts in Indonesia". BBC. Archived from the original on 4 November 2024. Retrieved 4 November 2024.
- ^ "Indonesia's Mount Lewotobi Laki Laki erupts for the second time in a week". Associated Press. Retrieved 7 November 2024.
- ^ "Indonesian volcano spews ash 10 km high, thousands evacuate". Reuters. 8 November 2024.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "Indonesia's Mount Lewotobi erupts again, government to widen restricted zone". Reuters. 9 November 2024.
- ^ "Marapi". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Casualties from Mount Merapi eruption rises to 23". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
- ^ "Popocatepetl". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Popocatépetl volcano (Mexico): one fatality and two injured after being hit by rock during eruption". www.volcanodiscovery.com. Retrieved 25 June 2022.
- ^ "Whakaari". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Stromboli". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Stromboli: One dead as volcano erupts on Italian island". BBC News. 3 July 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
- ^ "Krakatoa". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Number of injured in Indonesia tsunami surges to over 14,000". The Star Online. Asean Plus. Retrieved 31 December 2018.
- ^ "Krakatau volcano news & eruption updates". www.volcanodiscovery.com. Retrieved 24 December 2018.
- ^ "Krakatoa volcano (Sunda Strait, Indonesia): first estimates on the effect of the tsunami-triggering landslide". www.volcanodiscovery.com. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
- ^ "Ambae". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "The Biggest Eruption of 2018 Was Not Where You Think". 27 February 2019.
- ^ "Agung". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Dieng Volcanic Complex". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ Report on Dieng Volcanic Complex (Indonesia) — October 2017. Global Volcanism Program (Report). Smithsonian Institution. doi:10.5479/si.GVP.BGVN201710-263200.
- ^ "Etna". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. 3 September 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
- ^ Balmer, Crispian (16 March 2017). "Volcanic explosion on Mount Etna injures 10 people". Reuters. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
- ^ "Mount Etna: BBC crew caught up in volcano blast". BBC News. 16 March 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
- ^ "Ontake". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Gamalama". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Gamalama Volcano". Volcano Live. John Seach.
- ^ "Pacaya". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Death toll climbs to 3 from Guatemala volcano". CNN. 28 May 2010. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
- ^ "Pacaya Volcano (Guatemala)". Volcano Discovery. 28 May 2010. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
- ^ "Hundreds flee Guatemala volcano". BBC. 28 May 2010. Retrieved 31 May 2010.
- ^ "Jabal al-Tair". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
- ^ "Volcano erupts off Yemen, soldiers killed". Reuters. 1 October 2007. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
- ^ "Raoul Island". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Raoul Island Volcano". Volcano Live. John Seach.
- ^ "Santa Ana". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
- ^ "2 Killed as Volcano Erupts in El Salvador". Los Angeles Times. 2 October 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
- ^ "Bromo". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Javan volcano eruption kills two". BBC News. 8 June 2004. Retrieved 6 May 2014.
- ^ "Global Volcanism Program | Reykjanes". Smithsonian Institution | Global Volcanism Program. Retrieved 6 March 2024.
- ^ "Mauna Loa: Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 1 July 2023.
- ^ "Cumbre Vieja". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ a b "Nyiragongo". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. 8 May 2017. Retrieved 14 June 2017.
- ^ "Kilauea". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Pico do Fogo". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Holuhraun". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "Havre Seamount". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ "El Hierro". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
External links
[edit]- VEI glossary entry from a USGS website
- How to measure the size of a volcanic eruption, from The Guardian
- The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth, a 2004 article from the Bulletin of Volcanology
- List of Large Holocene Eruptions (VEI > 4) from the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program
- VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index) from the Global Volcanism Program of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History