Jump to content

List of German inventions and discoveries

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Part of a series on the
Culture of Germany
History
People
Languages
Traditions
Mythology and folklore
Cuisine
Festivals
Religion
Art
Literature
Music
Media
Sport
Monuments
Symbols

"What the world is today, good and bad, it owes to Gutenberg. Everything can be traced to this source, but we are bound to bring him homage, … for the bad that his colossal invention has brought about is overshadowed a thousand times by the good with which mankind has been favored."

American writer Mark Twain (1835−1910)[1]

German inventions and discoveries are ideas, objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, by Germans. Often, things discovered for the first time are also called inventions and in many cases, there is no clear line between the two.

German-born Albert Einstein, world-famous physicist

Germany has been the home of many famous inventors, discoverers and engineers, including Carl von Linde, who developed the modern refrigerator.[2] Ottomar Anschütz and the Skladanowsky brothers were early pioneers of film technology, while Paul Nipkow and Karl Ferdinand Braun laid the foundation of the television with their Nipkow disk and cathode-ray tube (or Braun tube) respectively.[3][4] Hans Geiger was the creator of the Geiger counter and Konrad Zuse built the first fully automatic digital computer (Z3) and the first commercial computer (Z4).[5][6] Such German inventors, engineers and industrialists as Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin,[7] Otto Lilienthal, Gottlieb Daimler, Rudolf Diesel, Hugo Junkers and Karl Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology, while Karl Drais invented the bicycle.[8] Aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun developed the first space rocket at Peenemünde and later on was a prominent member of NASA and developed the Saturn V Moon rocket. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's work in the domain of electromagnetic radiation was pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication.[9] Karl Ferdinand Braun invented the phased array antenna in 1905,[10] which led to the development of radar, smart antennas and MIMO, and shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Guglielmo Marconi "for their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy".[11] Philipp Reis constructed the first device to transmit a voice via electronic signals and for that the first modern telephone,[12][13] while he also coined the term.[14]

Georgius Agricola gave chemistry its modern name. He is generally referred to as the father of mineralogy and as the founder of geology as a scientific discipline, while Justus von Liebig is considered one of the principal founders of organic chemistry.[15] Otto Hahn is the father of radiochemistry and discovered nuclear fission, the scientific and technological basis for the utilization of atomic energy. Emil Behring, Ferdinand Cohn, Paul Ehrlich, Robert Koch, Friedrich Loeffler and Rudolph Virchow were among the key figures in the creation of modern medicine, while Koch and Cohn were also founders of microbiology.[16]

Johannes Kepler was one of the founders and fathers of modern astronomy, the scientific method, natural and modern science.[17][18][19] Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays.[20] Albert Einstein introduced the special relativity and general relativity theories for light and gravity in 1905 and 1915 respectively. Along with Max Planck, he was instrumental in the creation of modern physics with the introduction of quantum mechanics, in which Werner Heisenberg and Max Born later made major contributions.[21] Einstein, Planck, Heisenberg and Born all received a Nobel Prize for their scientific contributions; from the award's inauguration in 1901 until 1956, Germany led the total Nobel Prize count.[22] Today the country is third with 115 winners.

The movable-type printing press was invented by German blacksmith Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century. In 1997, Time Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium.[23] In 1998, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg as the most influential person of the second millennium on their "Biographies of the Millennium" countdown.[23]

The following is a list of inventions, innovations or discoveries known or generally recognised to be German.

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

Anatomy

Pepsin in complex with pepstatin
Comparison of a normal aged brain (left) and the brain of a person with Alzheimer's (right)

Animals

Hagenbeck with his lions

Archaeology and paleontology

The Berlin Archaeopteryx specimen (A. siemensii)

Arts

The Venus of Hohle Fels
The Bauhaus emblem

Astronomy

Illustration of Kepler's second law
Neptune

Biology and genetics

Three types of cell division
Overview of the citric acid cycle

Chemistry

Illustration of a sugar beet. Achard's findings were the start of the modern sugar industry.
Döbereiner's lamp, often hailed as the first lighter
The Haber process is fundamental in creating fertiliser.
The bottom half of a glass Petri dish
GSI's linear particle accelerator UNILAC, where hassium was discovered

Clothing and cosmetics

A pair of jeans

Computing

Gottfried Leibniz created the modern binary numeral system.
Konrad Zuse is regarded as the inventor of the (modern) computer.

Construction, architecture and shops

Werner von Siemens invented the first electric elevator.
Electric chainsaw

Cuisine

See also: German cuisine
Black Forest cake
Currywurst
Gummy bears were first created by Haribo.
Hamburger with French fries and a beer
A glass of Bitburger, a German-style Pilsner. The Pilsner was invented by Bavarian Josef Groll.
Hot dog
Jägerschnitzel with fettuccine
The German döner kebap

Education, language and printing

Recreated Gutenberg press
Lithograph of Alois Senefelder

Entertainment, electronics and media

The Nipkow disk laid the foundation for the television.
A cathode-ray tube as found in an oscilloscope
A SMS shown on a mobile phone

Geography, geology and mining

Map of Pangaea

Household and office appliance

Justus von Liebig invented the modern mirror.
Food and drinks into a refrigerator

Mathematics

Illustration the intersection of two sets (set theory)

Medicine and drugs

Friedrich Sertürner was the first to isolate morphine.
Lines of cocaine prepared for insufflation
A pair of contact lenses
Aspirin was invented by Bayer.
Advertisement for Bayer Heroin
The first human EEG recording obtained by Hans Berger in 1924

Military and weapons

German flamethrowers during World War I (1917)
MP 18
Jerrycans
Replica of the V-2 rocket

Musical instruments

Tuba
Emile Berliner with his disc record gramophone

Physics and scientific instruments

Heinrich Hertz laid the foundation of modern telecommunications with his discoveries.
The first "medical" X-ray, by Wilhelm Röntgen (1895)
Max Planck is considered the father of the quantum theory.
Sculpture of Einstein's 1905 E = mc2 formula at the 2006 Walk of Ideas, Berlin
Geiger-Müller counter
Electron microscope constructed by Ernst Ruska in 1933; two years after his first prototype
Induced nuclear fission reaction

Sociology, philosophy and politics

Karl Marx (left) and Friedrich Engels (right)
Otto von Bismarck created the first modern welfare state worldwide.

Religion, ethics and festivities

Martin Luther
Christmas tree

Sport

See also: Category:Sports originating in Germany
A handball game in progress
The first Olympic torch relay finished in Berlin (1936)

Tourism and recreation

Prinzessin Victoria Luise

Toys and games

A replica Steiff model of the 55PB
Magnavox Odyssey

Transportation

Original Laufmaschine of 1817; the first bicycle
Benz Patent-Motorwagen
A Reitwagen replica at the Mercedes-Benz Museum
Otto Lilienthal testing one of his gliders (1895)
The Daimler Motor-Lastwagen was the world's first truck.

See also

References

  1. ^ Childress, Diana (2008). Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press. Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-7613-4024-9.
  2. ^ a b "Carl von Linde". Science History Institute. 1 June 2016. Archived from the original on 14 October 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
  3. ^ a b Bellis, Mary (6 April 2017). "Television History - Paul Nipkow". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 16 October 2019. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  4. ^ "Pioneers' Page". International Telecommunication Union.
  5. ^ Bianchi, Luigi. "The Great Electromechanical Computers". York University. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
  6. ^ a b Kaisler, Stephen H. (2016). Birthing the Computer: From Relays to Vacuum Tubes. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 9781443896313.
  7. ^ "The Zeppelin". U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 7 May 2015.
  8. ^ Hanlon, Sheila. "200 years since the father of the bicycle Baron Karl von Drais invented the 'running machine'". Archived from the original on 2017-07-05. Retrieved 2024-05-27.
  9. ^ "Historical figures in telecommunications". International Telecommunication Union. 14 January 2004. Archived from the original on 25 April 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
  10. ^ Heald, George; McKean, John; Pizzo, Roberto (2018). Low Frequency Radio Astronomy and the LOFAR Observatory. Springer. p. 5. ISBN 9783319234342.
  11. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1909". NobelPrize.org. 2023. Archived from the original on 31 July 2023. Retrieved 31 July 2023.
  12. ^ Coe, Lewis (2006). The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History. McFarland. pp. 16–24. ISBN 9780786426096.
  13. ^ a b c Turner, Gerard L'Estrange; Weston, Margaret (1983). Nineteenth-century Scientific Instruments. University of California Press. p. 140. ISBN 9780520051607.
  14. ^ "Ueber Telephonie durch den galvanischen Strom. In: Jahres-Bericht des physikalischen Vereins zu Frankfurt am Main für das Rechnungsjahr 1860-1861, pp. 57-64 by Johann Philipp REIS on Milestones of Science Books". Archived from the original on 2024-01-14. Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  15. ^ Jackson, Catherine Mary (December 2008). Analysis and Synthesis in Nineteenth-Century Organic Chemistry (PDF) (PhD). University of London. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
  16. ^ Weindling, Paul (1986). "Medicine and Modernization: The Social History of German Health and Medicine". History of Science. 24 (3): 277–301. doi:10.1177/007327538602400302. S2CID 160121976. Archived from the original on 2024-01-27. Retrieved 2024-01-27.
  17. ^ "Johannes Kepler's 450th birthday". dpma.de. 7 March 2024. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
  18. ^ "Johannes Kepler: His Life, His Laws and Times | NASA". Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2023.
  19. ^ Davidson, Michael W. (13 November 2015). "Johannes Kepler". Florida State University. Archived from the original on 2 March 2024. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
  20. ^ "The First Nobel Prize". Deutsche Welle. 8 September 2010. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
  21. ^ Roberts, J. M. (2002). The New Penguin History of the World. Allen Lane. p. 1014. ISBN 978-0-7139-9611-1.
  22. ^ Schmidhuber, Jürgen (14 September 2010). "Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th Century". IDSIA. Archived from the original on 30 March 2024. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
  23. ^ a b c "Die Gutenbergstadt Mainz". Gutenberg.de. 10 March 2010. Archived from the original on 2010-03-10. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  24. ^ "Johann Georg Wirsung". www.whonamedit.com. Archived from the original on 15 December 2008. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  25. ^ Lerch, MM; Domschke, W (2000). "Abraham Vater of the ampulla (papilla) of Vater". Gastroenterology. 118 (2): 379. doi:10.1016/s0016-5085(00)70243-5. PMID 10691372. Archived from the original on 2024-05-07. Retrieved 2024-07-04.
  26. ^ "Johann Nathanael Lieberkühn". www.whonamedit.com. Archived from the original on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  27. ^ "Leopold Auerbach". www.whonamedit.com. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  28. ^ Meissner, G. (1857). "Über die Nerven der Darmwand". Zeitschrift für rationelle Medizin. 8: 364–366.
  29. ^ Karenberg, Axel (26 October 2000). "Chapter 7. The Schwann cell". In Koehler, Peter J.; Bruyn, George W.; Pearce, John M. S. (eds.). Neurological eponyms. Oxford University Press. pp. 44–50. ISBN 9780195133660. Archived from the original on 3 February 2024. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  30. ^ Asimov, Isaac (1980). A short history of biology. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 95. ISBN 9780313225833.
  31. ^ "History of polio". BBC News. 25 September 2015. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  32. ^ Meissner, G.; Wagner, R. (February 1852). "Ueber das Vorhandensein bisher unbekannter eigenthümlicher Tastkörperchen (Corpuscula tactus) in den Gefühlswärzchen der mensclichen Haut und über die Endausbreitung sensitiver Nerven". Nachrichten von der Georg-Augusts-Universität und der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. 2: 17–30.
  33. ^ Langerhans, P. (1868). "Ueber die Nerven der menschlichen Haut". Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medicin. 44 (2–3): 325–337. doi:10.1007/BF01959006. S2CID 6282875. Archived from the original on 2022-10-06. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  34. ^ Sakula, A. (July 1988). "Paul Langerhans (1847–1888): a centenary tribute". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 81 (7): 414–5. doi:10.1177/014107688808100718. PMC 1291675. PMID 3045317.
  35. ^ Merkel, F. S. (1875). "Tastzellen und Tastkörperchen bei den Hausthieren und beim Menschen". Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie. 11: 636–652. doi:10.1007/BF02933819. S2CID 83793552. Archived from the original on 2021-03-08. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  36. ^ Jarnagin, William R; Belghiti, J; Blumgart, LH (2012). Blumgart's surgery of the liver, biliary tract, and pancreas (5th ed.). Elsevier Saunders. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4557-4606-4.
  37. ^ Berchtold, N. C.; Cotman, C. W. (1998). "Evolution in the conceptualization of dementia and Alzheimer's disease: Greco-Roman period to the 1960s". Neurobiology of Aging. 19 (3): 173–89. doi:10.1016/S0197-4580(98)00052-9. PMID 9661992. S2CID 24808582.
  38. ^ Payne, Joan C. (2014). Adult Neurogenic Language Disorders. Plural Publishing. p. 68. ISBN 9781597569262.
  39. ^ "Gunther von Hagens: Under the skin of Doctor Death". The Independent. 30 October 2007. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  40. ^ Rothfels, Nigel (2008). Savages and Beasts: The Birth of the Modern Zoo (Animals, History, Culture). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0801889752.
  41. ^ "International Guide Dog Federation - History". www.igdf.org.uk. Archived from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  42. ^ Witton, Mark P. (2013). Pterosaurs: Natural History, Evolution, Anatomy. Princeton University Press. p. 123. ISBN 9781400847655.
  43. ^ von Meyer, C. E. H. (1837). "Mitteilung an Prof. Bronn (Plateosaurus engelhardti)". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie. 1837: 316.
  44. ^ King, W. (1864). "The Reputed Fossil Man of the Neanderthal" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of Science. 1: 88–97.
  45. ^ Drell, J. R. R. (2002). "Neanderthals: a history of interpretation". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 19: 1–24. doi:10.1111/1468-0092.00096.
  46. ^ von Meyer, C. E. H. (1861). "Reptilien aus dem Stubensandstein des oberen Keupers". Palaeontographica. 7: 253–346.
  47. ^ Meyer, Hermann von (15 August 1861). "Vogel-Federn und Palpipes priscus von Solenhofen" [Bird feathers and Palpipes priscus [a crustacean] from Solenhofen]. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie und Petrefaktenkunde (in German): 561. "Aus dem lithographischen Schiefer der Brüche von Solenhofen in Bayern ist mir in den beiden Gegenplatten eine auf der Ablösungs- oder Spaltungs-Fläche des Gesteins liegende Versteinerung mitgetheilt worden, die mit grosser Deutlichkeit eine Feder erkennen lässt, welche von den Vogel-Federn nicht zu unterscheiden ist." (From the lithographic slates of the faults of Solenhofen in Bavaria, there has been reported to me a fossil lying on the stone's surface of detachment or cleavage, in both opposing slabs, which can be recognized with great clarity [to be] a feather, which is indistinguishable from a bird's feather.)
  48. ^ Schuchhardt, Carl (1891). Schliemann's Ausgrabungen in Troja, Tiryns, Mykenae, Orchomenos, Ithaka im Lichte der heutigen Wissenschaft. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus.
  49. ^ Körte, A.; Körte, G. (1904). Gordion: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabung im Jahre 1900. Berlin: Verlag Georg Reimer.
  50. ^ Elborough, Travis (2019). Atlas of Vanishing Places: The lost worlds as they were and as they are today. White Lion Publishing. p. 19. ISBN 9781781318959.
  51. ^ Schoetensack, Otto (1908). Der Unterkiefer des Homo heidelbergensis aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg. Ein Beitrag zur Paläontologie des Menschen. Leipzig: Verlag Wilhelm Engelmann.
  52. ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (6 December 2012). "The Bust of Nefertiti: Remembering Ancient Egypt's Famous Queen". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on 7 May 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
  53. ^ Stromer, E. (1915). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 3. Das Original des Theropoden Spinosaurus aegyptiacus nov. gen., nov. spec". Abhandlungen der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-physikalische Klasse. 28: 1–32.
  54. ^ Stromer, E. (1925). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 7. Stomatosuchus inermis Stromer, ein schwach bezahnter Krokodilier und 8. Ein Skelettrest des Pristiden Onchopristis numidus Haug sp". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. 30: 1–22.
  55. ^ Stromer, E. (1931). "Wirbeltiere-Reste der Baharijestufe (unterestes Canoman). Ein Skelett-Rest von Carcharodontosaurus nov. gen". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. 9: 1–23.
  56. ^ Stromer, E. (1932). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltierreste der Baharîje-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 11. Sauropoda". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. Neue Folge. 10: 1–21.
  57. ^ Stromer, E. (1934). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman)." 13. Dinosauria". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung n.f. 22: 1–79.
  58. ^ Squires, Nick (29 September 2008). "Oetzi The Iceman's discoverers finally compensated". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on 2 October 2008. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  59. ^ "Ice Age Lion Man a world's earliest figurative sculpture". The Art Newspaper. 31 January 2013. Archived from the original on 15 February 2015.
  60. ^ Archäologie erleben - Mission Eiszeit | SWR Geschichte & Entdeckungen, 28 March 2018, archived from the original on 2024-07-06, retrieved 2024-02-16
  61. ^ ""It must be a woman" - The female depictions from Hohle Fels date to 40,000 years ago..." Universität Tübingen. July 22, 2016. Archived from the original on October 11, 2016. Retrieved July 26, 2016.
  62. ^ "Explaining the Drypoint Etching". Widewalls. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  63. ^ Hofmann, Georg Rainer (May 1990). "Who invented ray tracing?". The Visual Computer. 6 (3): 120–124. doi:10.1007/BF01911003. S2CID 26348610.
  64. ^ The Discovery of European Porcelain Technology Archived 2019-12-17 at the Wayback Machine by C.M. Queiroz & S. Agathopoulos, 2005.
  65. ^ Goethe's Theory of Colours: Translated from the German; with Notes by Charles Lock Eastlake, R.A., F.R.S. London: John Murray. 1840. Archived from the original on 12 December 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2017 – via Internet Archive.
  66. ^ a b Woodcroft, Bennet (1865). Alphabetical Index of Patentees and Applicants for Patents of Invention for the Year 1864. Printed and Published by Order at the Commissioners of Patents, Under the Act of 15 & 16 Victoriae, Cap. 83. Sec. XXXII. Holborn: Office Of The Commissioners Of Patents For Inventions. pp. 204, 208.
  67. ^ a b Woodcroft, Bennet (1865). Chronological Index of Patents Applied for and Patents Granted for the Year 1864. Printed and Published by Order of the Commissioners of Patents, Under the Act of 15 & 16 VICTORIAE, Cap. 83. Sec. XXXII. Holborn: Office of the Commissioners of Patents for Inventions. p. 161.
  68. ^ "Expressionism Movement Overview". The Art Story. Archived from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  69. ^ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 319.
  70. ^ "Theories of the world from antiquity to the Copernican revolution". Choice Reviews Online. 28 (8): 28–4513-28-4513. 1991-04-01. doi:10.5860/choice.28-4513. ISSN 0009-4978. Archived from the original on 2024-07-06. Retrieved 2024-01-06.
  71. ^ Holton, Gerald James; Brush, Stephen G. (2001). Physics, the Human Adventure: From Copernicus to Einstein and Beyond (3rd paperback ed.). Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN 978-0-8135-2908-0. Archived from the original on July 6, 2024. Retrieved December 27, 2009.
  72. ^ "240 Years Ago: Astronomer William Herschel Identifies Uranus as the Seventh Planet". science.nasa.gov. NASA. 15 March 2021. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  73. ^ Hamilton, Calvin J. (4 August 2001). "Neptune". Views of the Solar System. Archived from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  74. ^ Steinhagen, Hans (2005). Der Wettermann - Leben und Werk Richard Aßmanns. Neuenhagen: Findling. ISBN 978-3-933603-33-3.
  75. ^ Hörandel, J. R. (4 December 2012). "Early Cosmic-Ray Work Published in German". AIP Conference Proceedings. 1516: 52–60. arXiv:1212.0706. doi:10.1063/1.4792540. S2CID 73534390.
  76. ^ Schwarzschild, K. (1916). "Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie". Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 7: 189–196. Bibcode:1916SPAW.......189S.
  77. ^ Schwarzschild, K. (1916). "Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flussigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie". Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Klasse für Mathematik, Physik, und Technik: 424. Bibcode:1916skpa.conf..424S.
  78. ^ Fritz, Marc A.; Speroff, Leon (2005). Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 325. ISBN 9780781747950.
  79. ^ Mayr, Ernst (1994). "Recapitulation Reinterpreted: The Somatic Program". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 69 (2): 223–232. doi:10.1086/418541. S2CID 84670449.
  80. ^ Böhme, H. (1999). "Ästhetische Wissenschaft". Matices: 37–41.
  81. ^ McCarthy, Eugene M. "Humboldt Penguin - Online Biology Dictionary". www.macroevolution.net. Archived from the original on 16 January 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  82. ^ Rogers, Kara (2011). The Cell. Britannica Educational Pub. p. 172. ISBN 978-1615303144.
  83. ^ von Mohl, Hugo (1835). Ueber die Vermehrung der Pflanzenzellen durch Theilung. Tübingen: Fues.
  84. ^ Sharp, L. W. (1921). Introduction To Cytology. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company Inc.
  85. ^ Hünefeld F.L. (1840). "Die Chemismus in der thierischen Organization". Leipzig.
  86. ^ Levitt, Theresa (2009). The Shadow of Enlightenment: Optical and Political Transparency in France, 1789-1848. Oxford University Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-19-954470-7.
  87. ^ Svedelius, N. (1927). "Alternation of Generations in Relation to Reduction Division". Botanical Gazette. 83 (4): 362–384. doi:10.1086/333745. S2CID 84406292.
  88. ^ Ruvinsky, Anatoly (2009). Genetics and Randomness. CRC Press. p. 93. ISBN 9781420078879.
  89. ^ Beaton, Alan (2004). Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research. Psychology Press. p. 3. ISBN 9781135422752.
  90. ^ "Robert Koch (1843-1910)". broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2018-01-12. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  91. ^ "SEEKS LIFE'S SECRET IN STUDY OF CELLS; Prof. Albrecht Kossel of Heidelberg Comes to Lecture at Johns Hopkins University". The New York Times. 27 August 1911. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 11 November 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  92. ^ Ebbinghaus, Hermann (1885). Über das Gedächtnis. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot.
  93. ^ Boveri, Theodor (1888). Zellen-Studien II: Die Befruchtung und Teilung des Eies von Ascaris megalocephala. Jena: Gustav Fischer Verlag.
  94. ^ Altmann, Richard (1890). Die Elementarorganismen und ihre Beziehungen zu den Zellen. Leipzig: Veit.
  95. ^ Weismann, August (1892). Das Keimplasma: eine Theorie der Vererbung. Jena: Fischer.
  96. ^ Stern, Curt (1962). "Wilhelm Weinberg". Genetics. 47: 1–5.
  97. ^ Speert, Harold (1973). Iconographia Gyniatrica. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis. ISBN 978-0-8036-8070-8.
  98. ^ De Robertis, EM (April 2006). "Spemann's organizer and self-regulation in amphibian embryos". Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology. 7 (4): 296–302. doi:10.1038/nrm1855. PMC 2464568. PMID 16482093.
  99. ^ Bailey, L. E.; Ong, S. D. (1978). "Krebs–Henseleit solution as a physiological buffer in perfused and superfused preparations". Journal of Pharmacological Methods. 1 (2): 171–175. doi:10.1016/0160-5402(78)90022-0.
  100. ^ Krebs, H. A.; Johnson, W. A. (April 1937). "Metabolism of ketonic acids in animal tissues". The Biochemical Journal. 31 (4): 645–660. doi:10.1042/bj0310645. PMC 1266984. PMID 16746382.
  101. ^ Jaenisch, R.; Mintz, B. (April 1974). "Simian Virus 40 DNA Sequences in DNA of Healthy Adult Mice Derived from Preimplantation Blastocysts Injected with Viral DNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 71 (4): 1250–1254. Bibcode:1974PNAS...71.1250J. doi:10.1073/pnas.71.4.1250. PMC 388203. PMID 4364530.
  102. ^ "Vertical gardens that 'eat' air pollution and how Hong Kong could use them". South China Morning Post. 2016-09-07. Archived from the original on 2024-07-06. Retrieved 2024-01-02.
  103. ^ Szydlo, Zbigniew (1994). Water which does not wet hands: The Alchemy of Michael Sendivogius. London–Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-8386062454.
  104. ^ Beatty, Richard (2000). Phosphorus. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 7. ISBN 0-7614-0946-7.
  105. ^ Jens Bartoll. "The early use of prussian blue in paintings" (PDF). 9th International Conference on NDT of Art, Jerusalem Israel, 25–30 May 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2009-09-20. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
  106. ^ Susan Watt (2003). Silver. Marshall Cavendish. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-7614-1464-3. ... But the first person to use this property to produce a photographic image was German physicist Johann Heinrich Schulze. In 1727, Schulze made a paste of silver nitrate and chalk, placed the mixture in a glass bottle, and wrapped the bottle in ...
  107. ^ Litchfield, Richard Buckley (1903). Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer, etc., London, Duckworth and Co. Out of copyright and available free at archive.org. In Appendix A (pp. 217–227), Litchfield evaluates assertions that Schulze's experiments should be called photography and includes a complete English translation (from the original Latin) of Schulze's 1719 account of them as reprinted in 1727.
  108. ^ Balmer, Robert T. (2010). Modern Engineering Thermodynamics. Academic Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-12-374996-3.
  109. ^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1933). The Discovery of the Elements. Easton, Pennsylvania: Journal of Chemical Education. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-7661-3872-8.
  110. ^ Lepora, Nathan (2007). Molybdenum. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 11. ISBN 9780761422013.
  111. ^ "Oxygen". www.rsc.org. Archived from the original on 5 November 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  112. ^ Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks: An A to Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 476–482. ISBN 978-0-19-850340-8.
  113. ^ Krebs, Robert E. (1998). The History and Use of our Earth's Chemical Elements. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 98–100. ISBN 978-0-313-30123-0.
  114. ^ Kent, James A. (2007). Kent and Riegel's Handbook of Industrial Chemistry and Biotechnology. Springer. p. 1658. ISBN 978-0387278421.
  115. ^ Draycott, A. Philip, ed. (2008). Sugar Beet. Wiley. pp. 11–12. ISBN 9781405173360.
  116. ^ Dunglison, Robley (1838). Dunglison's American medical library. A. Waldie. p. 192.
  117. ^ Hermann, C. S. (1818). "Noch ein schreiben über das neue Metall". Annalen der Physik. 59 (5): 113–116. Bibcode:1818AnP....59..113H. doi:10.1002/andp.18180590511.
  118. ^ "Oechsle, Christian Ferdinand (1774-1852) (in German)". Gesellschaft für Geschichte des Weines e.V. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  119. ^ Hoffmann, Roald (August 1998). "Döbereiner's Feuerzeug". American Scientist. 86. doi:10.1511/1998.4.326.
  120. ^ Schorlemmer, C. (1885). "The history of creosote, cedriret, and pittacal". Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. 4: 152–157.
  121. ^ Henningfield, J. E.; Zeller, M. (March 2006). "Nicotine psychopharmacology research contributions to United States and global tobacco regulation: a look back and a look forward". Psychopharmacology. 184 (3–4): 286–291. doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0308-4. PMID 16463054. S2CID 38290573.
  122. ^ Pinner, A. (1893). "Ueber Nicotin. Die Constitution des Alkaloïds". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft. 26: 292–305. doi:10.1002/cber.18930260165. Archived from the original on 2020-08-04. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  123. ^ Wöhler, F. (1828). "Ueber künstliche Bildung des Harnstoffs". Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 88 (2): 253–256. Bibcode:1828AnP....88..253W. doi:10.1002/andp.18280880206. Archived from the original on 2019-05-10. Retrieved 2019-12-17 – via Gallica.
  124. ^ Asinger, F. (2016). Paraffins: Chemistry and Technology. Elsevier. p. 734. ISBN 9781483146621.
  125. ^ Graham, Thomas (2015). Elements of Chemistry: Including the Applications of the Science in the Arts. Palala Press. ISBN 978-1341237980.
  126. ^ Handbook on Textile Auxiliaries, Dyes and Dye Intermediates Technology. National Institute of Industrial Research. 2009. p. 82. ISBN 978-8178331225.
  127. ^ F. F. Runge (1834) "Ueber einige Produkte der Steinkohlendestillation" Archived 2021-03-03 at the Wayback Machine (On some products of coal distillation), Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 31 : 65-78. On page 69 of volume 31, Runge names phenol "Karbolsäure" (coal-oil-acid, carbolic acid). Runge characterizes phenol in: F. F. Runge (1834) "Ueber einige Produkte der Steinkohlendestillation," Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 32 : 308-328.
  128. ^ Klebs, Florian (December 17, 2001). "Deutschland - Wiege des Nobelpreis: Tourismus-Industrie und Forschung auf den Spuren Alfred Nobels" (in German). Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. Archived from the original on November 17, 2002. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
  129. ^ Bührke, Thomas; Wengenmayr, Roland (2013). Renewable Energy: Sustainable Energy Concepts for the Energy Change. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9783527671366.
  130. ^ Rubin, Mordecai B. (2001). "The History of Ozone: The Schönbein Period, 1839–1868" (PDF). Bull. Hist. Chem. 26 (1): 40–56. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-11. Retrieved 2019-12-22.
  131. ^ Bellis, Mary (24 January 2019). "The Long History of Polystyrene and Styrofoam". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 14 October 2019. Retrieved 6 January 2020.
  132. ^ Horn, Jeff (2016). The Industrial Revolution: History, Documents, and Key Questions. ABC-CLIO. p. 64. ISBN 978-1610698849.
  133. ^ a b Harford, Tim (2 January 2017). "How fertiliser helped feed the world". BBC. Archived from the original on 19 November 2019. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  134. ^ Bown, Stephen R. (2005). A Most Damnable Invention: Dynamite, Nitrates, and the Making of the Modern World Archived 2024-07-06 at the Wayback Machine. Macmillan. ISBN 9781466817050.
  135. ^ Siemens, C. W. (June 1862). "On a regenerative gas furnace, as applied to glasshouses, puddling, heating, etc". Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. 13: 21–26. doi:10.1243/PIME_PROC_1862_013_007_02.
  136. ^ Jensen, W. B. (2005). "The Origin of the Bunsen Burner". Journal of Chemical Education. 82 (4): 518. Bibcode:2005JChEd..82..518J. doi:10.1021/ed082p518.
  137. ^ Walker, Graham (2014). Cryocoolers. Part 1: Fundamentals. Springer. p. 83. ISBN 9781489952868.
  138. ^ Fittig, R. (1859). "Ueber einige Metamorphosen des Acetons der Essigsäure". Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie. 110: 23–45. doi:10.1002/jlac.18591100104.
  139. ^ Kirchhoff, G.; Bunsen, R. (1861). "Chemische Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen" (PDF). Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 189 (7): 337–381. Bibcode:1861AnP...189..337K. doi:10.1002/andp.18611890702. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-12-20. Retrieved 2020-11-15.
  140. ^ Erlenmeyer, E. (January 1860). "Zur chemischen und pharmazeutischen Technik". Zeitschrift für Chemie und Pharmacie. 3: 21–22.
  141. ^ Venetskii, S. (1971). "Indium". Metallurgist. 15 (2): 148–150. doi:10.1007/BF01088126.
  142. ^ Reich, F.; Richter, T. (1864). "Ueber das Indium". Journal für Praktische Chemie (in German). 92 (1): 480–485. doi:10.1002/prac.18640920180.
  143. ^ Schwarz-Schampera, Ulrich; Herzig, Peter M. (2002). Indium: Geology, Mineralogy, and Economics. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-43135-0. Archived from the original on 2024-07-06. Retrieved 2020-11-15.
  144. ^ Wilbrand, J. (1863). "Notiz über Trinitrotoluol". Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. 128 (2): 178–179. doi:10.1002/jlac.18631280206. Archived from the original on 2024-07-06. Retrieved 2020-04-04.
  145. ^ "Barbiturates". Archived from the original on 7 November 2007. Retrieved 31 October 2007.
  146. ^ "Cooperative Research - Formula for Success". BASF. Archived from the original on 31 January 2020. Retrieved 31 January 2020.
  147. ^ Figoni, Paula I. (2010). How Baking Works: Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science. John Wiley & Sons. p. 174. ISBN 9780470392676.
  148. ^ Baumann, E. (1872). "Ueber einige Vinylverbindungen". Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. 163 (3): 308–322. doi:10.1002/jlac.18721630303. hdl:2027/wu.89101101970. Archived from the original on 2024-07-06. Retrieved 2020-11-15.
  149. ^ "This is how PLEXIGLAS® came to be". World of Plexiglas. Archived from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
  150. ^ Tollens, B. (1882). "Ueber ammon-alkalische Silberlösung als Reagens auf Aldehyd" [On an ammonical alkaline silver solution as a reagent for aldehydes]. Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft (in German). 15 (2): 1635–1639. doi:10.1002/cber.18820150243. Archived from the original on 2022-02-19. Retrieved 2019-12-22.
  151. ^ Steudel, R.; West, L. (December 2015). "Carl Friedrich Claus (1827-1900) - inventor of the Claus Process for sulfur production from hydrogen sulfide". ResearchGate. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1712.2644.
  152. ^ Khaghaninejad, Soheila; Heravi, Majid M. (2014). Paal–Knorr Reaction in the Synthesis of Heterocyclic Compounds. Advances in Heterocyclic Chemistry. Vol. 111. pp. 95–146. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-420160-6.00003-3. ISBN 9780124202092.
  153. ^ Winkler, Clemens (1887). "Germanium, Ge, a New Nonmetal Element". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft (in German). 19 (1): 210–211. doi:10.1002/cber.18860190156. Archived from the original on 2008-12-07. Retrieved 2012-02-11.
  154. ^ Yahoo Education:Petri dish Archived 2013-10-22 at the Wayback Machine
  155. ^ Jensen, William B. (September 2006). "The Origins of the Hirsch and Büchner Vacuum Filtration Funnels" (PDF). Journal of Chemical Education. 83 (9): 1283. Bibcode:2006JChEd..83.1283J. doi:10.1021/ed083p1283. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-03-15. Retrieved 2013-06-12.
  156. ^ "Technical Information". Kryolab. Archived from the original on 30 October 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  157. ^ Trimborn, Christel. "Galalith - Jewelry Milk Stone". Ganoksin. Archived from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  158. ^ "Hermann Schnell". Plastics Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  159. ^ von Pechmann, H. (1898). "Ueber Diazomethan und Nitrosoacylamine". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin. 31: 2640–2646.
  160. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1902". The Nobel Prize. Archived from the original on 29 August 2020. Retrieved 26 August 2020.
  161. ^ Tidwell, Thomas T. (2001). "Wilhelm Schlenk: The Man Behind the Flask". Angewandte Chemie. 40 (2): 331–337. doi:10.1002/1521-3773(20010119)40:2<331::AID-ANIE331>3.0.CO;2-E.
  162. ^ GB 190208300 Archived 2019-12-17 at the Wayback Machine, Ostwald, Wilhelm, "Improvements in and relating to the Manufacture of Nitric Acid and Oxides of Nitrogen", published December 18, 1902, issued February 26, 1903
  163. ^ Emmerich, Maren (13 August 2014). "Coffee withdrawal". Max Planck Society. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  164. ^ Thiele, J. (February 1907). "Ein neuer Apparat zur Schmelzpunktsbestimmung". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft. 40: 996–997. doi:10.1002/cber.190704001148. Archived from the original on 2021-12-09. Retrieved 2020-03-11.
  165. ^ Bergius, Friedrich (May 21, 1932). "Chemical reactions under high pressure" (PDF). Nobel Foundation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2007-01-02. Retrieved 2012-02-29.
  166. ^ D. Valentin: Kohleverflüssigung - Chancen und Grenzen, Praxis der Naturwissenschaften, 1/58 (2009), S. 17-19.
  167. ^ Scerri, Eric (2013). A tale of seven elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 67–74. ISBN 978-0-19-539131-2.
  168. ^ Noddack, W.; Tacke, I.; Berg, O. (1925). "Die Ekamangane". Naturwissenschaften. 13 (26): 567–574. Bibcode:1925NW.....13..567.. doi:10.1007/BF01558746. S2CID 32974087.
  169. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1950". Nobel Prize. Archived from the original on 21 May 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  170. ^ Lohmann, K. (August 1929). "Über die Pyrophosphatfraktion im Muskel". Naturwissenschaften. 17 (31): 624–625. Bibcode:1929NW.....17..624.. doi:10.1007/BF01506215. S2CID 20328411.
  171. ^ Gent, Alan N. "The rise of synthetic rubber". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2022-12-20. Retrieved 2024-07-04.
  172. ^ Fischer, K. (1935). "Neues Verfahren zur maßanalytischen Bestimmung des Wassergehaltes von Flüssigkeiten und festen Körpern". Angew. Chem. 48 (26): 394–396. Bibcode:1935AngCh..48..394F. doi:10.1002/ange.19350482605.
  173. ^ DE 728981 Archived 2019-12-17 at the Wayback Machine, IG Farben, published 1937
  174. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1963". Nobel Prize. Archived from the original on 22 June 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  175. ^ Hoffmann, R. W. (2001). "Wittig and His Accomplishments: Still Relevant Beyond His 100th Birthday". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 40 (8): 1411–1416. doi:10.1002/1521-3773(20010417)40:8<1411::AID-ANIE1411>3.0.CO;2-U.
  176. ^ a b Barber, R. C.; Greenwood, N. N.; Hrynkiewicz, A. Z.; Jeannin, Y. P.; Lefort, M.; Sakai, M.; Ulehla, I.; Wapstra, A. P.; Wilkinson, D. H. (1993). "Discovery of the transfermium elements. Part II: Introduction to discovery profiles. Part III: Discovery profiles of the transfermium elements". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 65 (8): 1757. doi:10.1351/pac199365081757. S2CID 195819585.
  177. ^ Münzenberg, G.; Armbruster, P.; Heßberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Poppensieker, K.; Reisdorf, W.; Schneider, J. H. R.; Schneider, W. F. W.; et al. (1982). "Observation of one correlated α-decay in the reaction 58Fe on 209Bi→267109". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 309 (1): 89. Bibcode:1982ZPhyA.309...89M. doi:10.1007/BF01420157. S2CID 120062541.
  178. ^ Karol, P. J.; Nakahara, H.; Petley, B. W.; Vogt, E. (2001). "On the discovery of the elements 110-112 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 73 (6): 959. doi:10.1351/pac200173060959. S2CID 97615948.
  179. ^ Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Heßberger, F. P.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. G.; et al. (1995). "The new element 111". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 350 (4): 281. Bibcode:1995ZPhyA.350..281H. doi:10.1007/BF01291182. S2CID 18804192.
  180. ^ Hofmann, S.; et al. (1996). "The new element 112". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 354 (3): 229–230. doi:10.1007/BF02769517. S2CID 119975957.
  181. ^ Lynn White: "The Act of Invention: Causes, Contexts, Continuities and Consequences", Technology and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 486–500 (497f. & 500)
  182. ^ Möderler, Catrin (13 July 2009). "Original eau de Cologne celebrates 300 years". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  183. ^ A Revolutionist Dies Archived 2024-07-06 at the Wayback Machine. LIFE Magazine. Vol. 30 no. 6. Time Inc. Feb 5, 1951. p. 37. ISSN 0024-3019 Archived 2024-07-06 at the Wayback Machine.
  184. ^ Rähse, Wilfried (2019). Cosmetic Creams: Development, Manufacture and Marketing of Effective Skin Care Products. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 55–56. ISBN 9783527812431.
  185. ^ "Milestones". Beiersdorf. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  186. ^ Chang, Katie (29 March 2012). "Vain Glorious | BB Creams Are Here!". T Magazine. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  187. ^ Leibniz G., Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire, Die Mathematische Schriften, ed. C. Gerhardt, Berlin 1879, vol.7, p.223; Engl. transl.[1] Archived 2021-02-11 at the Wayback Machine
  188. ^ Singh, Simon (2011). The Code Book: The Science of Secrecy from Ancient Egypt to Quantum Cryptography. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-78784-2.
  189. ^ "Rudolf Hell". The Independent. 2002-04-08. Archived from the original on 2018-01-19. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  190. ^ "HELL". www.cryptomuseum.com. Archived from the original on 2017-12-22. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  191. ^ "75 Years of the Z3, World's First Modern Computer". Inverse. Archived from the original on 2018-09-08. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  192. ^ Giloi, W. K. (1997). "Konrad Zuse's Plankalkül: The First High-Level "non von Neumann" Programming Language" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 19 (2): 17–24. doi:10.1109/85.586068. S2CID 8657307. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-01-30.
  193. ^ "Friedrich L. Bauer, inventor of the stack and of the term software engineering". people.idsia.ch. Archived from the original on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 3 November 2019.
  194. ^ Chen, Zhiqun (2000). Java Card Technology for Smart Cards: Architecture and Programmer's Guide. Addison-Wesley Professional. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9780201703290.
  195. ^ "Wilhelm Albert". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 9 April 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  196. ^ Koetsier,Teun; Ceccarelli, Marc (2012). Explorations in the History of Machines and Mechanisms. Springer Publishing. p. 388. ISBN 9789400741324. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  197. ^ Heeney, Gwen (2003). Brickworks. A & C Black Publishers Ltd. p. 35. ISBN 9780812237825.
  198. ^ Bellis, Mary (11 August 2019). "The History of Elevators From Top to Bottom". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  199. ^ Bar-Cohen, Yoseph; Zacny, Kris (2009). Drilling in Extreme Environments: Penetration and Sampling on Earth and other Planets. John Wiley & Sons. p. 5. ISBN 9783527626632.
  200. ^ H. Goldschmidt, "Verfahren zur Herstellung von Metallen oder Metalloiden oder Legierungen derselben" (Process for the production of metals or metalloids or alloys of the same), Deutsche Reichs Patent no. 96317 (13 March 1895).
  201. ^ Thöny, Philip (12 December 2007). "The History of the Chainsaw". Waldwissen. Archived from the original on 19 August 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  202. ^ "History of the Chainsaw - Celebrating 60 Years". Husqvarna. Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
  203. ^ Cramer, Dietmar; Hesse, Daniela (2013). "Die Geschichte des Transportbetons (in German)". Unternehmensgeschichte und Unternehmenskultur. 9: 13.
  204. ^ "Die Spanplatte des Herrn Himmelheber | SWR Fernsehen". swr.online (in German). 9 June 2010. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  205. ^ "History". Flex. Archived from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  206. ^ Schwarzmann, Thomas (2015). "Von der Flex zur Giraffe Erfinder des Winkelschleifers bringen neuen Langhalsschleifer heraus". Bauhandwerk (in German). Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  207. ^ "Artur Fischer's plastic wall plug transforms construction industry". Financial Times. 17 June 2014. Archived from the original on 2018-04-23. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  208. ^ Office, European Patent. "Artur Fischer (Germany)". www.epo.org. Archived from the original on 2018-04-24. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  209. ^ "Uitvinder en pluggenkoning Arthur Fischer overleden". Historiek (in Dutch). 2016-01-29. Archived from the original on 2024-07-06. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  210. ^ Strebe, Amy Goodpaster; Beckman, Trish (2007). Flying for her country: the American and Soviet women military pilots of World War II. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-275-99434-1.
  211. ^ Sleight, Chris (1 October 2013). "Hydraulic breakers turn 50". KHL. Archived from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  212. ^ Piraccini, Stefano; Fabbri, Kristian (2017). Building a Passive House. Springer. p. 28. ISBN 9783319699387.
  213. ^ Hayes, Annie (5 October 2016). "Angostura: a brand history". The Spirits Business. Archived from the original on 30 July 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  214. ^ Smith, Andrew F. (2015). Savoring Gotham: A Food Lover's Companion to New York City. Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0199397020.
  215. ^ Paterson, Tony (15 August 2009). "Spicy sausage that is worthy of a shrine in Berlin". The Independent. Archived from the original on 8 May 2010. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  216. ^ "Dresdner Dominosteine". 2012-11-19. Archived from the original on 2012-11-19. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
  217. ^ "Doner kebab 'inventor' dies at 80". BBC. 26 October 2013. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  218. ^ "Where Did Hamburgers Originate?". Community Table. Archived from the original on 2018-01-19. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  219. ^ "How the Hamburger Became an American Favorite". Time. Archived from the original on 2018-05-04. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  220. ^ "frankfurter | Origin and meaning of frankfurter by Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 2018-01-19. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  221. ^ "History of the Hot Dog: Such a Fantastic German Invention!". The Sausage Man. 2016-11-08. Archived from the original on 2018-01-19. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  222. ^ Greenwood, Veronique (7 December 2022). "Before Beer Became Lager, a Microbe Made a Mysterious Journey". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  223. ^ "Ten things you'll love/hate to know about Marmite". BBC. 25 May 2011. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
  224. ^ Martin, Kathy (2017). Famous Brand Names and Their Origins. Barnsley: Pen and Sword History. p. 21. ISBN 978-1781590157.
  225. ^ Brock, William H. (1997). Justus von Liebig : the chemical gatekeeper. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 218–219. ISBN 9780521562249.
  226. ^ Kik, M. C.; Williams, R. R. (June 1945). "Manual for the Study of Food Habits". Bulletin of the National Research Council. 112: 61.
  227. ^ Weyermann, Sabine (2012-04-06). "On the Trail of Josef Groll – Rediscovering Authentic Bohemian Malt and Beer" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-06. Retrieved 2018-04-25.
  228. ^ "Josef Groll - Vater des Pils" (in German). 2012-04-26. Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved 2018-04-25.
  229. ^ "The History of Pretzels". Today I Found Out. 2013-06-20. Archived from the original on 2018-04-23. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
  230. ^ Price, Freddy (2004). Riesling Renaissance. Mitchell Beazley. pp. 16–18. ISBN 1-84000-777-X.
  231. ^ Fisher, Ben (16 June 2020). "The untold truth of Sprite". Mashed.com. Archived from the original on 5 November 2020. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
  232. ^ "200 Jahre Frankfurter Würstel-Fantasien". Der Standard (in German). 11 November 2005. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2022.
  233. ^ Foer, Joshua (17 December 2012). "Utopian for Beginners". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Archived from the original on 19 July 2014. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
  234. ^ "WAN - Newspapers: 400 Years Young!". 2010-03-10. Archived from the original on 2010-03-10. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
  235. ^ Göttsching, L.; Pakarinen, H. (2000). "Recycled Fiber and Deinking". Papermaking Science and Technology. 7: 12–14.
  236. ^ Meggs, Philip Baxter (1998). A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons. p. 146. ISBN 0-471-29198-6.
  237. ^ Berglar, Peter (1970). Wilhelm von Humboldt. Reinbek: Rowohlt. ISBN 978-3-499-50161-6.
  238. ^ Mund, Heike (22 June 2017). "Knowledge is power: Humboldt's educational vision resonates on 250th birthday". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
  239. ^ Östling, Johan (2018). Humboldt and the modern German university: An intellectual history. Manchester University Press. pp. xiii, 9, 227. ISBN 9789198376821.
  240. ^ Zipes, Jack (2015). "How the Grimm Brothers Saved the Fairy Tale". National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH). Archived from the original on 2 January 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  241. ^ Puckett, Margaret B.; Diffily, Deborah (2004). Teaching Young Children: An Introduction to the Early Childhood Profession. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-1401825836.
  242. ^ Sjöström, E. (1993). Wood Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications. Academic Press. ISBN 9780126474817.
  243. ^ Lafarge, Paul (1 August 2000). "Pük, Memory". The Village Voice. Archived from the original on 16 February 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  244. ^ "Ottmar Mergenthaler". National Inventors Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 20 May 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  245. ^ "Regelung der Funkentelegraphie im Deutschen Reich". Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift: 413–414. 27 April 1905. Archived from the original on 5 January 2021. Retrieved 2 December 2019. The three Morse sequences were: Ruhezeichen (Cease Sending)   ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ , Notzeichen (Distress)   ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ , and Suchzeichen (Calling)   ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ 
  246. ^ "German Regulations for the Control of Spark Telegraphy". The Electrician: 94–95. 5 May 1905. Archived from the original on 5 January 2021. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  247. ^ Edmunds, Francis (2004). An Introduction to Steiner Education: The Waldorf School. Forest Row: Sophia Books. p. 86. ISBN 9781855841727.
  248. ^ Potter, Robert (Fall 1986). "The "Ordo Virtutum": Ancestor of the English Moralities?". Comparative Drama. 20 (3): 201–210. doi:10.1353/cdr.1986.0017. JSTOR 41153244. S2CID 190476018.
  249. ^ Alex Hebra: The Physics of Metrology Archived 2019-04-12 at the Wayback Machine, Springer Science+Business Media, 2010, p. 57. ISBN 9783211783818.
  250. ^ Morrish, J. (2003). Magazine Editing: How to Develop and Manage a Successful Publication (2nd ed., p. 5). London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415303811.
  251. ^ Peddie, Jon (2013). The History of Visual Magic in Computers. Springer. p. 137. ISBN 9781447149323.
  252. ^ "The printed circuit board is the base of modern electronics". rostec.ru. 24 November 2014. Archived from the original on 28 August 2019. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
  253. ^ "Germans, silence and the earplug". BBC News. 4 January 2016. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
  254. ^ DenHoed, Andrea (14 April 2018). "The Turn-of-the-Century Pigeons That Photographed Earth from Above". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Archived from the original on 2 January 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  255. ^ "The Story of Oskar Barnack, Inventor of the Original Leica". PetaPixel. 2017-02-15. Archived from the original on 2018-01-19. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  256. ^ "1935: Audio recorder uses low-cost magnetic tape". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on 2024-05-01. Retrieved 2024-07-04.
  257. ^ "1935 AEG Magnetophon Tape Recorder". 2013-02-08. Archived from the original on 2013-02-08. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  258. ^ "Magnetic Recording History Pictures". 2008-05-09. Archived from the original on 2008-05-09. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  259. ^ "22.3.1935: Erstes Fernsehprogramm der Welt". www.kalenderblatt.de (in German). Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 2015-09-30. Retrieved 2018-05-20.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  260. ^ "Es begann in der Fernsehstube: TV wird 80 Jahre alt". computerbild.de (in German). Archived from the original on 2019-01-21. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
  261. ^ Williams, J.B. (2017). The Electronics Revolution. Springer. p. 97. ISBN 9783319490885.
  262. ^ Benoit, Herve (1999). Satellite Television: Analogue and Digital Reception Techniques. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 60. ISBN 9780340741085.
  263. ^ "Biophysics Prize Awarded to W. Helfrich and C. Bustamante". www.chemistryviews.org. 12 December 2012. Archived from the original on 2018-05-21. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
  264. ^ Simonot-Lion, Francoise; Navet, Nicolas (2017). Automotive Embedded Systems Handbook. CRC Press. p. 132. ISBN 9780849380273.
  265. ^ Ullrich, Klaus (1 December 2017). "Happy Birthday: 25 Years of SMS". DW.com. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
  266. ^ Großelohmann, Reinhold; Schmallenberg, Ingrid (25 December 2017). "Gebürtiger Sichtigvorer Friedhelm Hillebrand einer der maßgeblichen Erfinder der SMS" [Sichtigvor-born Friedhelm Hillebrand is one of the main inventors of the SMS]. Soester Anzeiger (in German). Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
  267. ^ "2014 Inductee: Karlheinz Brandenburg". Internet Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on 2024-06-18. Retrieved 2024-07-04.
  268. ^ "1990 - Uhrenfabrik Junghans". www.junghans.de. Archived from the original on 12 November 2019. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  269. ^ Svetlik, Joe (10 July 2018). "Who invented the SIM card? Discover the origins of this miracle device". BT. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
  270. ^ Winckler, Lars (19 October 2006). "Warum der YouTube-Gründer Deutschland verließ". Die Welt (in German). Archived from the original on 2 January 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  271. ^ "The History of LiFi". LiFi.co. Archived from the original on 8 February 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2022.
  272. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mohs, Friedrich" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 650; lines 4 and 5. ..His great work was the Grundriss der Mineralogie (Eng. trans. Treatise on Mineralogy
  273. ^ Hannavy, John (2013). Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography. Routledge. p. 1459. ISBN 9781135873264.
  274. ^ Means, Tiffany (15 February 2019). "What are the World's Major Climate Types?". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 14 October 2019. Retrieved 6 January 2020.
  275. ^ Geiger, Rudolf (1954). "Klassifikation der Klimate nach W. Köppen" [Classification of climates after W. Köppen]. Landolt-Börnstein – Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik, Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik und Technik, alte Serie. Vol. 3. Berlin: Springer. pp. 603–607.
  276. ^ Wegener, A. (January 1912). "Die Herausbildung der Grossformen der Erdrinde (Kontinente und Ozeane), auf geophysikalischer Grundlage". Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen. 63: 185–195, 253–256, 305–309.
  277. ^ Goodall, Brian (1987). The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0140510959.
  278. ^ Gutenberg, B.; Richter, C. F. (February 1936). "Discussion: Magnitude and energy of earthquakes". Science. 83 (2147): 183–185. doi:10.1126/science.83.2147.183. PMID 17770563. Archived from the original on 2024-07-06. Retrieved 2020-11-15.
  279. ^ Castro, Joseph (28 March 2013). "Who Invented the Mirror?". livescience.com. Archived from the original on 5 December 2019. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
  280. ^ Liebig, Justus (1856). "Ueber Versilberung und Vergoldung von Glas". Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. 98: 132–139. doi:10.1002/jlac.18560980112. Archived from the original on 2021-06-18. Retrieved 2020-11-15.
  281. ^ Schmidt-Bachem, Heinz (2011). Aus Papier: eine Kultur- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Papier verarbeitenden Industrie in Deutschland. Walter de Gruyter. p. 722. ISBN 9783110236071.
  282. ^ Flynn, Thomas (2004). Cryogenic Engineering, Revised and Expanded. CRC Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-8126504985.
  283. ^ Gurstelle, William (2011). Practical Pyromaniac: Build Fire Tornadoes, One-Candlepower Engines, Great Balls of Fire, and More Incendiary Devices. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-1569767108.
  284. ^ Winston, Robert (2013). Science Year by Year: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Discoveries That Changed the World. London: DK. p. 215. ISBN 978-1409316138.
  285. ^ Meece, Mickey (10 November 2007). "Telling Mattress Users a Lot Has Changed Since 1871". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  286. ^ Wise, Pete; Shah, Abha (3 February 2021). "Best mattresses 2021: memory foam, pocket sprung and hybrid reviewed". Evening Standard. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  287. ^ Bellis, Mary (16 September 2018). "The History of the Paper Punch". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 14 November 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  288. ^ Lisador, Charlotte (12 October 2015). "Das Maß aller Dinge". www.evangelisch.de (in German). Archived from the original on 28 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  289. ^ "Revolutionary Wound Care". Beiersdorf. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  290. ^ "Back in time - History of Hygiene - Detergent". www.hygieneforhealth.org.au. Archived from the original on 2018-03-31. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
  291. ^ Bellis, Mary (7 April 2017). "This is the History of How We Brew Coffee". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 3 June 2020. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
  292. ^ "Heimatmuseum zeigt mehr als hundert Jahre Lichtenberger Industriegeschichte: Der Eierschneider war ein Welterfolg". Berliner Zeitung (in German). 23 April 1997. Archived from the original on 15 January 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  293. ^ "Iconic Designs: Teabag". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 15 June 2019. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  294. ^ Troy, Catherine (24 March 2006). "Little wonders". Irish Independent. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  295. ^ "Peter Schlumbohm". lemelson.mit.edu. Archived from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
  296. ^ Weller, Chris (5 January 2017). "9 of the strangest prototypes for everyday products". Yahoo. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
  297. ^ Bessant, John R.; Tidd, Joe (2018). Entrepreneurship. Wiley. p. 26. ISBN 9781119221869.
  298. ^ Cajori, Florian (2007). A History of Mathematical Notations. Cosimo. ISBN 978-1-60206-684-7.
  299. ^ Eves, Howard Whitley (1992). An introduction to the history of mathematics: with cultural connections. The Saunders series (6th ed.). Saunders. ISBN 978-0-03-029558-4.
  300. ^ Ifrah, Georges; Durán, Antonio J.; Mackaoui, Sean; Manguel, Alberto; Pintado, Natalia; Pagola, Javier; Ifrah, Georges (2006). The Life of Numbers. Biblioteca Nacional de España. Biblioteca Nacional de España. ISBN 978-84-86882-14-3.
  301. ^ "On the Six-Cornered Snowflake". Kepler's Discovery. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020.
  302. ^ "Wilhelm Schickard invented a calculating machine, - Computing History". www.computinghistory.org.uk. Archived from the original on 25 February 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
  303. ^ "Things that Count - Early Evolution of the Modern Calculator". metastudies.net. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
  304. ^ Boyer, Carl B. (1959). The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development. New York: Dover. OCLC 643872.
  305. ^ Katz, Victor J. (1993). A History of Mathematics / An Introduction. Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 978-0-321-01618-8.
  306. ^ Edwards, Charles Henry (1994). The historical development of the calculus. Springer. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-387-94313-8.
  307. ^ Aldrich, John. "Earliest Uses of Symbols of Calculus". Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  308. ^ Oscar Sheynin, History of Statistics, Berlin: NG Verlag Berlin, 2012, p. 81.
  309. ^ Lauritzen, Niels (2013). Undergraduate Convexity: From Fourier and Motzkin to Kuhn and Tucker. World Scientific Publishing Company. p. 3. ISBN 978-9814452762.
  310. ^ Bessel, F. (1824). "Untersuchung des Theils der planetarischen Störungen". Berlin Abhandlungen.
  311. ^ Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1828). Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas. Göttingen: Typis Dieterichianis.
  312. ^ Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1900). Allgemeine Flächentheorie. Leipzig: W. Engelmann.
  313. ^ Apostol, Tom M. (1976). Introduction to analytic number theory. New York-Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 7. ISBN 978-0-387-90163-3.
  314. ^ Berger, Marcel (2000), Riemannian Geometry During the Second Half of the Twentieth Century, University Lecture Series, vol. 17, Rhode Island: American Mathematical Society, ISBN 0-8218-2052-4.
  315. ^ "Ueber die Anzahl der Primzahlen unter einer gegebenen Grösse". www.maths.tcd.ie. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  316. ^ Cantor, Georg (1874). "Ueber eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller reellen algebraischen Zahlen". Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik. 1874 (77): 258–262. doi:10.1515/crll.1874.77.258. S2CID 199545885.
  317. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Klein Bottle". MathWorld. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  318. ^ Ewald, William B. (1996). From Immanuel Kant to David Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 920–922. ISBN 0-19-850536-1.
  319. ^ Hinkis, Arie (2013). Proofs of the Cantor-Bernstein theorem. A mathematical excursion. Heidelberg: Birkhäuser/Springer. ISBN 978-3-0348-0223-9.
  320. ^ Kutta, Martin (1901). "Beitrag zur näherungsweisen Integration totaler Differentialgleichungen". Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik. 46: 435–453.
  321. ^ Runge, Carl David Tolmé (1895). "Über die numerische Auflösung von Differentialgleichungen". Mathematische Annalen. 46 (2): 167–178. doi:10.1007/BF01446807. S2CID 119924854.
  322. ^ Brüning, Erwin; Blanchard, Philippe (2003). Mathematical Methods in Physics. Boston, MA: Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-1-4612-6589-4.
  323. ^ Ji, Lizhen; Papadopoulos, Athanase; Yamada, Sumio (2017). From Riemann to Differential Geometry and Relativity. Springer. p. 545. ISBN 9783319600390.
  324. ^ Kuzniar, Alice A. (2017). The Birth of Homeopathy out of the Spirit of Romanticism. University of Toronto Press. p. 3. ISBN 9781487521264.
  325. ^ Andreas Luch (2009). Molecular, clinical and environmental toxicology. Springer. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-7643-8335-0.
  326. ^ Ullmann's Fine Chemicals. John Wiley & Sons. 2014. ISBN 9783527683598.
  327. ^ Shorter, Edward (1998). A History of Psychiatry: From the era of the asylum to the age of Prozac. Wiley. ISBN 978-0471245315.
  328. ^ White, W. (2014). The early use of chloral hydrate, paraldehyde, chloroform, nitrous oxide and ether for intoxication.
  329. ^ von Basedow, K. A. (1840). "Exophthalmus durch Hypertrophie des Zellgewebes in der Augenhöhle". Wochenschrift für die gesammte Heilkunde. 6: 197–204, 220–228.
  330. ^ Day, Lance; McNeil, Ian (1998). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology. Routledge. p. 775. ISBN 978-0415193993.
  331. ^ Reese, D. M. (1998). "Fundamentals--Rudolf Virchow and modern medicine". The Western Journal of Medicine. 169 (2): 105–108. PMC 1305179. PMID 9735691.
  332. ^ Keeler, Richard (1 February 2002). "The Ophthalmoscope in the Lifetime of Hermann von Helmholtz". The Journal of the American Medical Association. 120 (2): 194–201. doi:10.1001/archopht.120.2.194. ISSN 0003-9950. PMID 11831923.
  333. ^ Long, Tony (6 December 2007). "Dec. 6, 1850: The Eyes Have It, Thanks to the Ophthalmoscope". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
  334. ^ Verso, ML (May 1962). "The Evolution of Blood Counting Techniques". Read at a Meeting of the Section of the History of Medicine, First Australian Medical Congress. 8 (2): 149–58. doi:10.1017/s0025727300029392. PMC 1033366. PMID 14139094.
  335. ^ Lay-Ekuakille, Aimé (2009). Advances in Biomedical Sensing, Measurements, Instrumentation and Systems. Springer. p. 285. ISBN 978-3642051661.
  336. ^ F. Gaedcke (1855). "Ueber das Erythroxylin, dargestellt aus den Blättern des in Südamerika cultivirten Strauches Erythroxylon Coca". Archiv der Pharmazie. 132 (2): 141–150. doi:10.1002/ardp.18551320208. S2CID 86030231.
  337. ^ Niemann A (1860). "Ueber eine neue organische Base in den Cocablättern". Archiv der Pharmazie. 153 (2): 129–256. doi:10.1002/ardp.18601530202. S2CID 98195820.
  338. ^ Kamieński, Łukasz (2016). Shooting Up: A Short History of Drugs and War. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 93. ISBN 9780190263478.
  339. ^ "Meckesheim: Der erste moderne Kaiserschnitt gelang auf dem Küchentisch". Rhein-Neckar-Zeitung (in German). 15 October 2018. Retrieved 26 September 2021.
  340. ^ Rundfunk, Bayerischer (2012-03-28). "28.03.1882: Patent auf das gestrichene Pflaster | BR.de" (in German). Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  341. ^ "Robert Koch and Tuberculosis: Koch's Famous Lecture". Nobel Foundation. 2008. Archived from the original on 2012-07-02. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  342. ^ Garrison, F. H. (1913). "Edwin Klebs (1834-1913)". Science. 38 (991): 920–921. Bibcode:1913Sci....38..920G. doi:10.1126/science.38.991.920. PMID 17753538.
  343. ^ Evans, A. S. (October 1978). "Causation and disease: a chronological journey. The Thomas Parran Lecture". American Journal of Epidemiology. 108 (4): 249–58. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112617. PMID 727194.
  344. ^ Howard-Jones, N. (1984). "Robert Koch and the cholera vibrio: a centenary". BMJ. 288 (6414): 379–81. doi:10.1136/bmj.288.6414.379. PMC 1444283. PMID 6419937.
  345. ^ Edeleano L (1887). "Ueber einige Derivate der Phenylmethacrylsäure und der Phenylisobuttersäure". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft. 20 (1): 616–622. doi:10.1002/cber.188702001142.
  346. ^ Loeffler, F. (1887). "Darauf theilte Herr Loeffler in einem zweiten Vortrag die Ergebnisse seiner weiteren Untersuchungen uber die Diphtherie- Bacillen mit". Centralblatt für Bacteriologie und Parasitenkunde. 2: 105–112.
  347. ^ "Adolf Eugen Fick (1852-1937)". Science Museum. Archived from the original on 16 February 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  348. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1901". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  349. ^ Mann, C. C.; Plummer, M. L. (1991). The aspirin wars : money, medicine, and 100 years of rampant competition. New York: Knopf. pp. 27. ISBN 978-0-394-57894-1.
  350. ^ "Felix Hoffmann". Science History Institute. June 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  351. ^ Vaupel, E. (2005). "Arthur Eichengrün—Tribute to a Forgotten Chemist, Entrepreneur, and German Jew". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 44 (22): 3344–3355. doi:10.1002/anie.200462959. PMID 15798983.
  352. ^ Brown, F. (2003). "The history of research in foot-and-mouth disease". Virus Research. 91 (1): 3–7. doi:10.1016/s0168-1702(02)00268-x. PMID 12527434.
  353. ^ "The history of antibiotics". Microbiology Society. Retrieved 31 January 2020.
  354. ^ Williams, K. J. (2009). "The introduction of 'chemotherapy' using arsphenamine - the first magic bullet". J R Soc Med. 102 (8): 343–8. doi:10.1258/jrsm.2009.09k036. PMC 2726818. PMID 19679737.
  355. ^ Frith J. "Arsenic – the "Poison of Kings" and the "Saviour of Syphilis"". Journal of Military and Veterans' Health. 21 (4). Retrieved 31 January 2017.
  356. ^ "Dihydrocodeine". www.drugbank.ca. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  357. ^ Thiery, M. (2006-08-20). "Pioneers of the intrauterine device" (PDF). The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care. 2 (1): 15–23. doi:10.1080/13625189709049930. PMID 9678105. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-08-20. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
  358. ^ Adam, David (18 August 2006). "Truth about ecstacy's unlikely trip from lab to dance floor". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
  359. ^ "The History, Patent, and Uses of MDMA". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 12 February 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
  360. ^ Sinatra, Raymond (2010). The Essence of Analgesia and Analgesics. MA, USA: Cambridge University Press; 1 edition. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-521-14450-6.
  361. ^ Sneader, W. (2005). Drug discovery: a history. Wiley. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-471-89980-8.
  362. ^ Mannich, C.; Löwenheim, H. (1920). "Ueber zwei neue Reduktionsprodukte des Kodeins". Archiv der Pharmazie. 258 (2–4): 295–316. doi:10.1002/ardp.19202580218. S2CID 97513395.
  363. ^ Newton, David E. (2016). Youth Substance Abuse: A Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 42. ISBN 9781440839832.
  364. ^ DE Patent 414598C 'Verfahren zur Herstellung von Dihydrodesoxymorphin und Dihydrodesoxycodein'
  365. ^ Felden, L.; C. Walter; S. Harder; R.-D. Treede; H. Kayser; D. Drover; G. Geisslinger; J. Lötsch (22 September 2011). "Comparative Clinical Effects of Hydromorphone and Morphine". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 107 (3): 319–328. doi:10.1093/bja/aer232. PMID 21841049. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
  366. ^ Berger's invention has been described "as one of the most surprising, remarkable, and momentous developments in the history of clinical neurology." David Millet (2002), "The Origins of EEG" Archived 2020-09-08 at the Wayback Machine International Society for the History of the Neurosciences (ISHN)
  367. ^ West, J. B. (October 2017). "The beginnings of cardiac catheterization and the resulting impact on pulmonary medicine". American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 313 (4): L651–L658. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00133.2017. PMID 28839102.
  368. ^ Lesch, John E. (2006). The First Miracle Drugs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195187755.
  369. ^ Krafts, Kristine; Hempelmann, Ernst; Skórska-Stania, Agnieszka (2012-07-01). "From methylene blue to chloroquine: a brief review of the development of an antimalarial therapy". Parasitology Research. 111 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1007/s00436-012-2886-x. ISSN 1432-1955. PMID 22411634. S2CID 54526057.
  370. ^ M. Bockmuhl, Über eine neue Klasse von analgetisch wirkenden Verbindungen Ann. Chem. 561, 52 (1948)
  371. ^ Applied Orthopaedic Biomechanics. BI Publications Pvt Ltd. 2008. p. 85. ISBN 9788172253097.
  372. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1969". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  373. ^ Singh, Siddharth; Goyal, Abha (2007). "The origin of echocardiography: A Tribute to Inge Edler". Tex. Heart Inst. J. 34 (4): 431–438. PMC 2170493. PMID 18172524.
  374. ^ "Sanofi: 40 Jahre Ultracain in der Lokalanästhesie". zm-online (in German). 19 February 2016. Retrieved 2021-08-02.
  375. ^ "dgpt-online.de: O. Schmiedeberg-Plakette". www.dgpt-online.de. Retrieved 2021-08-02.
  376. ^ "C-Leg lower limb prosthesis". Ottobock. Archived from the original on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  377. ^ Sekundo W, Kunert KS, Blum M.Small incision corneal refractive surgery using the small incision lenticule extraction (SMILE) procedure for the correction of myopia and myopic astigmatism: results of a 6 month prospective study.Br J Ophthalmol. 2011 Mar;95(3):335-9.
  378. ^ "The story of mRNA: From a loose idea to a tool that may help curb Covid". STAT. 2020-11-10. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  379. ^ Gelles, David (2020-11-10). "The Husband-and-Wife Team Behind the Leading Vaccine to Solve Covid-19". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-07-30.
  380. ^ W. S. Curtis. "Long Range Shooting: A Historical Perspective". Archived from the original on 2007-06-22.
  381. ^ Hickman, Kennedy (8 May 2017). "The Prussian Dreyse Needle Gun". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  382. ^ First World War, Willmott, H.P., Dorling Kindersley, 2003, p. 106
  383. ^ Showalter, Dennis (2016). Instrument of War: The German Army 1914–18. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781472813015.
  384. ^ Westwood, David (2005). Rifles: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 335. ISBN 9781851094066.
  385. ^ McNab, Chris (2011). The Uzi Submachine Gun. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 9781849085441.
  386. ^ Van Husen, William H. "Zyklon B". World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia(1999) p. 1153.
  387. ^ Dougherty, Martin J. (2017). Camouflage At War: An Illustrated Guide from 1914 to the Present Day. Amber Books. pp. 45–47. ISBN 978-1-78274-498-6.
  388. ^ "A Short History of the Development of Nerve Gases". Noblis. 15 April 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-04-15. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  389. ^ McFadden, Christopher (11 November 2021). "How German WW2 Technology Helped Seed the World's Greatest Advancements". Interesting Engineering.
  390. ^ Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War, 1939–1945. Penguin. p. 669. ISBN 978-1-59420-206-3.
  391. ^ Hart, Russell A. (2006). Guderian: Panzer Pioneer or Myth Maker?. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books. pp. 27–28. ISBN 978-1-59797-453-0.
  392. ^ Harding, David P. (Summer 1994). "Heinz Guderian As the Agent of Change: His Significant Impact on the Development of German Armored Forces Between the World Wars". Army History (31): 26–34. JSTOR 26304190.
  393. ^ "Me-163 Komet" Archived 2016-07-20 at the Wayback Machine. Planes of Fame Air Museum. Accessed 5 October 2008.
  394. ^ Shurkin, Michael. "A Brief History of the Assault Rifle". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  395. ^ Fioravanzo, Giuseppe (1971). La Marina italiana nella seconda guerra mondiale – Volume XV – La Marina dall'8 settembre 1943 alla fine del conflitto [The Italian Navy in the Second World War – Volume XV – The Navy from 8 September 1943 to the End of the Conflict] (in Italian). Rome: Italian Navy Historical Branch. pp. 8–34.
  396. ^ ""Buzz Bomb": 70th Anniversary of the V-1 Campaign". National Air and Space Museum. 13 June 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  397. ^ Zaloga, Steven (2003). V-2 Ballistic Missile 1942-52. Reading: Osprey Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-84176-541-9.
  398. ^ "A Brief History of Rocketry". NASA/Kennedy Space Center. 24 August 2000. Archived from the original on 7 January 2009.
  399. ^ Schmaltz, Florian (September 2006). "Neurosciences and research on chemical weapons of mass destruction in Nazi Germany". Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 15 (3): 186–209. doi:10.1080/09647040600658229. PMID 16887760. S2CID 46250604.
  400. ^ Bellis, Mary (3 December 2019). "Johann Christoph Denner, Inventor of the Clarinet". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 14 April 2024. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  401. ^ Bush, Douglas; Kassel, Richard (2004). The Organ: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 380. ISBN 9781135947958.
  402. ^ "Keeping Perfect Time: The Evolution of the Metronome". The Journal of Antiques and Collectibles. 2018-01-27. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
  403. ^ "A History of the Horn, Better Known as the French Horn". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
  404. ^ Krampert, Peter (2016). The Encyclopedia of the Harmonica. Mel Bay Publications. p. 5. ISBN 9781619115774.
  405. ^ Baines, Anthony (1993). Brass Instruments: Their History and Development. Courier Corporation. p. 230. ISBN 9780486275741.
  406. ^ Doktorski, Henry (22 June 2006). "Interview With Fredrik Dillner - The Owner Of What May Be The World's Oldest Accordion". The Free-Reed Journal. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
  407. ^ "The origins of the Tuba: The Birth of the Tuba - Musical Instrument Guide". www.yamaha.com. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
  408. ^ John Humphries, The Early Horn (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000), p. 41.
  409. ^ Randel, Don Michael (2003). The Harvard Dictionary of Music. Harvard University Press. p. 978. ISBN 9780674011632.
  410. ^ a b Inventions & Discoveries. BPI Publishing. 2018. pp. 38–39. ISBN 9788184972405.
  411. ^ "Berliner Gramophone Record". National Museum of American History. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  412. ^ Ras, Zbigniew W.; Wieczorkowska, Alicja (2010). Advances in Music Information Retrieval. Springer. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-3642116735.
  413. ^ Daumas, Maurice (1989). Scientific Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers. London: Portman Books. ISBN 978-0-7134-0727-3.
  414. ^ Colombo, Luigi; Selvini, Attilio (1988). Sintesi di una storia degli strumenti per la misura topografica [Summary of a history of topographic measurement tools] (in Italian).
  415. ^ Redhead, P. A. (1999). "History of Vacuum Devices". Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  416. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Guericke, Otto von" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 670; lines 9 and 10. Thus he became the inventor of the air-pump (1650). He illustrated his discovery before the emperor Ferdinand III. at the imperial diet which assembled at Regensburg in 1654, by the experiment of the "Magdeburg hemispheres."
  417. ^ Schiffer, Michael Brian (2006). Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520248298.
  418. ^ Houston, Edwin J. (1905). Electricity in Every-day Life. P. F. Collier & Son. p. 71.
  419. ^ Chodos, Alan (November 2012). "November 1777: Discovery of Lichtenberg Figures". American Physical Society. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  420. ^ Frercks, Jan; Weber, Heiko; Wiesenfeldt, Gerhard (2009). "Reception and discovery: the nature of Johann Wilhelm Ritter's invisible rays". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A. 40 (2): 143–156. Bibcode:2009SHPSA..40..143F. doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2009.03.014.
  421. ^ Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1877). Theoria attractionis corporum sphaeroidicorum ellipticorum homogeneorum methodo nova tractata (in Latin). (Gauss, Werke, vol. V, p. 1). Gauss mentions Newton's Principia proposition XCI regarding finding the force exerted by a sphere on a point anywhere along an axis passing through the sphere.
  422. ^ Jenkins, Francis A.; White, Harvey E. (1981). Fundamentals of Optics (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-07-256191-3.
  423. ^ Uhl, Tadeusz (2019). Advances in Mechanism and Machine Science. Springer. p. 1142. ISBN 9783030201319.
  424. ^ Wagner, Jorg; Sorg, H. W. (2008). "The Bohnenberger machine". Giroskopiya I Navigatsiya. 1: 107–114. doi:10.1134/S2075108710010116. S2CID 108826253.
  425. ^ Petersen, J.K. (2002). The Telecommunications Illustrated Dictionary. CRC Press. p. 830. ISBN 978-0849311734.
  426. ^ Ohm, G. S. (1827). "Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet" (PDF). Ohm Hochschule. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-26. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  427. ^ Kirkland, Kyle (2010). Earth Sciences: Notable Research and Discoveries. Facts on File. p. 53. ISBN 978-0816074426.
  428. ^ Oldham, Kalil T. Swain (2008). The doctrine of description: Gustav Kirchhoff, classical physics, and the "purpose of all science" in 19th-century Germany (Ph. D.). University of California, Berkeley. p. 52. Docket 3331743.
  429. ^ Clausius, R. (1850). "Ueber die bewegende Kraft der Wärme und die Gesetze, welche sich daraus für die Wärmelehre selbst ableiten lassen". Annalen der Physik. 79: 368–397, 500–524 – via Gallica.
  430. ^ Clausius, R. (1854). "Über eine veränderte Form des Zweiten Hauptsatzes der mechanischen Wärmetheorien". Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 93: 481–506 – via Gallica.
  431. ^ Magnus, G. (1853). "Über die Abweichung der Geschosse, und: Über eine abfallende Erscheinung bei rotierenden Körpern". Annalen der Physik. 164: 1–29. doi:10.1002/andp.18531640102.
  432. ^ "Heinrich Geissler". www.crtsite.com. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  433. ^ Finger, Stanley (2001). Origins of Neuroscience. Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 9780195146943.
  434. ^ "Spectrometers | Instruments". Canada under the stars. January 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
  435. ^ Coe, Lewis (2006). The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History. McFarland. pp. 16–24. ISBN 9780786426096.
  436. ^ Vogel-Prandtl, Johanna Ludwig Prandtl: A Biographical Sketch, Remembrances and Documents, English trans. V. Vasanta Ram. The International Centre for Theoretical Physics Trieste, Italy, pub. August 14, 2004. pp. 10–11.
  437. ^ Clausius, R. (1865). "Über verschiedene, für die Anwendung bequeme Formen der Hauptgleichungen der mechanischen Wärmetheorie". Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 125: 353–400 – via Gallica.
  438. ^ Martin, Andre (1986), "Cathode Ray Tubes for Industrial and Military Applications", in Hawkes, Peter (ed.), Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics, Volume 67, Academic Press, p. 183, ISBN 9780080577333, Evidence for the existence of "cathode-rays" was first found by Plücker and Hittorf ...
  439. ^ Clausius, R. (1870). "Ueber einen auf die Wärme anwendbaren mechanischen Satz". Annalen der Physik. 141 (9): 124–130. Bibcode:1870AnP...217..124C. doi:10.1002/andp.18702170911 – via Gallica.
  440. ^ Sella, Andrea (November 2008). "Abbé's refractometer". Chemistry World: 67.
  441. ^ Energywise Consortium (2011). A Practical Guide to Energy Management of Facilities and Utilities. Smithers Rapra Technology. p. 79. ISBN 978-1847355980.
  442. ^ Grayson, Michael A. (2002). Measuring mass: from positive rays to proteins. Philadelphia: Chemical Heritage Press. pp. 4. ISBN 0-941901-31-9.
  443. ^ Collins Petersen, Carolyn (4 January 2019). "Heinrich Hertz Proved Existence of Electromagnetic Waves". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  444. ^ Stutzman, Warren L.; Thiele, Gary A. (2012). Antenna Theory and Design, 3rd Ed. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 391–392. ISBN 978-0470576649.
  445. ^ Wien, W. (1897). "On the division of energy in the emission-spectrum of a black body". Philosophical Magazine. 43 (262): 214–220. doi:10.1080/14786449708620983.
  446. ^ Mehra, J.; Rechenberg, H. (1982). The Historical Development of Quantum Theory. New York City: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-90642-3.
  447. ^ "X-Rays | Science Mission Directorate". NASA. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  448. ^ Rahman, Faiz (2023). From Edison To Leds: The Science And Story Of Light Sources. World Scientific. p. 87. ISBN 9789811267604.
  449. ^ Drude, P. (1900). "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle". Annalen der Physik. 306 (3): 566–613. Bibcode:1900AnP...306..566D. doi:10.1002/andp.19003060312.
  450. ^ "October 1900: Planck's Formula for Black Body Radiation". APS Physics. Archived from the original on 2007-09-10. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  451. ^ "The birth of quantum theory". HISTORY. 14 December 2018. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  452. ^ Bud, Robert; Warner, Deborah Jean (1998). Instruments of Science: An Historical Encyclopedia. Taylor and Francis. p. 499. ISBN 0815315619.
  453. ^ Anderson, J. D. (2005). "Ludwig Prandtl's Boundary Layer". Physics Today. 58 (12): 42–48. Bibcode:2005PhT....58l..42A. doi:10.1063/1.2169443.
  454. ^ Willis, Nicholas J. (2005). Bistatic Radar. Institution of Engineering and Technology. p. 16. ISBN 9781891121456.
  455. ^ Einstein, A. (1905). "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?". Annalen der Physik. 18 (13): 639–643. Bibcode:1905AnP...323..639E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314.
  456. ^ Einstein, A. (1905). "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper". Annalen der Physik. 17 (10): 891–921. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004.
  457. ^ Gee, Kent L. (August 2011). The Rubens tube. Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics. Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics. Vol. 8. p. 025003. doi:10.1121/1.3636076.
  458. ^ Lucas, Jim (22 May 2015). "What is the Third Law of Thermodynamics?". Live Science. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
  459. ^ Salous, Sana (2013). Radio Propagation Measurement and Channel Modelling. John Wiley & Sons. p. 424. ISBN 9781118502327.
  460. ^ Xu, Guochang (2010). Sciences of Geodesy - I: Advances and Future Directions. Springer Publishing. p. 281. ISBN 9783642117411.
  461. ^ "Stark effect". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  462. ^ Noether, E. (1918). "Invariante Variationsprobleme". Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse. 1918: 235–257.
  463. ^ Einstein, A. (1916). "Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie". Annalen der Physik. 49 (7): 769–822. Bibcode:1916AnP...354..769E. doi:10.1002/andp.19163540702.
  464. ^ Einstein, A. (1917). "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung". Physikalische Zeitschrift. 18: 121–128. Bibcode:1917PhyZ...18..121E.
  465. ^ Daintith, John (2008). Biographical Encyclopedia of Scientists, 3rd Ed. CRC Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-1420072716.
  466. ^ Betz, A. (1966) Introduction to the Theory of Flow Machines. (D. G. Randall, Trans.) Oxford: Pergamon Press.
  467. ^ Bellis, Mary (6 March 2017). "The Evolution of the Metal Detector". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  468. ^ Hahn, O. (1921). "Über ein neues radioaktives Zerfallsprodukt im Uran". Die Naturwissenschaften. 9 (5): 84. Bibcode:1921NW......9...84H. doi:10.1007/BF01491321. S2CID 28599831.
  469. ^ Gerlach, W.; Stern, O. (1922). "Der experimentelle Nachweis der Richtungsquantelung im Magnetfeld". Zeitschrift für Physik. 9 (1): 349–352. Bibcode:1922ZPhy....9..349G. doi:10.1007/BF01326983. S2CID 186228677.
  470. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1954". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  471. ^ Emspak, Jesse (3 August 2018). "States of Matter: Bose-Einstein Condensate". Live Science. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  472. ^ Sommerfeld, A. (January 1928). "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle auf Grund der Fermischen Statistik". Zeitschrift für Physik. 47 (1–2): 1–32. Bibcode:1928ZPhy...47....1S. doi:10.1007/bf01391052.
  473. ^ Heisenberg, W. (1927). "Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik". Zeitschrift für Physik. 43 (3–4): 172–198. Bibcode:1927ZPhy...43..172H. doi:10.1007/BF01397280. S2CID 122763326.
  474. ^ Geiger, H.; Müller, W. (1928). "Elektronenzählrohr zur Messung schwächster Aktivitäten [Electron counting tube for measurement of weakest radioactivities]". Die Naturwissenschaften. 16: 617–618. doi:10.1007/BF01494093. S2CID 27274269.
  475. ^ "Life through a Lens". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
  476. ^ "Meissner effect | physics". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  477. ^ "Understanding the Process". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
  478. ^ McMullan, D. (1988). "Von Ardenne and the scanning electron microscope". Proc Roy Microsc Soc. 23: 283–288.
  479. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1944". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  480. ^ Dahl, Per F. (1999). Heavy Water and the Wartime Race for Nuclear Energy. CRC Press. ISBN 9780750306331.
  481. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1963". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  482. ^ DE 944900 "Verfahren zur Trennung bzw. zum getrennten Nachweis von Ionen verschiedener spezifischer Ladung", W. Paul and H. Steinwedel, filed on December 24, 1953, priority December 23, 1953.
  483. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1961". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  484. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1989". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  485. ^ Zwicker, E. (1961). "Subdivision of the audible frequency range into critical bands". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 33: 248. doi:10.1121/1.1908630.
  486. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  487. ^ Lindley, David (May 2015). "Focus: Landmarks—Accidental Discovery Leads to Calibration Standard". Physics. 8: 46. doi:10.1103/Physics.8.46.
  488. ^ Binnig, G.; Rohrer, H. (1986). "Scanning tunneling microscopy". IBM Journal of Research and Development. 30 (4): 355–69.
  489. ^ Press release for the 1986 Nobel Prize in physics
  490. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2007". Nobel Prize. August 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-08-05. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  491. ^ Hell, S. W.; Wichmann, J. (1994). "Breaking the diffraction resolution limit by stimulated emission: Stimulated-emission-depletion fluorescence microscopy". Optics Letters. 19 (11): 780–782. Bibcode:1994OptL...19..780H. doi:10.1364/OL.19.000780. PMID 19844443. S2CID 17272932.
  492. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2005". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  493. ^ Beiser, Frederick C. (2002). German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781-1801. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674027176.
  494. ^ Chambre, Henri; McLellan, David T. (28 May 2024). "Marxism". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  495. ^ Moody, J. Carroll (1984). The credit union movement: Origins and development, 1850-1980. Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0840332189.
  496. ^ Kim, Alan (2016). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
  497. ^ Butler-Bowdon, Tom (2006). 50 Psychology Classics: Who We Are, How We Think, What We Do. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. pp. 2. ISBN 978-1857883862.
  498. ^ Kersbergen, Kees van; Vis, Barbara (2013). Comparative Welfare State Politics: Development, Opportunities, and Reform. Cambridge UP. p. 38. ISBN 9781107652477.
  499. ^ a b c "Social Security History". www.ssa.gov. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  500. ^ "How 1890s Germany led LGBT rights charge". 2015-05-15. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
  501. ^ Murphy, Timothy (2000). Reader's Guide to Lesbian and Gay Studies. Routledge. pp. 251. ISBN 978-1579581428.
  502. ^ Pong, Beryl (2020). British Literature and Culture in Second World Wartime. Oxford University Press. p. 105. ISBN 9780192577658.
  503. ^ Horkheimer, Max (1982). Critical Theory Selected Essays. New York: Continuum Pub. p. 244.
  504. ^ WIPO, International Survey on Private Copying - Law & Practice 2013 (23rd ed.) p.4: "A levy was first introduced in Germany in 1966."
  505. ^ Watanatada, Patrin (10 March 2011). "Questioning and evolving the eco-label". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
  506. ^ "Christmas Markets in Germany and Europe". German-way.com. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
  507. ^ Carter, Joe (2 November 2017). "9 Things You Should Know About Lutheranism". The Gospel Coalition. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  508. ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J. (14 February 2024). "Martin Luther". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
  509. ^ "History of Christmas Trees - Christmas - HISTORY.com". History. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  510. ^ "The history of the Christmas tree". ABC News. 2016-12-19. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  511. ^ Cross, Gary (2004). Wondrous Innocence and Modern American Children's Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195348132.
  512. ^ Sotscheck, Ralf (11 December 2017). "Die Wahrheit: Rote Karte für Santa Claus". Die Tageszeitung (in German).
  513. ^ Hernández, Isabel (1 November 2016). "Meet the Man Who Started the Illuminati". History Magazine. Archived from the original on October 1, 2019. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  514. ^ Wolfe, Karin (5 September 2007). "How to enjoy Oktoberfest like a local". USA Today. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  515. ^ "Adventskranz: Geschichte und Bedeutung der vier Kerzen". NDR (in German). Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  516. ^ Mills, T. J. (2010). The Twelve Blessings of Christmas. Thomas Nelson Inc. p. 54. ISBN 9780529124319.
  517. ^ "Advent calendars". Deutsches Weihnachtsmuseum. 10 November 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  518. ^ Dinoso, Clarita P. (2002). Gymnastics book. Manila: Rex Book Store. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9712306291.
  519. ^ Mcintosh, J. S. (2010). Gymnastics. Mason Crest. ISBN 978-1422217344.
  520. ^ Drane, Robert (16 March 2016). "Friedrich Jahn invented gymnastics' apparatus". Inside Sport. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
  521. ^ Robson, David (16 July 2019). "A History Lesson In Bodybuilding". Bodybuilding.com. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  522. ^ Swarovsky, Hans-Joachim. "Schutzhundesport". Partner Hund (in German). Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  523. ^ Hines, James R. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Figure Skating. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. pp. 150. ISBN 978-0-8108-6859-5.
  524. ^ Laver, L.; Landreau, P.; Seil, R.; Popovic, N. (2018). Handball Sports Medicine: Basic Science, Injury Management and Return to Sport. Springer. pp. xxv. ISBN 978-3-662-55892-8.
  525. ^ Pazen, Björn (31 October 2017). "Handball in Germany celebrates 100th anniversary". European Handball Federation. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
  526. ^ Welch, Ann (1980). The Story of Gliding (2nd ed.). John Murray. p. 51. ISBN 0-7195-3659-6.
  527. ^ Jaedicke, Thomas (8 November 2015). "Rhönraderfinder Otto Feick - Patent für zwei Reifen und sechs Sprossen [Patent For Two Hoops and Six Cross-bars]". Deutschlandfunk (in German). Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  528. ^ "Hitler's Berlin Games Helped Make Some Emblems Popular". The New York Times. 14 August 2004. Archived from the original on 2009-04-24. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  529. ^ "Paralympics - goalball". 18 October 2004. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
  530. ^ "The Best of Men - Ludwig Guttman and the First Paralympic Games - BBC Two". BBC. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  531. ^ Vinegar, Dick (2012-09-10). "A sincere and heartfelt homage to the founder of the Paralympics". The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  532. ^ Newcomb, Tim (29 September 2017). "From Super Atom to Flyknit: The history of the modern soccer boot". FourFourTwo. Archived from the original on 4 April 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  533. ^ Monthei, Amanda. "Grassholes". The Ski Journal. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
  534. ^ Kuska, Sylvia (6 July 2012). "Auf Skiern die Bergwiese hinab". svz. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
  535. ^ "Geschichte Unterwasserrugby" [History underwater rugby]. uwr-sport.de (in German). Retrieved 6 July 2024.
  536. ^ "25 years IPC - history". International Paralympic Committee. 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  537. ^ Brinkmann, Katrin (1 July 2009). "Exotensport "Jugger": Keilerei mit Hundeköpfchen". Spiegel Online. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
  538. ^ Wenck, Dietmar (15 June 2013). "Speed Badminton - ein Sport, den es ohne Berliner nicht gäbe". Berliner Morgenpost (in German). Retrieved 3 November 2019.
  539. ^ "Carabiner history". 3 January 2024.
  540. ^ "The Strandkorb". Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt. Archived from the original on 27 March 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  541. ^ "172. Geburtstag von Wilhelm Bartelmann". Google (in German). 7 October 2017. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  542. ^ Austin, Daryl (22 July 2021). "The History of the World's First Cruise Ship Built Solely for Luxurious Travel". Smithsonian.
  543. ^ Pilates, Joseph (1998). Pilates' Return to Life through Contrology. Presentation Dynamics LLC. ISBN 978-0-9614937-9-0.
  544. ^ "Käthe Paulus: parachute pioneer". DPMA. 9 February 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  545. ^ "Germany's Female Inventors". Deutsche Welle. 8 March 2006. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  546. ^ McGrady, Angele; Moss, Donald (2013). Pathways to Illness, Pathways to Health. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 224–25. ISBN 9781441913791.
  547. ^ Karl Ferdinand Hommel: Rhapsodia quaestionum in foro quotidie obunientum, Vol. 3, Bayreuth, 1782, p. 115.
  548. ^ Kastner, Hugo; Folkvord, Gerald Kador (2005). Die große Humboldt-Enzyklopädie der Kartenspiele (in German). Humboldt. p. 187. ISBN 9783899940589.
  549. ^ "History". Kolb Technology. Archived from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  550. ^ Carlisle, Rodney P. (2009). Encyclopedia of Play in Today′s Society. SAGE Publications. p. 137. ISBN 978-1412966702.
  551. ^ "In search of: The original Teddy Bear". The Independent. 2002-10-27. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
  552. ^ Schwarz, Helmut (2007). "Schmidt, Josef Friedrich" (in German). Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. 23: 187.
  553. ^ "On the Death of Prof. Artur Fischer". fischer. 28 January 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  554. ^ Miller, Michael (1 April 2005), A History of Home Video Game Consoles, retrieved 18 December 2019
  555. ^ Connolly, Kate (3 February 2009). "Playmobil's German inventor Hans Beck dies aged 79". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
  556. ^ Radford, Antoinette (5 April 2023). "Settlers of Catan: Creator of board game dies aged 70". BBC.
  557. ^ "Who Invented the Wheelchair?". www.mentalfloss.com. 2 February 2009. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  558. ^ "Who Invented the Bicycle?". Live Science. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
  559. ^ Wienecke-Janz, Detlef (2008). Die große Chronik-Weltgeschichte: Neuordnung Europas und Restauration : [1793 - 1849]. Wissen Media Verlag. p. 198. ISBN 9783577090728.
  560. ^ Doppelbauer, Martin (1 August 2018). "Jacobi's first real electric motor". www.eti.kit.edu. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  561. ^ Jollands, Simon (2021). The Boatyard Book. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 150. ISBN 9781472977090.
  562. ^ Bellis, Mary (18 June 2018). "Nicolaus Otto: Inventor of the Gas Motor Engine". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  563. ^ Kiessling, Friedrich; Puschmann, Rainer; Schmieder, Axel; Schneider, Egid (2018). Contact Lines for Electric Railways: Planning, Design, Implementation, Maintenance. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 131–32. ISBN 9783895789618.
  564. ^ Taplin, Michael. "History of Light Rail — LRTA". www.lrta.org. Archived from the original on 2016-08-25. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  565. ^ "In Pictures: A history of trams". BBC News. 2011-12-05. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
  566. ^ Hendrickson III, Kenneth E. (2014). The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History Volume 1-3. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 1020–21. ISBN 978-0810888876.
  567. ^ Parissien, Steven (2014). The life of the automobile : the complete history of the motor car. Internet Archive. New York, N.Y. : Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press. pp. 2–5. ISBN 978-1-250-04063-3.
  568. ^ Georgano, G. N. (1985). Cars, 1886–1930. Beekman House. pp. 9, 16. ISBN 9780517480731.
  569. ^ Gardiner, Mark (1997). Classic motorcycles. MetroBooks. p. 16. ISBN 1-56799-460-1.
  570. ^ Wilson, Hugo (1995). The encyclopedia of the motorcycle. London, UK: Dorling Kindersley. p. 82. ISBN 0-7513-0206-6.
  571. ^ Bellis, Mary (18 March 2019). "Biography of Automobile Inventor Gottlieb Daimler". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 8 February 2022.
  572. ^ "Beginnings of the automobile: the predecessor companies (1886-1920)". Daimler. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  573. ^ Smith, Isobel (31 October 2023). "First motorized boat: The amazing story of the world's oldest motorboat". Motor Boat & Yachting.
  574. ^ "Einführung des Führerscheins: Der Lappen, der die Welt bedeutet". Spiegel Online. 2008-07-31. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
  575. ^ Fernandes Serra, Joao Vitor (2013). Electric Vehicles: Technology, Policy and Commercial Development. Taylor & Francis. p. 18. ISBN 9781136452086.
  576. ^ Kerler, Wolfgang (15 August 2018). "Germany's car industry can't build its own battery cells". The Verge. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  577. ^ "Gottlieb Daimler". National Inventors Hall of Fame Museum.
  578. ^ "Taxicab". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  579. ^ "Remembering Rudolf Diesel: inventor of the diesel engine; biofuels enthusiast". Z Energy. 9 August 2016. Archived from the original on 11 August 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  580. ^ "NIHF Inductee Ferdinand von Zeppelin Invented the Rigid Airship". National Inventors Hall of Fame. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  581. ^ Dooley, Sean C., The Development of Material-Adapted Structural Form Archived 2008-06-25 at the Wayback Machine – Part II: Appendices Archived 2008-06-25 at the Wayback Machine. THÈSE NO 2986 (2004), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
  582. ^ "Lilienthal, Otto 1848–1896". Science Museum Group.
  583. ^ Eckardt, Dietrich (2023). Jet Web. Springer. p. 93. ISBN 9783658385316.
  584. ^ Eckermann, Erik (2001). World History of the Automobile. Society of Automotive Engineers. pp. 67–68. ISBN 9780768008005.
  585. ^ "Who Invented and Made the First Truck?". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 12 June 2019. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
  586. ^ "The engine that Benz built still survives". The Globe and Mail. 9 April 2010. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  587. ^ "Hailing: History of the Taxi". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 30 December 2020. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
  588. ^ "1901 Mercedes 35 HP". HowStuffWorks. 6 December 2007. Archived from the original on 12 August 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  589. ^ Von Fersen, Olaf (1986). Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik (in German). VDI Verlag. p. 398. ISBN 3-18-400620-4.
  590. ^ Laithwaite, Eric Robert (1986). A History of Linear Electric Motors. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 125. ISBN 978-0333399286.
  591. ^ Bridgman, Roger (2014). 1000 Inventions and Discoveries. DK Publishing (Dorling Kindersley). p. 174. ISBN 978-1409350705.
  592. ^ "Speedometer". Siemens. 26 April 2005. Archived from the original on 2009-02-28. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
  593. ^ Klier, Thomas H.; Rubenstein, James M. (2008). Who Really Made Your Car?: Restructuring and Geographic Change in the Auto Industry. W.E. Upjohn Institute. pp. 348–350. ISBN 9780880993333.
  594. ^ The Anschutz Gyro-Compass and Gyroscope Engineering. Watchmaker Publishing. 2003. pp. 7–24. ISBN 9781929148127.
  595. ^ Pearman, Hugh (2004). Airports. Laurence King Publishing. p. 38. ISBN 9781856693561.
  596. ^ Law, Colin C. (2019). A Flight Attendant's Essential Guide. BrownWalker Press. p. 2. ISBN 9781627347280.
  597. ^ Fischer, Walther (1979). "Klose, Adolph". Deutsche Biographie (in German). Retrieved 4 April 2020.
  598. ^ Rossberg, Ralf (2013). Deutsche Eisenbahnfahrzeuge von 1838 Bis Heute (in German). Springer-Verlag. pp. 82–83. ISBN 9783642957703.
  599. ^ Cowin, Hugh (1967). The Junkers Monoplanes. Profile Publications. p. 4. OCLC 918137376.
  600. ^ van Basshuysen, Richard (2017). Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff. Wiesbaden: Springer. pp. 7–9. ISBN 9783658122157.
  601. ^ Darling, David. "Lippisch Ente", The Internet Encyclopedia of Science – Experimental Aircraft. Accessed 5 October 2008.
  602. ^ Anderson, John D. Jr. (1997). A History of Aerodynamics. New York: McGraw Hill. p. 424.
  603. ^ van der Wall, Berend G.; Harris, Franklin D. (1 September 2022). "Henrich Focke — Inventor of the First Successful Helicopter". ntrs.nasa.gov. NASA.
  604. ^ "Aerospace industry – Interwar, Aircraft, Innovation". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
  605. ^ "The jet age". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  606. ^ Klußmann, Niels; Malik, Arnim (2011). Lexikon der Luftfahrt. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. ISBN 9783642225000.
  607. ^ "Who Invented Airbags?". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 2 December 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
  608. ^ Sherman, Don (February 2008). "The Rotary Club". Automobile Magazine: 76–79.
  609. ^ Kupfer, Erich (29 October 2013). "VdM-Kollege Dr. Heinz Kunert gestorben". Motor Journalist (in German). Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  610. ^ Kendall, Kevin; Kendall, Michaela (2015). High-Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells for the 21st Century: Fundamentals, Design and Applications. Academic Press. p. 330. ISBN 978-0124104532.
  611. ^ Waschbusch, Lisa Marie (29 January 2018). "40 Jahre ABS: Urahn des autonomen Fahrens". www.automobil-industrie.vogel.de (in German). Retrieved 18 December 2019.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=List_of_German_inventions_and_discoveries&oldid=1260760674"