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{{Contains Arabic text}}
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:''For other meanings, including people named 'Islam', see [[Islam (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Arabic Plaque, Great Mosque, Xian.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Islam's basic creed (''[[shahadah]]'') written on a plaque in the [[Great Mosque of Xi'an]], China]]
'''Islam''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{Audio|ar-al_islam.ogg|الإسلام; ''al-'islām''}}; pronounced: {{IPA|[ɪs.ˈlæːm]}}<ref group=note>There are ten pronunciations of ''Islam'' in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the ''s'' is pronounced {{IPA|/z/}} or {{IPA|/s/}}, and whether the ''a'' is pronounced as in ''father,'' as in ''cat,'' or when the stress is on the ''i'' as in the ''a'' of ''sofa'' (Merriam Webster). The most common are {{IPA-en|ˈɪzləm/, /ˈɪsləm/, /ɪzˈlɑːm/, /ɪsˈlɑːm}} (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and {{IPA-en|ˈɪzlɑːm/, /ˈɪslɑːm}} (American Heritage Dictionary).</ref>) is a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]], [[Abrahamic religion]] originating with the teachings of the [[Prophets of Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]], a 7th century [[Arab]] religious and political figure. The word ''Islam'' means "submission", or the total surrender of oneself to [[God in Islam|God]] ({{lang-ar|الله}}, Allāh).<ref>
[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/notislam/misconceptions.html#HEADING1 USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> An adherent of Islam is known as a [[Muslim]], meaning "one who submits [to God]".<ref name="EoI-Islam">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref name="Lanes Lexicon">{{cite web|url=http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000137.pdf|title=Lane's lexicon |accessdate=2007-07-03|format=PDF}}</ref> The word ''Muslim'' is the participle of the same verb of which ''Islām'' is the infinitive. <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON TALK-->There are between 1 billion and 1.8 billion Muslims, making Islam the [[major religious groups|second-largest religion in the world]], after [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Islam |title=Major Religions of the World — Ranked by Number of Adherents |accessdate=2007-07-03 |format=HTML |work= }}</ref>

Muslims believe that God [[revelation|revealed]] the [[Qur'an]] to Muhammad, God's [[Seal of the prophets|final prophet]], through the angel [[Jibreel|Gabriel]], and regard the Qur'an and the [[Sunnah]] (words and deeds of Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam.<ref>See:
* Esposito (1996), p.41
* Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/JulRefl2y6.html Sources of Islam]</ref> They do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of [[Ibrahim|Abraham]], [[Islamic view of Moses|Moses]], [[Islamic view of Jesus|Jesus]], and other [[Prophets in Islam|prophets]]. Islamic tradition holds that [[Jew]]s and [[Christian]]s [[Tahrif|distorted the revelations]] God gave to these prophets by either altering the text, introducing a false interpretation, or both.<ref name="Distorted">See:
* Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
* Esposito (1998), pp.6,12
* Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Tahrif | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=Hava Lazarus-Yafeh | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Islam includes many religious practices. Adherents are generally required to observe the [[Five Pillars of Islam]], which are five duties that unite Muslims into a community.<ref>Esposito (2002b), p.17</ref> In addition to the Five Pillars, [[Sharia|Islamic law]] (''sharia'') has developed a tradition of rulings that touch on virtually all aspects of life and society. This tradition encompasses everything from practical matters like [[Islamic dietary laws|dietary laws]] and [[Islamic banking|banking]] to [[jihad|warfare]] and [[zakat|welfare]].<ref>See:
* Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>{{Islam}}
Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] (85%) and [[Shia Islam|Shi'a]] (15%). The schism developed in the late 7th century following disagreements over the religious and political leadership of the Muslim community. Islam is the predominant religion in much of [[Africa]] and the [[Middle East]], as well as in major parts of [[Asia]].<ref>Britannica [http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/31/3731-004.gif], Think Quest [http://library.thinkquest.org/05aug/02016/images/map_of_religions.png], Wadsworth.com[http://www.wadsworth.com/religion_d/special_features/popups/maps/matthews_world/images/w001.jpg]</ref> Large communities are also found in [[Islam in China|China]], the [[Balkan Peninsula]] in [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Islam in Russia|Russia]]. There are also large Muslim immigrant communities in other parts of the world, such as [[Western Europe]]. About 20% of Muslims live in [[Arab world|Arab countries]],<ref>See:
* Esposito (2002b), p.21
* Esposito (2004), pp.2,43</ref> 30% in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and 15.6% in [[Indonesia]], the largest Muslim country by population.<ref> See [[Demographics of Islam|these figures]]</ref>

==Etymology and meaning==
{{main|S-L-M}}

The word ''Islam'' is a [[verbal noun]] originating from the [[triliteral]] root ''s-l-m'', and is derived from the [[Arabic grammar#Verb|Arabic verb]] ''Aslama'', which means "to accept, surrender or submit." Thus, Islam means acceptance of and submission to God, and believers must demonstrate this by worshipping him, following his commands, and avoiding [[polytheism]]. The word is given a number of meanings in the [[Qur'an]]. In some verses (''[[ayat]]''), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."<ref>{{cite quran|6|125|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|61|7|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|39|22|style=ref}}</ref> Other verses connect ''islām'' and ''[[Deen (Arabic term)|dīn]]'' (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (''dīn'') for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."<ref>{{cite quran|5|3|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|19|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|83|style=ref}}</ref> Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God — more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|9|74|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|49|14|style=ref}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of ''islam'', ''[[Iman (concept)|imān]]'' (faith), and ''[[ihsan|ihsān]]'' (excellence); where it represents acts of worship (''`[[ibadah|ibādah]]'') and Islamic law (''[[sharia]]'').<ref>Cyril Glassé, ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam'', p. 192</ref>

==Articles of faith==
{{main|Aqidah|Iman}}

The Qur'an states that all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his [[Angels in Islam|angels]], his [[Prophets in Islam|messengers]], and in the "[[Qiyamah|Day of Judgment]]".<ref>{{cite quran|2|4|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|2|285|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|4|136|style=ref}}</ref> Also, there are other beliefs that differ between [[Kalam|particular sects]]. The [[Sunni]] concept of predestination is called [[Qadr (doctrine)|divine decree]],<ref>{{Muslim|1|1}}</ref> while the [[Shi'a]] version is called [[Adalah|divine justice]]. Unique to the Shi'a is the doctrine of ''[[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imamah]]'', or the political and spiritual leadership of the [[Imam]]s.<ref>See:
* Farah (2003), p.109
* Momen (1987), p.176</ref>

Muslims believe that God [[revelation|revealed]] his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the [[Gabriel|archangel Gabriel]] (''Jibrīl''). For them, Muhammad was God's final prophet and the Qur'an is the revelations he received over more than two decades.<ref>Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21</ref> In Islam, prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic prophets are considered to be the closest to perfection of all humans, and are uniquely the recipients of divine [[revelation]] — either directly from God or through angels. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered [[prophets in Islam]], including [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]], [[Islamic view of Noah|Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Musa|Moses]] and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], among others.<ref>See:
* Momem (1987), p.176
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers since Adam preached the message of Islam — submission to the will of God. Islam is described in the Qur'an as "the primordial nature upon which God created mankind",<ref>{{cite quran|30|30|style=ref}}</ref> and the Qur'an states that the [[proper name]] ''Muslim'' was given by Abraham.<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|22|78|style=ref}}
* "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''</ref>

As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in [[Arabia]] in the early 7th century.<ref>"Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''</ref> Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls [[Jew]]s and [[Christian]]s "[[People of the Book]]" (''ahl al-kitāb''), and distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the ''[[Tawrat]]'' ([[Torah]]) and the ''[[Injil]]'' ([[Gospels]]), had become [[tahrif|distorted]] — either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted" />

===God===
{{main|God in Islam}}
{{seealso|Oneness of God (Islam)|Allah}}

Islam's fundamental theological concept is ''[[tawhīd]]'' — the belief that there is only one god. The Arabic term for God is ''Allāh''; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words ''[[al-]]'' (the) and ''{{transl|ar|ISO|[[ʾilāh]]}}'' (deity, masculine form), meaning "the god" (''{{transl|ar|ISO|al-ilāh}}''), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic ''Alāhā''.<ref>See:
* "Islam and Christianity", ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking [[Christian]]s and [[Jew]]s also refer to God as ''Allāh''.
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Allah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> The first of the Five Pillars of Islam, ''tawhīd'' is expressed in the ''[[shahadah]]'' (testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is beyond all comprehension; Muslims are not expected to visualize God but to worship and adore him as a protector. Although Muslims believe that [[Jesus]] was a prophet, they reject the Christian doctrine of the [[Trinity]], comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic theology, [[Jesus]] was just a man and not the son of God;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tathlith, Trinity | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=David Thomas | accessdate=2007-05-11}}: Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that the Qur'an only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.</ref> God is described in a chapter (''[[sura]]'') of the Qur'an as "…God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|112|1|end=4|style=ref}}
* Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76
* Esposito (2004), p.22
* Griffith (2006), p.248
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Allah, Tawhid | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | author=D. Gimaret | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Qur'an===
{{main|Islamic holy books|Qur'an}}
{{Seealso|Origin and development of the Qur'an}}
[[Image:FirstSurahKoran.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Al-Fatiha|first sura]] in a Qur'anic manuscript by [[Hattat Aziz Efendi]]]]

Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God; it is the central [[religious text]] of Islam.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an| encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between 610 and his death on June 8, 632. The Qur'an was reportedly written down by Muhammad's companions (''[[sahabah]]'') while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of [[Abu Bakr]], the first [[caliph]], and was standardized under the administration of [[Uthman]], the third caliph. From textual evidence [[Islamic studies]] scholars find that the Qur'an of today has not changed significantly over the years.<ref>See:
* William Montgomery Watt in ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p.32
* Richard Bell, William Montgomery Watt, ''Introduction to the Qur'an'', p.51
* F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."</ref>

The Qur'an is divided into 114 [[sura]]s, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 ''[[ayah|āyāt]]'', or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref>See:
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}

</ref> The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".<ref>Esposito (2004), p.79</ref> Muslim jurists consult the ''[[hadith]]'', or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as ''[[tafsir]]''.<ref>See:
* Esposito (2004), pp.79–81
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Tafsir | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref>

The word ''Qur'an'' means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.<ref>See:
* Teece (2003), pp.12,13
* C. Turner (2006), p.42
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: The word ''Qur'an'' was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are [[Quran#Etymology|two different theories]] about this term and its formation.</ref>

===Angels===
{{main|Angels in Islam}}

Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (''malak'') means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (''malakh'') and Greek (''angelos''). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess [[free will]], and worship God in perfect obedience.<ref>{{cite quran|21|19|end=20|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}</ref> Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings — two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases…"<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}
* Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Malā'ika | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=W. Madelung | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Angel | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Gisela Webb | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Muhammad===
{{main|Muhammad}}

Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was an Arab religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a historical phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of [[Prophets in Islam|prophets]] — as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.<ref>See:
* Esposito (1998), p.12
* Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his [[Sahaba|companions]].<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|18|110|style=ref}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

[[Image:Masjid Nabawi. Medina, Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Masjid al-Nabawi]] ("Mosque of the Prophet") in [[Medina|Madina]] is the site of Muhammad's tomb.]]

During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of [[Mecca]], imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the ''[[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]'' ("emigration") to the city of [[Medina]] (formerly known as ''Yathrib'') in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (''[[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]]'') and the Meccan migrants (''[[Muhajirun]]''), Muhammad established his political and [[Theocracy|religious authority]]. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the [[Battle of Badr]] in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the [[Battle of Uhud]] in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, and the Jewish enclave of [[Battle of Khaybar|Khaybar]] was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.<ref>See:
* F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194
* Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless [[Conquest of Mecca]], and by the time of his death in 632 he ruled over the [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabian peninsula]].<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

In Islam, the "[[normative]]" example of Muhammad's life is called the ''[[Sunnah]]'' (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as [[hadith]] ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist [[ash-Shafi'i]] (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in [[Sharia|Islamic law]], and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.<ref>See:
* ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.666
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Hadith | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=J. Robson | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sunna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=D. W. Brown | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Resurrection and judgment===
{{main|Qiyama}}

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", ''[[Qiyamah|yawm al-Qiyāmah]]'' (also known as ''yawm ad-dīn'', "Day of Judgment" and ''as-sā`a'', "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and [[tribulation]]s preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah'' are described in the Qur'an and the [[hadith]], and also in the commentaries of [[Ulema|Islamic scholars]]. The Qur'an emphasizes [[Resurrection of the Dead|bodily resurrection]], a break from the [[pre-Islamic Arabia]]n understanding of death. It states that resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.<ref>See:
* "Resurrection", ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2003)
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Avicenna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Qiyama | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, [[riba|usury]] and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise (''[[jannah]]'') as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater joy — acceptance by God (''ridwān'').<ref>{{cite quran|9|72|style=ref}}</ref> Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>See:
* Smith (2006), p.89; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p.565
* "Heaven", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' (2000)
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Garden | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Asma Afsaruddin | accessdate=2007-05-08}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Paradise | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Predestination and free will===
{{main|Predestination in Islam|Adalah}}

In accordance with the Sunni Islamic belief in [[predestination]], or divine preordainment (''al-qadā wa'l-qadar''), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'…"<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|9|51|style=ref}}
* D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us…"&nbsp;'&nbsp;"
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Fate | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ahmet T. Karamustafa | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref> For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. In Islamic theology, divine preordainment does not suggest an absence of God's indignation against evil, because any evils that do occur are thought to result in future benefits men may not be able to see. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in ''al-Lawh al-Mahfūz'', the "Preserved Tablet".<ref>See:
* Farah (2003), pp.119–122
* Patton (1900), p.130</ref>

The Shi'a understanding of free will is called "divine justice" (''Adalah''). This doctrine, originally developed by the [[Mu'tazila]], stresses the importance of man's responsibility for his own actions. In contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will in the context of God's creation and foreknowledge of all things.<ref>Momen (1987), pp.177,178</ref>

==Duties and practices==
===Five Pillars===
{{main|Five Pillars of Islam}}
[[Image:Mosque.Qibla.01.jpg|thumb|right|Muslims performing [[salah]] (Islamic prayer)]]
[[Image:Kabaa.jpg|thumb|right|Rituals of the [[Hajj]] (pilgrimage) include walking seven times around the [[Kaaba]] in Mecca.]]

[[The Five Pillars of Islam]] (Arabic: اركان الدين) are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims subscribe to different sets of pillars which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.<ref>See:
* Momem (1987), p.178
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Pillars of Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> They are:
* The '''''[[shahadah]]<ref>Seyyed Hossein Nasr
The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 3, 39, 85, 27-272
</ref>''''', which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "''{{transl|ar|ISO|'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}''", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the ''shahadah'' in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.<ref>See:
* Farah (1994), p.135
* Momen (1987), p.178
* "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals''(2004)
* http://www.articleclick.com/Article/Ismaili/1035965</ref>
* '''''[[Salah]]''''', or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day. Each salah is done facing towards the [[Kaaba]] in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. In many Muslim countries, reminders called [[Adhan]] (call to prayer) are broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The prayers are recited in the [[Arabic language]], and consist of verses from the Qur'an.<ref>See:
* Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19
* Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55
* Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34
* Momen (1987), p.178</ref>
* '''''[[Zakat]]''''', or [[alms|alms-giving]]. This is the practice of giving based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (''[[sadaqah]]'').<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|2|177|style=ref}}
* Esposito (2004), p.90
* Momen (1987), p.179
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-11}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
* '''''[[Sawm]]''''', or [[Sawm of Ramadan|fasting during the month of Ramadan]]. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. ''Sawm'' is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly. Some Muslim groups do not fast during Ramadan, and instead have fasts different times of the year.<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|2|184|style=ref}}
* Esposito (2004), pp.90,91
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite web | url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_21.html#HEADING20 | title=For whom fasting is mandatory | publisher=USC-MSA | work=Compendium of Muslim Texts | accessdate=2007-04-18}}</ref>
* The '''''[[Hajj]]''''', which is the pilgrimage during the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic month]] of ''[[Dhu al-Hijjah]]'' in the city of [[Mecca]]. Every [[able-bodied]] Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is about ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in [[Ihram clothing|''Ihram'' clothing]], which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the [[Kaaba]], touching the [[Black Stone]], running seven times between [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Mount Safa]] and [[Al-Safa and Al-Marwah|Mount Marwah]], and symbolically [[Stoning of the Devil|stoning the Devil]] in [[Mina, Saudi Arabia|Mina]]. The pilgrim, or the ''hajji'', is honored in his or her community, although Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God instead of a means to gain social standing.<ref>See:
* Farah (1994), pp.145–147
* Goldschmidt (2005), p.48
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Hajj | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Law===
{{main|Sharia|Fiqh}}

The ''Sharia'' (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".<ref name="BritannicaShariah">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and [[Diplomacy|foreign relations]], to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines ''[[hudud]]'' as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of [[Islamic Inheritance jurisprudence|inheritance]], [[Islamic marital jurisprudence|marriage]], and [[Qisas|restitution for injuries and murder]], as well as rules for [[sawm|fasting]], [[Sadaqah|charity]], and [[salat|prayer]]. However, these [[wajib|prescriptions]] and [[Haraam|prohibitions]] may be broad, so their application in practice varies. [[Ulema|Islamic scholars]] (known as ''ulema'') have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.<ref>See:
* Menski (2006), p.290
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Hadd | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=B. Carra de Vaux | coauthors=J. Schacht, A.M. Goichon | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sharia | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=N. Calder | coauthors=M. B. Hooker | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

''[[Fiqh]]'', or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as ''[[usul al-fiqh]]'' ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (''[[ijma]]''), and analogical reasoning (''[[qiyas]]''). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist [[ash-Shafi'i]] provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ''ar-Risālah''.<ref>Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162</ref>

====Religion and state====
Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. [[Turkey]] has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]. In contrast, the [[1979 Iranian Revolution]] replaced a mostly secular regime with an [[Islamic republic]] led by the [[Ruholla Khomeini|Ayatollah Khomeini]].<ref>See:
* Esposito (2004), p. 84
* Lapidus (2002), pp. 502&ndash;507,845
* Lewis (2003), p. 100</ref>

===Etiquette and diet===
{{Main|Adab (behavior)|Islamic dietary laws}}

Many practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "''[[As-Salamu Alaykum|as-salamu `alaykum]]''" ("peace be unto you"), saying ''[[bismillah]]'' ("in [[Names of God|the name of God]]") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. [[Islamic hygienical jurisprudence|Islamic hygienic]] practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the [[Khitan (circumcision)|circumcision of male offspring]]. [[Islamic funeral|Islamic burial rituals]] include saying the ''[[Salat al-Janazah]]'' ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited foods include pig products, blood, [[carrion]], and [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]]. All meat must come from a [[herbivorous]] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as [[halal]] food.<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|5|5|style=ref}}
* Curtis (2005), p.164
* Esposito (2002b), p.111
* Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html Customs and Behavioral Laws]
* Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/febislaw2y2.html The Dietary Laws]
* Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/DecIslaw2y5.htm Various types of the prayer]
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Slaughter | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ersilia Francesca | accessdate=2007-05-08}}</ref>

===Jihad===
{{mainarticle|Jihad|Islamic military jurisprudence}}

Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the "[[sixth pillar of Islam]]" by a minority of Sunni Muslim authorities.<ref name="jih">Esposito (2003), p.93</ref> Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self, different categories of Jihad are defined.<ref>Firestone (1999) pp. 17-18</ref> Jihad when used without any qualifier is understood in its military aspect.<ref> Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17-18 </ref><ref> Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad </ref> Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.<ref>See:
* Brockopp (2003) pp. 99–100
* Esposito (2003), p.93
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=jihad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-06-13}}</ref> Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and [[Sufism|Sufis]], distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.<ref>See:
* Firestone (1999) p.17
* "Djihad", ''Encyclopedia of Islam Online''.</ref>

Within [[fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]], jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the [[Defensive Jihad|defense]] or [[Offensive jihad|expansion]] of the [[Islamic state]], the ultimate purpose of which is to universalize Islam. Jihad, the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law, may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, unIslamic leaders or states which refuse to submit to the authority of Islam.<ref>Firestone (1999) p.17</ref><ref name="jihad">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Djihād | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.<ref> Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108-109, 118 </ref>

Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (''[[fard|fard kifaya]]''): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign ([[imam]]), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a [[general mobilization]].<ref name="jihad" /> For most [[Twelvers|Shias]], [[offensive jihad]] can only be declared by a [[Imamah (Shi'a twelver doctrine)|divinely appointed leader]] of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since [[Muhammad al-Mahdi]]'s<ref>Seyyed Hossein Nasr
The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72
</ref> occultation in 868 AD.<ref>cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106</ref>

==History==
{{main|Muslim history|Spread of Islam}}

Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the [[Islamic world]]. Within a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the [[Qur'an]], an Islamic empire stretched from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to [[Central Asia]] in the east. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into regions like [[Africa]], the [[Indian subcontinent]], and [[Southeast Asia]]. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during the [[Middle Ages]], but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the [[Ottomans]] and [[Mughals]] fell under the sway of European imperial powers. In the 20th century [[Islamic revival|new religious and political movements]] and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict.<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), pp.50,112,197,380,489,578,817
* Lewis (2004), pp.29,51–56</ref>

===Rise of the caliphate and Islamic civil war (632–750)===
{{see|Succession to Muhammad|Muslim conquests|Battle of Karbala}}

Muhammad began preaching Islam at [[Mecca]] before [[Hijra (Islam)|migrating]] to [[Medina]], from where he united the [[tribes of Arabia]] into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]], a prominent [[sahaba|companion]] of Muhammad, nominated [[Abu Bakr]], who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first [[caliph]]. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by [[Byzantine]] (or [[Eastern Roman Empire]]) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the [[Ridda wars]], or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref>See:
* Holt (1977a), p.57
* Hourani (2003), p.22
* Lapidus (2002), p.32
* Madelung (1996), p.43
* Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50</ref>

[[Image:Age of Caliphs.png|thumb|left|300px|The territory of the [[Caliphate]] in 750]]

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by [[Uthman ibn al-Affan]] and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("[[Rightly Guided Caliphs]]"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into [[Persian Empire|Persian]] and [[Byzantine]] territories.<ref>See
* Holt (1977a), p.74
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

When Umar was assassinated in 644, [[the election of Uthman]] as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the [[First Fitna|first civil war]] (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by [[Kharijites]] in 661. Following this, [[Muawiyah I|Mu'awiyah]], who was governor of [[Levant]], seized power and began the [[Umayyad dynasty]].<ref>Holt (1977a), pp.67–72</ref>

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as [[Sunni]]s. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the [[Shi'a]].<ref>Waines (2003) p.46</ref> After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "[[Second Fitna]]". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the [[Maghreb|Maghrib]] and [[Al-Andalus]] (the [[Iberian Peninsula]], former [[Visigoths|Visigothic]] [[Hispania]]) and the [[Gallia Narbonensis|Narbonnese Gaul]]} in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into [[Sindh]] and the fringes of [[Central Asia]].<ref>Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.</ref> While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims<!-- The Islamic term is Zahid and there may be a better translation for it. --> began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as [[Hasan al-Basri]] would inspire a movement that would evolve into [[Sufism]].<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-13}}</ref>

For the Umayyad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only;<ref>Hawting (2000), p.4</ref> the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims ([[Dhimmis]]) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (''[[mawali]]'') did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] rallied discontented ''mawali'', poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their propagandist and general [[Abu Muslim]], inaugurating the [[Abbasid|Abbasid dynasty]] in 750.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.56; Lewis (1993), pp. 71–83</ref> Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "[[Islamic Golden Age]]", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.<ref>See:
* Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105
* Holt (1977b), pp.661–663
* Lapidus (2002), p.56
* Lewis (1993), p.84
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Golden Age (750–1258)===
{{main|Islamic Golden Age}}
{{see|Muslim Agricultural Revolution}}

By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, Persia, and Central Asia [[emirate]]s formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized [[Muslim world]] where the Shia [[Fatimid]]s contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the [[Seljuq Turks]] had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority.<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), p.103–143
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Abbasid Dynasty | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> During this time expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful [[Dawah|proselytism]] even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan [[West Africa]], [[Central Asia]], [[Volga Bulgaria]] and the [[Malay archipelago]].<ref name="EoI-Islam" />

The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. The [[Six major Hadith collections|major hadith collections]] were compiled and the four modern Sunni [[Madh'hab]]s were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist [[al-Shafi'i]]; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.86</ref> Philosophers [[Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna) and [[Al-Farabi]] sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian [[Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali]] argued against them and ultimately prevailed.<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), p.160
* Waines (2003) p.126,127</ref> Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. [[Sufism]] became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.<ref>See:
* Esposito (2004), pp.44–45
* Lapidus (2002), pp.90–94
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among [[Middle ages|medieval]] [[ecclesiastical]] Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the [[antichrist]] and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.<ref>Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41</ref> In the [[Middle Ages|medieval period]], a few Arab philosophers like the poet [[Al-Ma'arri]] adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher [[Maimonides]] contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.<ref>See:
* Novak (February 1999)
* Sahas (1997), pp.76–80</ref>

===Crusades, Reconquista and Mongol invasion===
{{main|Crusades|Reconquista}}
{{see|Mongol invasion of Central Asia|Ilkhanate}}

[[Image:Hattin.jpg|thumb|right|Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces]]

Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in the West began to be reversed. The [[Reconquista]] was launched against Muslim [[Taifa|principalities]] in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], and Muslim [[History of Islam in southern Italy|Italian possessions]] were lost to the [[Normans]]. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the [[Crusade]]s, bringing the Muslim world into conflict with [[Christendom]]. Initially successful in their goal of taking the [[Holy Land (Biblical)|Holy land]], and establishing the [[Crusader states]], Crusader gains in the Holy Land were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as [[Saladin]]; who recaptured [[Jerusalem]] during the [[Second Crusade]].<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310</ref> In the east the [[Mongol Empire]] put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|Battle of Baghdad in 1258]], as they overran the Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier [[Mamluk]]s took control in an uprising in 1250<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), p.292
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> and in alliance with the [[Golden Horde]] halted the Mongol armies at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]]. But [[Mongol empire|Mongol rule]] extended across the breadth of almost all Muslim lands in [[Asia]] and Islam was temporarily replaced by [[Buddhism]] as the official religion of the land. Over the next century the Mongol [[Khanate]]s converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia and the [[Indian subcontinent]].

The [[Black Death]] ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century.<ref>[http://www.sfusd.edu/schwww/sch618/Medicine/Diseases_and_Cures.html Islamic Medicine Part III: Diseases of the Middle Ages]</ref> It is probable that the [[Mongols]] and merchant caravans making use of the opportunities of free passage offered by the [[Pax Mongolica]] inadvertently brought the plague from [[Central Asia]] to the Middle East and Europe.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2007/09/13/2031252.htm?site=science/greatmomentsinscience Black Death], Great Moments in Science, ABC Science</ref> [[List of historical plagues|Plague epidemics]] kept returning to the Islamic world up to the 19th century.<ref>[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/blackDeath.html The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Black Death)]</ref>

===Turkish, Iranian and Indian empires (1030–1918)===
The [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk Turks]] conquered Abbassid lands and adopted Islam and become the ''de facto'' rulers of the caliphate. They captured [[Anatolia]] by defeating the [[Byzantine]]s at the [[Battle of Manzikert]], thereby precipitating the call for Crusades. They however fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 12th century giving rise to various semi-autonomous [[Turkic peoples|Turkic dynasties]]. In the 13th and 14th centuries the [[Ottoman empire]] (named after [[Osman I]]) emerged from among these ''"Ghazi emirates''" and established itself after a string of conquests that included the [[Balkans]], parts of [[Greece]], and western [[Anatolia]]. In 1453 under [[Mehmed II]] the Ottomans laid siege to [[Constantinople]], the capital of Byzantium, [[Fall of Constantinople|which succumbed]] shortly thereafter, having been overwhelmed by a far greater number of Ottoman troops and to a lesser extent, [[cannon]]ry.<ref>See
* Holt (1977a), p.263
* Lapidus (2002), p.250
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Istanbul | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of [[al-Ghazzali]] to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order — a community of spiritual teachers and students.<ref>Esposito (2004), pp.104,105</ref> Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the [[Masnavi]], a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century [[Persian language|Persian]] poet [[Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi|Rumi]]. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic Art | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

[[Image:TajMahalbyAmalMongia.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Taj Mahal]] is a [[mausoleum]] located in [[Agra]], India, that was built under [[Mughal Empire|Mughal rule]]<ref>Esposito (2004), p.65</ref>]]

In the early 16th century, the Shi'i [[Safavid dynasty]] assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as [[Siege of Vienna|the gates of Vienna]] in 1529.<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> After the invasion of Persia, and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, [[Delhi]] became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east.<ref name="Ikram">Ikram, S. M. 1964. Muslim Civilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press</ref> Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting from the 12th century. The prominent ones include the [[Delhi Sultanate]] (1206–1526) and the [[Mughal empire]] (1526–1857). These empires helped in the spread of Islam in [[South Asia]], but by the early-18th century the [[Maratha empire]] became the pre-eminent power in the north of India. By the mid-18th century the [[British empire]] had formally ended the Mughal dynasty,<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624</ref>, and at the end of the 18th century overthrew the Muslim-ruled [[Kingdom of Mysore]]. In the 18th century the [[Wahhabi]] movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher [[Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab|Ibn Abd al-Wahhab]], Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), p.572
* Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.</ref>

By the 17th and 18th centuries, despite attempts at modernization, the [[Ottoman empire]] had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages. In the 19th century, the [[Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire|rise of nationalism]] resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878]]. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of [[World War I]] and the [[Caliphate]] was abolished in 1924.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493</ref><ref>[http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm] New Turkey</ref>

In the 19th century, the [[Salafi]], [[Deobandi]] and [[Barelwi]] movements were initiated.

===Modern times (1918–present)===
{{see|Fall of the Ottoman Empire|Arab Revolt|Arab-Israeli conflict|Iranian revolution}}

By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the Ottoman empire had been absorbed into the empires of non-Islamic European powers. After [[World War I]] losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also parceled out as European [[protectorate]]s or [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. In the course of the 20th century, most of these European-ruled territories became independent, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of [[Israel]] have assumed prominence.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835</ref> During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, from mostly India and [[Indonesia]] to the [[Caribbean]], forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the [[Americas]].<ref>Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271</ref> Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in [[Africa]] brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.<ref>Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0618427708</ref> The [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC), consisting of [[Islam by country|Muslim countries]], was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm Organization of the Islamic Conference]</ref>

The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. Groups such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] in Egypt and [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called [[Islamist]], they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. In countries like Iran and Afghanistan (under the [[Taliban]]), revolutionary movements replaced [[Secularism|secular]] regimes with Islamist states, while transnational groups like [[Osama bin Laden]]'s [[al-Qaeda]] engage in [[Islamic terrorism|terrorism]] to further their goals. In contrast, [[Liberal Islam]] is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and [[human rights]]. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".<ref>See:
* Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179
* Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830</ref>

Modern [[Criticism of Islam|critique of Islam]] includes accusations that Islam is intolerant of criticism and that Islamic law is too hard on [[Apostasy in Islam|apostates]]. Critics like [[Ibn Warraq]] question the morality of the Qu'ran, saying that its contents justify the mistreatment of women and encourage [[antisemitic]] remarks by Muslim theologians.<ref>See:
* Rippin (2001), p.288
* {{cite news | publisher=NYRB | work=[[The New York Review of Books]] | date=10-05-2006 | title=Islam in Europe | author=Timothy Garton Ash | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371}}

</ref> Such claims are disputed by Muslim writers like [[Fazlur Rahman Malik]],<ref>For example see ''Major Themes of the Qur'an'' by Fazlur Rahman Malik in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.</ref> [[Syed Ameer Ali]],<ref>For example see ''The Spirit of Islam'' by Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928). It is described by [[David Samuel Margoliouth]] (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface ''[[Mohammed and the Rise of Islam]]''.</ref> [[Ahmed Deedat]],<ref>Westerlund (2003)</ref> and [[Yusuf Estes]].<ref>{{cite news | publisher=Advance, [[University of Connecticut]] | date=2003-11-17 | title=Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images | author=Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu | url=http://advance.uconn.edu/2003/031117/03111715.htm}}</ref> Others like [[Daniel Pipes]] and [[Martin Kramer]] focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored.<ref>{{cite news | last=Bernstein | first=Richard | title= Experts on Islam Pointing Fingers At One Another | url=http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F70D16F734540C708CDDA80994D9404482 | publisher=[[The New York Times]] | accessdate=2007-05-14}}</ref> [[Montgomery Watt]] and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics.<ref>See:
* Seibert (1994), pp.88–89
* Watt (1974), p.231</ref> The rise of [[Islamophobia]], according to [[Carl Ernst]], had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.<ref>Ernst (2004), p.11</ref>

[[Pascal Bruckner]] and [[Paul Berman]] on the other hand have entered the "Islam in Europe" debate. Berman identifies a "reactionary turn in the intellectual world" represented by Western scholars who idealize Islam.<ref>{{cite magazine| last = Berman| first = Paul| authorlink = Paul Berman| title = Who's Afraid of Tariq Ramadan?: The Islamist, the journalist, and the defense of liberalism.| journal = [[The New Republic]]| publisher = | location = | date = June 4 2007| url = http://www.tnr.com/politics/story.html?id=fd52e6a4-efc5-42fd-983b-1282a16ac8dd}}</ref></blockquote>

==Community==
{{main|Muslim world}}
===Demographics===
{{see also|Islam by country|Demographics of Islam}}
[[Image:World Muslim Population Map.png|right|350px|thumb|'''Muslim percentage of population by country''']]
<!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON TALK-->Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007 range from 1&nbsp;billion to 1.8&nbsp;billion. Approximately 85% are [[Sunni]] and 15% are [[Shi'a]], with a small minority belonging to other sects. Some 30–40 countries are [[List of Muslim majority countries|Muslim-majority]], and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]] contain the most populous Muslim countries, with [[Indonesia]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Bangladesh]] having more than 100&nbsp;million adherents each.<ref name="Islam_by_country">{{cite web
|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/rel_isl_num_of_mus-religion-islam-number-of-muslim
|title=Number of Muslim by country
|publisher=nationmaster.com
|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> According to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20&nbsp;million Muslims in China.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm
|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006—China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)
|year=2006
|publisher=U.S. department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> In the [[Middle East]], the non-Arab countries of [[Turkey]] and [[Iran]] are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in [[Africa]], [[Egypt]] and [[Nigeria]] have the most populous Muslim communities.<ref name="Islam_by_country" /> Islam is the second largest religion after [[Christianity]] in many [[Europe]]an countries.<ref>See:
* Esposito (2004) pp.2,43
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}

{{cite web | url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html | title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents | publisher=Adherents.com | accessdate=2007-01-09}}
* {{cite web | title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm | publisher=BBC | work=BBC News | date=[[2005-12-23]] | accessdate=2006-09-28}}
* {{cite web | title=Religion In Britain | url= http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 | publisher=Office for National Statistics | work=National Statistics | date=[[2003-02-13]] | accessdate=2006-08-27}}</ref>

===Mosques===
{{main|Mosque}}

A mosque is a [[places of worship|place of worship]] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, ''masjid''. The word ''mosque'' in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (''masjid jāmi`''). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the [[ummah|Muslim community]] as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as [[minaret]]s.<ref>See:
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Masdjid | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author= J. Pedersen | coauthors=R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al. | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Mosque | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Family life===
{{seealso|Women and Islam}}
The basic unit of Islamic society is the [[family]], and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of [[inheritance]] is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. The woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.<ref>"al-Mar'a". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> [[Marriage in Islam]] is a civil [[nikah|contract]] which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (''[[mahr]]'') to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.<ref>
* Waines (2003) pp. 93–96
* The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
* Esposito (1998) p. 79</ref>
[[Image:Snowy Mosque.JPG|thumb|left|Canterbury Mosque in Christchurch, New Zealand was built during 1984-1985.<ref>Drury, Abdullah. "[http://www.stuff.co.nz/print/4644368a6507.html A time for Muslims to examine faith]." ''Stuff.co.nz''. Tuesday 5 August 2008.</ref>]]
A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as ''[[Talaq (Nikah)|talaq]]'', which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".<ref>*"Talak". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as [[hijab|veiling]] and seclusion ([[purdah]]). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as [[Polygamy in Islam|polygamy]], with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain [[Islamist]] groups like the [[Taliban]] have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.<ref>
* Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Marriage and Divorce | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an | author=Harald Motzki | accessdate=2007-05-15}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Marriage Practices | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures | author=Lori Peek | accessdate=2007-05-15}}
</ref>

===Calendar===
{{main|Islamic calendar}}

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (''Anno Hegirae'') in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by [[Umar|Caliph Umar]]. It is a [[lunar calendar]], with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.<ref>See:
* Adil (2002), p.288
* F. E. Peters (2003), p.67
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Tarikh̲ | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=B. van Dalen | coauthors=R. S. Humphreys, Manuela Marín, et al. | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

The year 1428 AH coincides almost completely with 2007 CE.

Islamic [[Muslim holidays|holy days]] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in [[Seasons|different seasons]] in different years in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. The most important Islamic festivals are ''[[Eid al-Fitr]]'' (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1<sup>st</sup> of ''[[Shawwal]]'', marking the end of the fasting month ''[[Ramadan]]'', and ''[[Eid al-Adha]]'' (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10<sup>th</sup> of ''[[Dhu al-Hijjah]]'', coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.<ref>Ghamidi (2001): [http://www.renaissance.com.pk/janisla2y2.html Customs and Behavioral Laws]</ref>

==Other religions==
{{main|Islam and other religions|Criticism of Islam}}
[[Image:Dome of the rock distance.jpg|thumb|right|A view of the [[Dome of the Rock]] on the [[Temple Mount]] in [[Jerusalem]], a holy site in both Islam and [[Judaism]] that has been a source of controversy]]
[[Image:Al aqsa moschee 2.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] congregation building. Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven on this site.]]

According to Islamic doctrine, Islam was the primordial religion of mankind, professed by [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]].<ref>Friedmann (2003), pp. 14–16</ref> At some point, a religious split occurred, and God began sending prophets to bring his revelations to the people.<ref>Friedmann (2003), pp. 18–19</ref> In this view, [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Nevi'im|Hebrew prophets]], and [[Jesus]] were all [[Prophets in Islam]], but their message and the texts of the [[Torah]] and the [[Gospels]] were [[tahrif|corrupted]] by [[Jew]]s and [[Christians]]. Similarly, children of non-Muslim families are born Muslims, but are converted to another faith by their parents.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 18</ref> The idea of Islamic supremacy is encapsulated in the formula "Islam is exalted and nothing is exalted above it."<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 35</ref> Pursuant to this principle, Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men, defamation of Islam is prohibited, and the testimony of a non-Muslim is inadmissible against a Muslim.<ref>See:
* Friedmann (2003), p. 35;
* Lewis (1984), p. 39</ref>

Islamic law divides non-Muslims into several categories, depending on their relation with the Islamic state. Christians and Jews who live under Islamic rule are known as ''[[dhimmis]]'' ("protected peoples"). According to this pact, the personal safety and security of property of the dhimmis were guaranteed in return for paying tribute (''[[jizya]]'') to the Islamic state and acknowledging Muslim supremacy. Historically, dhimmis enjoyed a measure of communal autonomy under their own religious leaders, but were subject to legal, social and religious restrictions meant to highlight their inferiority.<ref>See:
* Lewis (1984), pp.9, 27, 36;
* Friedmann (2003), p. 37;</ref> The status was extended to other groups like Zoroastrians and Hindus<ref>Ernst (2005), Following Muhammad, p.46</ref>, but not to [[atheist]]s or [[agnostic]]s.<ref>Lewis (2001), p.273</ref> Those who live in non-Muslim lands (''[[dar al-harb]]'') are known as ''[[harbi]]s'', and upon entering into an alliance with the Muslim state become known as ''ahl al-ahd''. Those who receive a guarantee of safety while residing temporarily in Muslim lands are known as ''ahl al-amān''. Their legal position is similar to that of the dhimmi except that they are not required to pay the jizya. The people of armistice (''ahl al-hudna'') are those who live outside of Muslim territory and agree to refrain from attacking the Muslims.<ref>Friedmann (2003), p. 55</ref><ref>"Aman", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''</ref> [[apostasy in Islam|Apostasy]] is prohibited, and is punishable by death.<ref>A woman who apostasizes is to be executed according to some jurists, or imprisoned according to others.</ref><ref>"Murtadd", ''Encyclopedia of Islam''</ref>

The [[Alevi]], [[Yazidi]], [[Druze]], [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community|Ahmadiyya]], [[Bábís|Bábí]], [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]], [[Berghouata]] and [[Ha-Mim]] movements either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. Some consider themselves separate while others still sects of Islam though controversial in certain beliefs with mainstream Muslims. [[Sikhism]], founded by [[Guru Nanak]] in late 15th century [[Punjab region|Punjab]], incorporates aspects of both Islam and [[Hinduism]].<ref> Encyclopedia of Islam, "Sikhs" </ref>

==Denominations==
{{main|Divisions of Islam}}
[[Image:MuslimDistribution2.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Map showing distribution of Shia and Sunni Muslims in Africa, Asia and Europe.]]
Islam consists of a number of [[religious denomination]]s that are essentially similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The primary division is between the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and the [[Shi'a]], with [[Sufi]]sm generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority who are members of other [[Islamic sects]].<ref>See:
* Esposito (2002b), p.2
* {{cite web | url=http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/61.htm | title=Sunni and Shia Islam | work=Country Studies | publisher=U.S. Library of Congress | accessdate=2007-01-09}}</ref>

===Sunni===
{{main|Sunni}}
[[Sunni]] Muslims are the largest group in Islam. In [[Arabic]], ''as-Sunnah'' literally means "principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in the Qur'an and the hadith is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four [[caliph]]s were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions, or [[madhhab]]s: [[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]], and [[Hanbali]]. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he or she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have departed from the majority by introducing innovations (''[[bidah]]''). There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For example, the recent [[Salafi]] movement sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.<ref>See:
* Esposito (2003), pp.275,306
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Shariah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sunnite | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Shi'a===
{{main|Shi'a}}
{{see also|Succession to Muhammad}}
The [[Shi'a]], who constitute the second-largest branch of Islam, believe in the political and religious [[Islamic leadership|leadership]] of [[Imamah (Shia doctrine)|Imams]] from the progeny of [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], who according to most Shi'a are in a state of ''[[ismah]]'', meaning infallibility. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first ''Imam'' (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To most Shi'a, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation.<ref>See
* Lapidus (2002), p.46
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Imam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Shi'ite | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref>[http://www.al-shia.com/html/eng/p.php?p=shia'&url=Introduction Imamat, by [[Naser Makarem Shirazi]]</ref> Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the [[Twelvers]] (''{{transl|ar|ISO|iṯnāʿašariyya}}'') which the label Shi'a generally refers to. Although the Twelver Shi'a share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Twelver Shi'a follow a legal tradition called [[Ja'fari jurisprudence]].<ref>See:
* Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45
* Nasr (1994), p.466</ref> Other smaller groups include the [[Ismaili]] and [[Zaidi]], who differ from Twelvers in both their line of successors and theological beliefs.<ref>See:
* Kramer (1987), [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Alawis.htm Syria's Alawis and Shi''ism pp.237–254]
* [http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/index.html Shia branches]</ref>

===Sufism===
{{main|Sufism}}

Not strictly a denomination, [[Sufism]] is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>Trimingham (1998), p.1</ref> Sufism and [[Islamic law]] are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by some Muslims for being an unjustified [[bidah|religious innovation]]. Most Sufi orders, or ''[[tariqa]]s'', can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a.<ref>See:
* Esposito (2003), p.302
* Malik (2006), p.3
* B. S. Turner (1998), p.145
* {{cite web | url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html | work=Country Studies | publisher=U. S. Library of Congress (Federal Research Division) | title=Afghanistan: A Country Study | accessdate=2007-04-18 | pages=150}}</ref>

===Others===
The [[Kharijites]] are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is [[Ibadism]]. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The [[Imam]]ate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in [[Oman]].<ref>See:
* [http://www.uga.edu/islam/ibadis.html IBADI ISLAM: AN INTRODUCTION]
* J. A. Williams (1994), p.173
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=al-Ibāḍiyya | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal}}
{{Further|[[:Category:Islam]]}}
{{Col-begin|width=}}

{{Col-1-of-2}}
* [[Peace In Islamic Thought]]
* [[Islamic art]]
* [[Islamic economics]]
* [[Islamic ethics]]
* [[Islamic literature]]
* [[Islamic studies]]
* [[Islam and modernity]]
* [[Islamism]]
* [[Islamization]]
* [[Mohammedanism]]

{{Col-2-of-2}}
* [[List of Muslims]]
* [[List of Muslim empires]]
* [[List of notable converts to Islam]]
* [[List of notable former Muslims]]
* [[List of wars in the Muslim world]]
* [[Timeline of Islamic history]]
* [[Animal welfare in Islam]]
* [[Children's rights in Islam]]
* [[Prisoners rights in Islam]]
* [[Persecution of Muslims]]
* [[Prophets of Islam]]
{{Col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|3}}
===Notes===
<references group="note" />
===Books and journals===
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite journal | last=Accad | first=Martin | title=The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I) | journal=Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations | volume=14 | issue=1 |year=2003 | id=ISSN 0959-6410}}
* {{cite book | last=Adil | first=Hajjah Amina | coauthors=Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani | title=Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam | publisher=Islamic Supreme Council of America | year=2002 | isbn=978-1930409118}}
* {{cite book | last=Ahmed | first=Akbar | title=Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World | publisher=I. B. Tauris | edition=2.00 | year=1999 | isbn=978-1860642579}}
* {{cite book | last=Brockopp | first=Jonathan E. | title=Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia | publisher=University of South Carolina press | year=2003 | isbn=1570034710}}
* {{cite book | last=Cohen-Mor | first=Dalya | title=A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | isbn=0195133986}}
* {{cite book | last=Curtis | first=Patricia A. | year=2005 | title=A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations | publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional | isbn=978-0813819464}}
* {{cite book | last=Eglash | first=Ron | year=1999 | title=African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design | publisher=Rutgers University Press | isbn=0-8135-2614-0}}
* {{cite book | last=Ernst | first=Carl | authorlink=Carl Ernst | year=2004 | title = Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | isbn=0-8078-5577-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=John Obert Voll | title=Islam and Democracy | year=1996 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-510816-7}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | edition=3rd | isbn=978-0195112344}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad | title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? | year=2000a | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-513526-1}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2000b | title=Oxford History of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0195107999}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002a | title=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0195168860}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002b | title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-515713-3}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]] | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | year=2003 | isbn=0-19-512558-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2004 | edition=3rd Rev Upd | isbn=978-0195182668}}
* {{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=1994 | edition=5th | isbn=978-0812018530}}
* {{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=2003 | edition=7th | isbn=978-0764122266}}
* {{cite book | last=Firestone | first=Reuven | title=Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=1999 | isbn=019-5125800}}
* {{cite book | last=Friedmann | first=Yohanan | authorlink=Yohanan Friedmann | title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition | publisher= Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | isbn=978-0521026994}}
* {{cite book | last=Ghamidi | first=Javed | authorlink=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi | title=[[Mizan]] | publisher=[[Al-Mawrid|Dar al-Ishraq]] | year=2001 | id={{OCLC|52901690}}}}
* {{cite book | last=Goldschmidt, Jr. | first=Arthur | coauthors=Lawrence Davidson | title=A Concise History of the Middle East | publisher=Westview Press | year=2005 | edition=8th | isbn=978-0813342757}}
* {{cite book | last=Griffith | first=Ruth Marie | coauthors=Barbara Dianne Savage | title=Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2006 | isbn=0801883709}}
* {{cite book | last=Hawting| first=G. R. | authorlink= G.R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | isbn=0415240735}}
* {{cite book | last=Hedayetullah | first=Muhammad | title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition | publisher=Trafford Publishing | year=2006 | isbn=978-1553698425}}
* {{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=[[Bernard Lewis]] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1 | year=1977a | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0521291364}}
* {{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=Ann K. S. Lambton, [[Bernard Lewis]] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2 | year=1977b | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0521291372}}
* {{cite book | last=Hourani | first=Albert | authorlink=Albert Hourani | coauthor=[[Malise Ruthven|Ruthven, Malise]] | title=A History of the Arab Peoples | year=2003 | publisher=Belknap Press; Revised edition | isbn=978-0674010178}}
* {{cite book | last=Humphreys | first=Stephen | title=Between Memory and Desire | year=2005 | publisher=University of California Press | isbn=052-0246918}}
* {{cite book | last=Kobeisy | first=Ahmed Nezar | title=Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People | publisher=Praeger Publishers | year=2004 | isbn=978-0313324727}}
* {{cite book | last=Koprulu | first=Mehmed Fuad | coauthors=Leiser, Gary | title=The Origins of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=SUNY Press | year=1992 | isbn=0791408191}}
* {{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Martin | title=Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution | publisher=Westview Press | year=1987 | isbn=978-0813304533}}
* {{cite book | last=Kugle | first=Scott Alan | title=Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam | publisher=Indiana University Press| year=2006 | isbn=0253347114}}
* {{cite book | last=Lapidus| first=Ira | title=A History of Islamic Societies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2002 | edition=2nd | isbn=978-0521779333}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Jews of Islam | publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul | year=1984 | isbn=0-7102-0462-0}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Arabs in History | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1993 | isbn=0-1928-5258-2}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Middle East | publisher=Scribner | year=1997 | isbn=978-0684832807}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | edition=2nd | year=2001 | isbn=978-0812695182}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East | publisher=Harper Perennial | edition=Reprint | year=2003 | isbn=978-0060516055}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror | publisher=Random House, Inc., New York | year=2004 | isbn=978-0812967852}}
* {{cite book | last=Madelung | first=Wilferd | authorlink=Wilferd Madelung | title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1996 | isbn=0521646960}}
* {{cite book | last=Malik| first=Jamal| coauthors=John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary | title=Sufism in the West | publisher= Routledge | year=2006 | isbn=0415274087}}
* {{cite book | last=Menski | first=Werner F. | title=Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2006 | isbn=0521858593}}
* {{cite journal | last=Mohammad | first=Noor | title=The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction | journal=Journal of Law and Religion | volume=3 | issue=2 |year=1985 | doi=10.2307/1051182 | pages=381}}
* {{cite book | last=Momen | first=Moojan | title=An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1987 | isbn=978-0300035315}}
* {{cite book | last=Nasr | first=Seyed Muhammad | title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) | publisher=HarperCollins | year=1994| isbn=0-06067-700-7}}
* {{cite journal | last=Novak | first=David | title=The Mind of Maimonides | journal=[[First Things]] |month=February | year=1999}}
* {{cite book | last=Parrinder | first=Geoffrey | authorlink=Geoffrey Parrinder | title=World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present | publisher=Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited | year=1971 | isbn=0-87196-129-6}}
* {{cite journal | last=Patton | first=Walter M. | title=The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân | journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |month=April | year=1900 | volume=16 | issue=3 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISBN 9004103147 | doi=10.1086/369367 | pages=129}}
* {{cite journal | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad | journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |year=1991}}
* {{cite book | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2003 | isbn=0-691-11553-2}}
* {{cite book | last=Peters | first=Rudolph | authorlink=Rudolph Peters | title=Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1977 | isbn = 90-04-04854-5}}
* {{cite book | last=Rippin | first=Andrew | authorlink=Andrew Rippin | title=Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices | publisher=Routledge | edition=2nd | year=2001 | isbn=978-0415217811}}
* {{cite book | last=Ruthven | first=Malise | title=Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=2005 | isbn = 01-92-80606-8}}
* {{cite book | last=Sahas | first=Daniel J. | title=John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1997 | isbn=978-9004034952}}
* {{cite book | last=[[Abdulaziz Sachedina|Sachedina]] | first=Abdulaziz | title=The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence | publisher=Oxford University Press US | year=1998 | isbn=0195119150}}
* {{cite journal | last=Seibert | first=Robert F. | title=Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)| journal=Review of Religious Research |year=1994 | volume=36 | issue=1 | doi=10.2307/3511655 | pages=88}}
* {{cite book | last=Sells | first=Michael Anthony | authorlink=Michael Anthony Sells | coauthors=Emran Qureshi | title=The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2003 | isbn=0231126670}}
* {{cite book | last=Smith | first=Jane I. | title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | isbn=978-0195156492}}
* {{cite book | last=Stillman | first=Norman | authorlink=Norman Stillman | title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book | publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America | location=Philadelphia | year=1979 | isbn=1-82760-198-1}}
* {{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Shi'ite Islam
|publisher=Suny press| year=1979 | isbn=0-87395-272-3}}
* {{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=R. Campbell (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam | publisher=Green Gold | year=2002 | isbn=0-922817-00-6}}
* {{cite book | last=Teece | first=Geoff | title=Religion in Focus: Islam | publisher=Franklin Watts Ltd | year=2003 | isbn=978-0749647964}}
* {{cite book | last=Tolan | first=John V. | title=Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2002}}
* {{cite book | last=Trimingham| first=John Spencer | title=The Sufi Orders in Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998| isbn=0195120582}}
* {{cite book | last=Tritton | first=Arthur S. | authorlink=Arthur Stanley Tritton| title=The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar | publisher=Frank Cass Publisher | location=London | year=1970 |origyear = 1930 | isbn=0-7146-1996-5}}
* {{cite book | last=Turner | first=Colin | title=Islam: the Basics | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=2006 | id=ISBN 041534106X}}
* {{cite book | last=Turner | first=Bryan S. | title=Weber and Islam | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=1998 | isbn=0415174589}}
* {{cite book | last=Waines | first=David | title=An Introduction to Islam | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | isbn=0521539064}}
* {{cite book | last=Warraq | first=Ibn | title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad | publisher=Prometheus | year=2000 | isbn=978-1573927871}}
* {{cite book | last=Warraq | first=Ibn | title=Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out | publisher=Prometheus | year=2003 | isbn=1-59102-068-9}}
* {{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought | publisher=University Press Edinburgh| year=1973 | isbn=0-85-224254-X}}
* {{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman | publisher=Oxford University Press | edition=New | year=1974 | isbn=0-19-881078-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Weiss | first=Bernard G. | title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory | year=2002 | location=Boston | publisher=Brill Academic publishers | isbn=9004120661}}
* {{cite book | last=Williams | first=John Alden | title=The Word of Islam | year=1994 | publisher=University of Texas Press | isbn=0-292-79076-7}}
* {{cite book | last=Williams | first=Mary E. | title=The Middle East | year=2000 | publisher=Greenhaven Pr | isbn=0737701331}}

====Encyclopedias====
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian | encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History | publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-0974309101}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Gabriel Oussani | encyclopedia=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]] | year=1910}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton | encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia | publisher=Gale Group | year=2000 | edition=6th | id=ISBN 978-1593392369}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online|Encyclopaedia Britannica Online]] | publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill| year=2001 | edition=1st| id=ISBN 0-8028-2414-5}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=John Bowden | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2005 | edition=1st | id=ISBN 0-19-522393-4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Future | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=1995 | id=ISBN 978-0028972053}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam Online]] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISSN 1573-3912}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0028656038}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an|Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online]] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Lindsay Jones | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2005 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 978-0028657332}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Salamone Frank | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals | publisher=Routledge | edition=1st | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0415941808}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Peter N. Stearns | edition=6th | year=2000 | encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of World History Online | publisher=Bartleby}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=[[Josef W. Meri]] | encyclopedia=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia | publisher=[[Routledge]] | year=2005 | id=ISBN 041-5966906}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=[[Wendy Doniger]] | encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions | publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] | year=1999 | id=ISBN 087-7790442}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Glasse Cyril | encyclopedia=New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam | publisher=AltaMira Press | year=2003 | id=ISSN 978-0759101906}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Edward Craig | encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy | publisher=Routledge | year=1998 | edition=1st| id=ISBN 978-0415073103}}

===Further reading===
* {{cite book | last=Arberry | first=A. J. | authorlink=A. J. Arberry | title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation | publisher=Touchstone | edition=1st | year=1996 | isbn=978-0684825076}}
* {{cite book | last=Hawting | first=Gerald R. | authorlink=Gerald R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyard Caliphate AD 661–750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | isbn=0415240727}}
* {{cite book | last=Khan | first=Muhammad Muhsin | authorlink=Muhammad Muhsin Khan | coauthors=Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din | title=Noble Quran | year=1999 | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | edition=1st | isbn=978-9960740799}}
* {{cite book | last=Kramer (ed.) | first=Martin | authorlink=Martin Kramer | title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis | publisher=Syracuse University | year=1999 | isbn=978-9652240408}}
* {{cite book | last=Kuban | first=Dogan | title=Muslim Religious Architecture | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1974 | isbn=9004038132}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | year=1993 | isbn=978-0812692174}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam and the West | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1994 | isbn=978-0195090611}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1996 | isbn=978-0195102833}}
* {{cite book | last=Mubarkpuri | first=Saifur-Rahman | title=[[The Sealed Nectar]]: Biography of the Prophet | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2002 | isbn=978-1591440710}}
* {{cite book | last=Najeebabadi | first=Akbar Shah | title=History of Islam | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2001 | isbn=978-1591440345}}
* {{cite book | last=Nigosian | first=S. A. | title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2004 | edition=New Edition | isbn=978-0253216274}}
* {{cite book | last=Rahman | first=Fazlur | authorlink=Fazlur Rahman | title=Islam | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1979 | edition=2nd | isbn=0-226-70281-2}}
* Tausch, Arno (2008, with Christian Bischof, and Karl Mueller), "Muslim Calvinism”, internal security and the Lisbon process in Europe Amsterdam : Rozenberg Publishers
* {{cite book | last=Walker | first=Benjamin | authorlink=Benjamin Walker | title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith | publisher=Peter Owen Publishers | year=1998 | isbn=978-0720610383}}</div>

==External links==
{{sisterlinks}}
;Academic resources
* [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts]
* [http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam Encyclopedia of Islam (Overview of World Religions)]
* [http://arabworld.nitle.org/introduction.php?module_id=2 Unit on Islam] from the [[NITLE]] Arab Culture and Civilization Online Resource
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105852/Islam Islam], article at ''Enyclopaedia Britannica Online''

;Directories
* Islam in [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/euroislam.html Western Europe], [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/UKIslam.html the United Kingdom], [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/DIslam.html Germany] and [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/sasislam.html South Asia]
* {{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/}}
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Islam_%28Bookshelf%29 Islam (Bookshelf)] at [[Project Gutenberg]]

;Islam - text, audio and video
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16955/16955.zip Three Translations of The Koran (Al-Qur'an) side by side]
* [http://www.ikre-bismi-rabbike.net/kuran.php Kur'an audio (recordings of many Qur'an recitals - easy to stream and play)]
* [http://www.islaminside.org/audio.php Quranic auido downloadable or streamable by different reciters]
* [http://www.guidedways.com/quranreciter/ Qur'an audio and reading material in numerous languages]

;Islam and the arts
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/ BBC Islam Focus]
* [http://www.lacma.org/islamic_art/intro.htm Islamic Art at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art]
* [http://www.muslimheritage.com/ Muslim Heritage] (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, UK)
* [http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/ Islamic Architecture (IAORG)] illustrated descriptions and reviews of a large number of mosques, palaces, and monuments.

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{{Islam topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Religion topics}}
{{featured article}}

[[Category:Islam|Islam]]

{{Link FA|he}}
{{Link FA|id}}
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[[af:Islam]]
[[als:Islam]]
[[am:እስልምና]]
[[ar:إسلام]]
[[an:Islam]]
[[arc:ܐܣܠܐܡ]]
[[arz:الاسلام]]
[[frp:Islame]]
[[ast:Islam]]
[[az:İslam]]
[[bm:Silameya]]
[[bn:ইসলাম]]
[[zh-min-nan:I-su-lân-kàu]]
[[map-bms:Islam]]
[[ba:Ислам]]
[[be:Іслам]]
[[be-x-old:Іслам]]
[[bcl:Islam]]
[[bi:Islam]]
[[bar:Islam]]
[[bs:Islam]]
[[br:Islam]]
[[bg:Ислям]]
[[ca:Islam]]
[[cv:Ислам]]
[[ceb:Islam]]
[[cs:Islám]]
[[cy:Islam]]
[[da:Islam]]
[[pdc:Islaam]]
[[de:Islam]]
[[dv:އިސްލާމް]]
[[et:Islam]]
[[el:Ισλάμ]]
[[es:Islam]]
[[eo:Islamo]]
[[eu:Islam]]
[[fa:اسلام]]
[[fo:Islam]]
[[fr:Islam]]
[[fy:Islam]]
[[fur:Islam]]
[[ga:Ioslam]]
[[gd:Islam]]
[[gl:Islamismo]]
[[gu:ઇસ્લામ]]
[[zh-classical:回教]]
[[hak:Yî-sṳ̂-làn-kau]]
[[ko:이슬람교]]
[[ha:Islama]]
[[haw:Hoʻomana Mohameka]]
[[hy:Իսլամ]]
[[hi:इस्लाम]]
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[[os:Пысылмон дин]]
[[is:Íslam]]
[[it:Islam]]
[[he:אסלאם]]
[[jv:Islam]]
[[kn:ಇಸ್ಲಾಂ ಧರ್ಮ]]
[[ka:ისლამი]]
[[kk:Исләм]]
[[kw:Islam]]
[[ky:Ислам]]
[[sw:Uislamu]]
[[kg:Kisilamu]]
[[ht:Islamis]]
[[ku:Îslam]]
[[lbe:Ислам]]
[[la:Religio Islamica]]
[[lv:Islāms]]
[[lb:Islam]]
[[lt:Islamas]]
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[[hu:Iszlám]]
[[mk:Ислам]]
[[ml:ഇസ്‌ലാം]]
[[mt:Islam]]
[[mr:इस्लाम धर्म]]
[[mzn:İzlam / ایسلام]]
[[ms:Islam]]
[[mn:Ислам]]
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[[ja:イスラム教]]
[[no:Islam]]
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[[ug:ئىسلام دىنى]]
[[uz:Islom]]
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[[so:Islaam]]
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[[ta:இஸ்லாம்]]
[[kab:Islam]]
[[tt:Ислам]]
[[te:ఇస్లాం మతం]]
[[th:ศาสนาอิสลาม]]
[[vi:Hồi giáo]]
[[tg:Ислом]]
[[tr:İslam]]
[[tk:Yslam]]
[[bug:Islam]]
[[uk:Іслам]]
[[ur:اسلام]]
[[vec:Islam]]
[[wa:Islam]]
[[wuu:伊斯兰教]]
[[yi:איסלאם]]
[[yo:Islam]]
[[zh-yue:伊斯蘭教]]
[[diq:İslam]]
[[bat-smg:Ėslams]]
[[zh:伊斯兰教]]

Revision as of 20:01, 17 December 2008

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