Jump to content

History of the County of Tripoli

Add links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The history of the County of Tripoli, a crusader state in the Levant, spans the period between 1103 and 1289.

Background

[edit]
Further information: Arab–Byzantine wars, Byzantine–Seljuk wars, and Crusading movement

The city of Tripoli was one of the last Byzantine outposts on the Syrian coast of the Mediterranean Sea during the early Muslim conquests; it surrendered in 645.[1][2] Syria was a central province of the Muslim Caliphate, but the Abbasid caliphs' control of the region faded away towards the end of the 9th century. In the next century, the Fatimids (from Egypt) took control of much of Syria. Unlike the Sunnite Abbasids, they were Shiite who rejected the Abbasids' claim to rule, regarding themselves as imāms (the legitimate supreme heads of the Muslim community).[3] Tripoli, the Fatimids' northernmost Syrian possession, was regularly approached by Byzantine troops. In response, the Fatimids heavily fortified the city and provided it with a permanent garrison c. 1050.[2] In the mid-11th century, rivalry among military units and court parties shattered the Fatimid Caliphate, and much of Syria was seized by the Seljuk Turks, a loose confederation of nomadic Turkic groups, known as Turkomans.[4] Although Tripoli remained under the Fatimids' nominal rule, it emerged as an autonomous lordship under the rule of a native family of qadis (judges), the Banu Ammar c. 1070.[5] Syria's disintegration continued as the Banu Ammar's representative in the town of Jableh, the ra'is (headman) Ibn Sulayha got rid of their control.[6]

An old coin depicting a man's head
A coin of Raymond of Saint-Gilles

Facing foreign invasions from all directions, the Byzantines could not resist the Turkomans who seized much of Anatolia.[7] Although mutual excommunications had revealed a serious rift between the western and eastern branches of Christianity, the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) sought the support of Pope Urban II (r. 1088–1099) in mustering western troops against the Turkomans. By this time, fundamental institutional reforms had strengthened the supreme position of the papacy over the Western (or Catholic) Church. This led to sharp, often armed, conflicts, known as Investiture Controversy, between the papacy and secular rulers who were unwilling to renounce their traditional control over appointments to church offices. The conflicts gave an impetus to the development of the Catholic theology of holy war, introducing the idea that warring may serve as an act of penance for sinners. In response to Alexios's request, Urban called for a military campaign against the Turkomans for the liberation of fellow Christians and the Holy City of Jerusalem at the Council of Clermont in November 1095.[8] His call, as the historian Malcolm Barber summarises, "set motion a series of events that, within the next twelve months, led to the assembly of nine major armies from a very wide geographical area"; these included 50,000–60,000 people, according to modern estimations.[9] Raymond of Saint-Gilles, the wealthy count of Toulouse (r. 1094–1105) was the first aristocrat to join the expedition that would be known as the First Crusade.[10] His wife, Elvira of Castile (d. 1151) accompanied him, indicating that he did not want to return to Europe.[11]

The main crusader armies departed after 15 August 1096, and arrived at the Byzantine capital, Constantinople next spring. Here, all crusader leaders but Raymond took an oath of loyalty to Alexios and promised to return to him all former Byzantine lands that they would conquer from the Turkomans.[note 1][13] They inflicted major defeats on the Turkomans in Anatolia before reaching Antioch, once the capital of a Byzantine doukate (province) in northern Syria. They conquered the city in June 1098, but refused to cede it to Alexios's representatives.[14] They were still besieging Antioch when the cleric Ebrard (who was, according to the historian Kevin J. Lewis, "likely in Raymond of Saint-Gilles's entourage") went to Tripoli to meet with the qadi Jalal al-Mulk Ali ibn Muhammad (r. 1072–1099). Their meetings' results are unknown, but Jalal al-Mulk frequently sent gifts to the crusaders to secure their good will. According to Raymond's chaplain, Raymond of Aguilers, Jalal al-Mulk even erected the Toulousian banner over Tripoli's forts; Lewis does not give credit to this report.[15] In Antioch, the Italo-Norman prince Bohemond (r. 1098–1111) assumed power and Raymond's attempts to counterbalance his growing power by seizing lands in northern Syria failed.[16] Their conflict led to a raprochement between Raymond and the Byzantines.[17]

Most crusaders, including Raymond departed for Jerusalem early in 1099. Bohemond stayed behind and quickly seized Raymond's northern Syrian holdings. Raymond was planning to conquer Tripoli, but could not convince the common crusaders to attack the city.[18][19] After the crusaders captured Jerusalem from the Fatimids on 15 July 1099, Raymond was one of the candidates to rule the city, but another leader, Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine was elected Jerusalem's first western (or Frankish) ruler (r. 1099–1100) .[10][20] Raymond returned to northern Syria, forcing Bohemond who had attacked the Byzantine port city of Latakia to lift the siege in late 1099. Raymond took possession of Latakia on Alexios' behalf and started to rule what the historian Jean Richard labelled as a "Byzanto-Provençal principality".[21] In 1101, he went to Constantinople either to make contact with new crusader armies approaching towards Syria,[21] or to secure Alexios' consent to an attack against Tripoli.[22] Raymond joined the new crusaders but the Turkomans nearly annihilated them. He fled to Constantinople, and agreed to return Latakia to the Byzantines, while Alexios sanctioned his plan to establish another lordship under Byzantine suzerainty.[23] On his return to Syria, Raymond was captured and forced to pledge to Tancred (d. 1112)—who administered Antioch on Bohemond's behalf—that he would not pursue his ambitions in the north.[note 2][25]

Establishment

[edit]

Raymond I (1102–1105)

[edit]
A massive stone fortress on a hill
The crusaders' castle on Mount Pilgrim, still known as Qalʻat Sān Jīl (Saint-Gilles' Castle) after Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Tripoli's first count

Raymond withdrew from northern Syria and captured the coastal town of Tortosa with the support of other survivors of the 1101 Crusade and a Genoese fleet in March 1102.[26][27] He had concluded a truce with Jalal al-Mulk's successor, Fakhr al-Mulk ibn Ammar (r. 1099–1109), but he attacked Tripoli at the latest in May 1103. He built a fortress on Mount Pilgrim at Tripoli using material that Eumathios Philokales (d. after 1118),[26] the Byzantine governor of the island of Cyprus provided him. Mount Pilrim quickly transformed into a flourishing commercial center competing with Tripoli. Raymond began to issue charters, levy taxes, and style himself "count of Tripoli, by the grace of God", but the city resisted the siege with the support of a Fatimid fleet. Always eager to expand, Raymond attacked the nearby city of Homs after learning of the assassination of its emir Janah ad-Dawla (d. 1103) by members of the Nizari Shi'te Order of Assassins, but Damascene troops quickly relieved the city. Next year, he conquered the town of Jubail on the coast to the south of Tripoli with Genoese naval assistance. He kept two thirds of the town, but ceded one third to the Genoese. In February 1105, Fakhr al-Mulk made a sortie and set fire to several buildings on Mount Pilgrim. Raymond, who was c. 70 years old, fell into a burning building, and died after ten days of sufferings on 28 February 1105.[28][29]

William Jordan (1105–1109)

[edit]

Raymond had two sons, but one of them, Bertrand was absent, ruling Toulouse, and the other, Alfonso Jordan was an infant, born on Mount Pilgrim. Alfonso Jordan was soon taken from Syria to Europe, and Raymond's distant cousin Willam Jordan (d. 1109) assumed the command of Raymond's army at Tripoli. His exact position—regent or count—is unclear but his charters indicate that he regarded himself Raymond's heir.[30] He regularly raided the villages around the town of Shaizar, forcing the native Christian peasants to pay a tribute to him. In great need of reinforcements, Fakhr al-Mulk went to Baghdad to meet with the Seljuk sultan, Muhammad I Tapar (r. 1105–1118), and to Damascus to start negotiations with the Seljuk atabeg, Toghtekin (r. 1104–1128), but they did not offer support to him. After his return, rioters forced him to leave Tripoli and restored the Fatimids' direct rule in the city. Meanwhile, William Jordan defeated a Damascene relief army and captured Arqa in March or April 1109.[31][32]

Around the same time, Bertrand, who had ceded Toulouse to Alfonso Jordan, came to join the siege of Tripoli at the head of a 4,000-strong army. He laid claim to Raymond's inheritance but William Jordan refused with Tancred's support. In response, Bertrand accepted the suzerainty of Godfrey of Bouillon's successor, Baldwin I of Jerusalem (r. 1100–1118). To deal with the situation, Baldwin held a council at Tripoli in April, where Bertrand's claim to his father's Syrian lands was confirmed, but William Jordan was allowed to keep Tortosa and Arqa.[33][34] The compromise was short-lived as William Jordan was murdered under unclear circumstances. Bertrand soon seized Arqa, but Tortosa was captured by Tancred.[35]

House of Toulouse

[edit]

Bertrand (1109–1112)

[edit]

Troops from all over the Latin East (the lands seized by the crusaders in the Near East) had assembled at the council of Tripoli. The presence of Genoese and Pisan fleets allowed the besiegers to blockade Tripoli also from the sea. This forced the defenders to surrender to Baldwin I c. 26 June 1109. Although Baldwin had promised a safe conduct to the city's burghers, he could not prevent the Genoese from sacking Tripoli. After Tripoli's fall, Bertrand reasserted his fealty to Baldwin declaring himself Baldwin's homo ligius (liege man) as the city's count.[36] Grateful for the Genoese's support during the siege, he ceded Jubail's comital two thirds to them. These districts were seized by the Genoese crusader Hugh Embriaco.[37]

According to the late 12th-century historian William of Tyre (d. 1186), the Latin East was divided into four crusader states—Jerusalem, Antioch, Edessa and Tripoli. In contrast, earlier sources (such as a decree attributed to the papal legate Adhemar of Le Puy (d. 1098), and a mid-12th-century author known as Pseuo-Fretellus) write of two states, Jerusalem and Antioch, divided by a river. Lewis tentatively associates it with the Arqa, the river marking the northern frontier of Bertrand's county after Tortosa was seized by Tancred, concluding that "the county of Tripoli at this point should not be regarded as a separate "crusader state", but rather Jerusalem's northermost fief" on account of Bertrand's oath of fealty to Baldwin I of Jerusalem.[38]

The united forces of Toghtekin and the Seljuk commander Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi (d. 1126) routed Bertrand's army shortly after the conquest of Tripoli but the war between Tripoli and its Muslim neighbors reached a stalemate. In a truce, Toghtekin ceded al-Munaytira and Akkar—two fortresses in the northern region of the Beqaa Valley—to Tripoli, and agreed to share the region's tax revenues with Bertrand.[39][40] Bertrand actively supported Baldwin's military ventures, participating in the sieges of Beirut and Sidon in 1110, and fighting Damascene invaders in Galilee in 1111.[39] His relationship with Tancred remained tense. During the visit of the Byzantine envoy Manuel Boutoumites (d. after 1112) in the Latin East in late 1111, he promised to join a Byzantine invasion of Antioch. On this occasion, according to the Byzantine princess Anna Komnene (d. 1153), Bertrand confirmed his father's oath of fealty to Emperor Alexios.[note 3][42][43]

Pons (1112–1137)

[edit]
Map of the Levant, with the County of Tripoli in the center.
The Crusader states and their neighbors c. 1135

Bertrand who died unexpectedly of an illnes was succeeded by his son Pons on 3 February 1112.[44][45] Still a minor, Pons was sent to Antioch by his guardians.[46] Lewis proposes that the Tripolitan lords wanted to get rid of the growing Jerusalemite demands for military assistance by seeking a rapprochement with Tancred. To clear the way for a full reconciliation between Antioch and Tripoli, Tancred granted Tortosa, the town of Maraclea, and the castles at Safita and Hisn al-Akrad (later known as Chastel Blanc and Crac des Chevaliers, respectively) in fief to Pons.[47][48]

Although contemporary sources do not name Pons's guardians, documents indicate that the constable Roger and Bishop Albert of Tripoli were among the heads of state administration. Pons was still in Tripoli, when with his consent Bishop Albert refused to return a large sum of money that Boutoumites had deposited with him. After the Byzantines threatened them with an embargo on Cypriote goods, Bishop Albert paid back the money and Pons took an oath of fealty to the Byzantine emperor.[49] Pons was staying in Antioch when Tancred died on 12 December 1112.[44][50] In accordance with Tancred's last will, Pons married his widow, Cecile of France (d. 1145). Her dowry included Arzghan and al-Ruj, two important Antiochene fortresses in the valley of the Orontes River.[43][51] On the other hand, he lost the eastern Tripolitan town of Rafaniyya to Toghtekin in 1115.[52]

Fulcher of Chartres on Baldwin II's expedition against Pons

...the king set out for Acre where he gathered his men, both footmen and horsemen. ... He intended to take revenge for the injury and contempt which the count of that region, Pons by name, had brought upon him by refusing to submit to him as Bertrand, the father of Pons, had done. But by the will of God and the conciliatory words of the nobles present on both sides the count listened to reason, and Baldwin and Pons were made friends with each other.

Fulcher of Chartres, Gesta Francorum Iherusalem peregrinantium ("A history of the expedition to Jerusalem")[53]

Pons held the southern parts of his domains in fief of the Jerusalemite kings, Baldwin I and Baldwin II (r. 1118–1131). He fulfilled his feudal obligations, for instance by fighting Bursuq of Hamadan in Antioch on Baldwin I's command in 1115. A Tripolitan charter of grant was dated in 1117 by reference to the number of years of Baldwin's reign, also indicating that Baldwin was regarded as Pons's suzerain.[54] According to Lewis, Pons's absence from the 1120 Council of Nablus—an assembly of the Jerusalemite lords and prelates—was the first sign of his attempt to demonstrate his independence. Early in 1122, Pons openly disobeyed Baldwin II. Baldwin assembled the Jerusalemite army for an attack against his unruly vassal, but the conflict was resolved peacefully with the mediaton of their retainers. As the contemporaneous historian Fulcher of Chartres summarises, Baldwin and Pons, "were again made friends".[55][56] In comparison with his predecessors, Pons pursued a less warlike policy: whereas, in an average year, his grandfather had launched more than two attacks and his father made more than one invasions, he did not take up arms in each year during his reign.[43]

In April 1123, Baldwin fell into Muslim captivity.[57] In his absence, Pons was the Christian army's most prominent secular leader during the siege of Tyre, the Fatimids' northernmost port, that began in early next year with Venetian naval assistance. Tyre surrendered on 29 June 1124. Althouh Tyre was incorporated into the Jerusalemite kingdom, the Tripolitans also benefitted from the victory because the Fatimid fleet did not raid the county for nearly two decades.[58] More than a year later, Baldwin supported Pons to attack the Muslim garrison at Rafaniyya. In the vicinity, they erected a new fortress, Montferrand to blockade the town, forcing the defenders to surrender.[59][60] The constant Frankish threat reinforced the Muslims' desire for unity in the Near East. Aleppo and Mosul—two important centers of power in Syria and Iraq, respectively—were first united by the atabeg Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi (r. 1124–1126), and after his death by Imad al-Din Zengi (r. 1127–1146).[61][62] In response, Baldwin II attacked Damascus after Toghtekin died in 1129. Pons joined the campaign along with other prominent Frankish leaders, such as Baldwin's sons-in-law Fulk V of Anjou (r. 1109–1129) and Bohemond II of Antioch (r. 1111–1130), but they could not conquer the city.[63][64]

Bohemond II fell in a battle in February 1130, leaving an infant daughter Constance (r. 1130–1163) as his heir. Her mother Alice of Jerusalem (d. after 1151) wanted to take control of the principality with Zengi's support, but Baldwin II thwarted his daughter's plan and assumed the regency for Constance. After Baldwin died on 21 August 1131, his eldest daughter Melisende (r. 1131–1146) and her husband Fulk of Anjou (r. 1131–1143) succeeded him in Jerusalem.[65][66][67] To prevent Fulk from also taking the place of Baldwin as regent in Antioch, Alice made an alliance with Pons, Joscelin II, Count of Edessa (r. 1131–1150), and a powerful Antiochene lord William of Zardana (d. 1132/33). Pons did not allow Fulk and his army to march across Tripoli towards Antioch. After the Jerusalemite forces reached Antioch by sea, Pons attacked them at Arzghan and al-Ruj. Under unknown circumstances, Fulk emerged victorious in the conflict and appointed the aristocrat Rainald I Mazoir (d. c. 1135) to rule Antioch on his behalf.[68] Lewis notes that "there is no indication that [Fulk] required the defeated Pons to reaffirm the allegiance he had once owed to the king of Jerusalem for the county".[69]

In 1133, Zengi launched a plundering raid against Tripoli and nearly annihilated Pons's army at Rafaniyya. Pons sought Fulk's assistance, and after the arrival of the Jerusalemite reinforcements the Turkoman raiders withdrew from the county.[70][71] By this time, the Nizari had begun expanding in the mountainous border region between Tripoli and Antioch. Discontent among the native population was also simmering. In 1132 or 1133, an unnamed raʾīs of the city of Tripoli was executed on Pons's order. In the spring of 1137, the Damascene commander Bazawash invaded the county, reaching as far as Mount Pilgrim. After some hesitation, Pons made a sortie, but his army was decimated. William of Tyre writes that Pons was captured due to "treachery" of native Christians, and his captors murdered him on 25 March. His son Raymond III succeeded him.[72][73]

Raymond II (1137–1152)

[edit]

Raymond III assembled the remnants of the Tripolitan army and plundered the native Christian communities near Mount Lebanon in revenge for his father's death. After learning of Pons's fate, Zengi launched a full-scale invasion of the county in July 1137. He laid siege to Montferrand, forcing Raymond to sent envoys to Fulk pleading him to hurry to the fortress. Raymond and Fulk united their armies, but Zengi routed them near Montferrand on 11 July. Raymond was captured on the battlefield, and Fulk fled to the fortress. Zengi attacked it but he came to an agreement with Fulk towards the end of August. In return for a free passage and Raymond's release, the Franks surrendered Montferrand and Rafaniyya to Zengi, and agreed to pay 50,000 dinars to him.[74][75]

The arrival of a large Byzantine army under the command of Alexios I's son and successor, John II Komnenos (r. 1118–1143) to northern Syria was Zengi's main concern in this period. Raymond of Poitiers (r. 1136–1149), who ruled Antioch as Constance's husband, swore fealty to John who promised to attack the nearby Muslim states. The Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates (d. 1217) writes that the Byzantine army had specifically come to the region to support Antioch and Tripoli because John regarded both Raymond of Poitiers and Raymond II as his ligion (liege men). The contemporary Byzantine author Theodore Prodromos (d. c. 115) explicitly mentioned that Tripoli "was made subject" during John's reign.[76] Even so, Tripolitan forces did not participate in the Byzantine campaign, likely because of the county's weakness, according to the historian Ralph-Johannes Lilie.[77] The Byzantine campaign proved a failure in the spring of 1138, not independently of the unwillingness of the Frankish rulers to fight for Byzantine interests.[78]

Zengi's position further strengthened when he seized the town of Homs from Damascus in October 1138.[79] As the military power of Tripoli had already been exhausted during Pons's reign, Raymond had to make radical changes in the defense system of the county's eastern border. This led to what Lewis calls a "medieval outsourcing", as he granted four fortresses (among them Hisn al-Akrad) along with some villages and a claim to Rafaniyya and Montferrand to the wealthy Knights Hospitaller in 1142. Originally a charitable confraternity, by this time the Hospitallers had also assumed military functions. The charter of grant exempted them from feudal duties, establishing their domains autonomy in the county. Three years later, the grant was confirmed by Queen Melisende and her son and co-ruler Baldwin III of Jerusalem (r. 1143–1163), and by Prince Constance and Raymond of Poitiers who were still regarded as suzerains of parts of the county.[80][81] The 1142 charter lists the chancellor, the marshal and the constable. This is regarded by the historian Malcolm Barber as "a clear indication that under Raymond II had an established administrative structure".[82]

Zengi conquered the city of Edessa in late December 1144. In response, a new crusade was declared by Pope Eugenius III (r. 1145–1153) on 1 December 1145.[83]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Although Raymond refused the oath taking stating that he owed allegiance only to God, he pledged that he would not attack Alexios.[12]
  2. ^ The chronicler Albert of Aix writes that Raymond specifically promised that he would not seize lands to the north of the city of Acre on the Palestinian coast. Lewis argues that Albert who never visited Syra misinterpreted his source and Raymond actually pledged that he would not claim lands once encompassed in the Byzantine doukate of Antioch to the north of the Syrian town of Arqa.[24]
  3. ^ Accepting Albert of Aix's concurring report, the historian Ralph-Johannes Lilie proposes that Bertrand had already sworen fealty to Alexios in Constantinople during his travel towards Syria.[41]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Donner 1999, p. 12.
  2. ^ a b Lewis 2017, p. 21.
  3. ^ Donner 1999, pp. 43–46.
  4. ^ Donner 1999, p. 48.
  5. ^ Lewis 2017, p. 14.
  6. ^ Köhler 2013, p. 18.
  7. ^ Jotischky 2017, p. 44.
  8. ^ Jotischky 2017, pp. 24–30, 52–53.
  9. ^ Barber 2012, p. 5.
  10. ^ a b Jotischky 2017, p. 20.
  11. ^ Lilie 2004, p. 14.
  12. ^ Lilie 2004, pp. 11, 14.
  13. ^ Jotischky 2017, pp. 57–58.
  14. ^ Lock 2006, pp. 21–23.
  15. ^ Lewis 2017, p. 15.
  16. ^ Lewis 2017, p. 18.
  17. ^ Lilie 2004, p. 49.
  18. ^ Lock 2006, p. 24.
  19. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 17–19.
  20. ^ Lock 2006, p. 25.
  21. ^ a b Lewis 2017, p. 19.
  22. ^ Lilie 2004, p. 67.
  23. ^ Lilie 2004, p. 68.
  24. ^ Lewis 2017, p. 20.
  25. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 19–20.
  26. ^ a b Lilie 2004, p. 70.
  27. ^ Lock 2006, p. 27.
  28. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 22–25, 30, 54.
  29. ^ Morton 2020, pp. 28–30.
  30. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 26–28.
  31. ^ Barber 2012, pp. 90, 98.
  32. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 30–33.
  33. ^ Barber 2012, pp. 91–92.
  34. ^ Lock 2006, p. 30.
  35. ^ Lewis 2017, p. 46.
  36. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 49–50, 57–58.
  37. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 54–55.
  38. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 41–48, 58.
  39. ^ a b Lewis 2017, p. 58.
  40. ^ Köhler 2013, p. 87.
  41. ^ Lilie 2004, pp. 82 (note 91).
  42. ^ Lilie 2004, pp. 82 (note 91), 86.
  43. ^ a b c Morton 2020, p. 33.
  44. ^ a b Lock 2006, p. 31.
  45. ^ Lewis 2017, p. 73.
  46. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 75–77.
  47. ^ Barber 2012, p. 103.
  48. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 81–82.
  49. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 77–79, 81.
  50. ^ Lewis 2017, p. 76.
  51. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 82–83.
  52. ^ Lewis 2017, p. 100.
  53. ^ Fulcher of Chartres 1969, pp. 235–236 (Book III, ch. XI).
  54. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 84–85.
  55. ^ Lock 2006, p. 35.
  56. ^ Lewis 2017, p. 93.
  57. ^ Lock 2006, p. 36.
  58. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 96–99.
  59. ^ Lock 2006, p. 38.
  60. ^ Lewis 2017, p. 101.
  61. ^ Köhler 2013, pp. 127–128.
  62. ^ Holt 2004, pp. 50–51.
  63. ^ Barber 2012, pp. 144, 146–148.
  64. ^ Köhler 2013, pp. 131–132.
  65. ^ Jotischky 2017, pp. 80–81.
  66. ^ Barber 2012, p. 149.
  67. ^ Lock 2006, p. 40.
  68. ^ Barber 2012, pp. 152–153.
  69. ^ Lewis 2017, p. 108.
  70. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 112–113.
  71. ^ Lock 2006, p. 41.
  72. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 113–118.
  73. ^ Lock 2006, pp. 42–43.
  74. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 137–139.
  75. ^ Barber 2012, pp. 165, 167.
  76. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 139–141.
  77. ^ Lilie 2004, p. 120.
  78. ^ Barber 2012, pp. 169–170.
  79. ^ Lock 2006, p. 43.
  80. ^ Barber 2012, pp. 165–167.
  81. ^ Lewis 2017, pp. 143–145.
  82. ^ Barber 2012, p. 166.
  83. ^ Lock 2006, p. 46.

Sources

[edit]

Primary sources

[edit]
  • Fulcher of Chartres (1969). Harold S. Fink (ed.). A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem, 1095–1127. Translated by Frances Rita Ryen, SSJ. The University of Tennessee Press. SBN 87049-097-4.

Secondary sources

[edit]
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_County_of_Tripoli&oldid=1260490061"