Jump to content

Estimates of sexual violence

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sexual Violence and Victimization
Specific Offenses
Rape · Statutory Rape · Incest
Sexual Assault · Domestic violence
Sexual Abuse · Child sexual abuse
Sexual Harassment · Pimping
Attempted rape · Genital mutilation
Deviant sexual intercourse
Forms of Violence and Victimization
Types of rape · War rape · Sexual slavery
Spousal Rape · Prison rape
Date rape · Date rape drug
Human trafficking · Prostitution
Victimization of Children
Child pornography · Child trafficking
Prostitution of children
Commercial exploitation
Sociological Theories
Sociobiological theories of rape
Motivation for rape · Victim blaming
Misogyny · Misandry · Aggression
Pedophilia · Effects and aftermath
Rape Trauma Syndrome
Social and Cultural Aspects
Rape culture · History of rape
raptio · Comfort women ·
Policy
Laws about rape · Rape shield law
Laws regarding child sexual abuse
Rape crisis center · Honor killing
Anti-rape female condom · Rape statistics
Portals: Law
Part of a series on
Violence against women
Murder
Sexual assault and rape
Disfigurement
Other issues
International legal framework
Related topics
Part of a series on
Violence against men
Issues
Killing
Sexual assault and rape
Related topics

Estimates of sexual violence are surveys of victims of sexual violence crime that have been undertaken to estimate the prevalence of sexual violence. The prevalence of sexual violence differs from the reported sexual violence statistics according to the law enforcement agencies due to the dark figure of crime and under-reporting of crime.[1] The surveys use a common methodology to aid comparability.[citation needed]

The United Nations has conducted extensive surveys to determine the level of sexual violence in different societies. According to these studies, the percentage of women reporting having been a victim of sexual assault ranges from less than 2% in places such as La Paz, Bolivia (1.4%), Gaborone, Botswana (0.8%), Beijing, China (1.6%), and Manila, Philippines (0.3%), to 5% or more in Istanbul, Turkey (6.0%), Buenos Aires, Argentina (5.8%), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (8.0%), and Bogota, Colombia (5.0%).[2][3]

The 1998 National Violence Against Women Survey, based on a sample size of 8,000, estimated the incidence of rape to be 1 in 6 for women and 1 in 33 for men, based on reports of attempted or completed rapes over the course of her or his lifetime.[4]

No distinction has been made in these figures between rape by strangers and that by intimate partners. Surveys that fail to make this distinction or those that only examine rape by strangers usually underestimate substantially the prevalence of sexual violence.[5]

In 2011, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that "nearly 20% of all women" in the United States suffered attempted rape or rape sometime in their lives. More than a third of the victims were raped before the age of 18.[6][7]

Apart from crime surveys, there have been a small number of surveys, with representative samples, that have asked women about sexual violence. For instance, in a national survey conducted in the United States of America, 14.8% of women over 17 years of age reported having been raped in their lifetime (with an additional 2.8% having experienced attempted rape) and 0.3% of the sample reported having been raped in the previous year.[8] A survey of a representative sample of women aged 18– 49 years in three provinces of South Africa found that in the previous year 1.3% of women had been forced, physically or by means of verbal threats, to have non-consensual sex.[5] In a survey of a representative sample of the general population over 15 years of age in the Czech Republic,[9] 11.6% of women reported forced sexual contact in their lifetime, 3.4% reporting that this had occurred more than once. The most common form of contact was forced vaginal intercourse.

Sexual violence by intimate partners

[edit]
Main article: Sexual violence by intimate partners

Forced sexual initiation

[edit]

A growing number of studies, particularly from sub-Saharan Africa, indicate that the first sexual experience of girls is sometimes unwanted and forced. In a case control study, for example, of 191 adolescent girls (mean age 16.3 years) attending an antenatal clinic in Cape Town, South Africa, and 353 non pregnant adolescents matched for age and neighborhood or school, 31.9% of the study cases and 18.1% of the controls reported that force was used during their sexual initiation. When asked about the consequences of refusing sex, 77.9% of the study cases and 72.1% of the controls said that they feared being beaten if they refused to have sex.[10]

Forced sexual initiation and coercion during adolescence have been reported in many studies of young women and men. Where studies have included both men and women in the sample, the prevalence of reported rape or sexual coercion has been higher among the women than the men.[11][12][13][14] For example, nearly half of the sexually active adolescent women in a multi-country study in the Caribbean reported that their first sexual intercourse was forced, compared with one-third of the adolescent men.[15] In Lima, Peru, the percentage of young women reporting forced sexual initiation was almost four times that reported by the young men (40% against 11%, respectively).[16]

There are not many studies of forced sexual initiation in the United States, and estimates from the studies that do exist vary widely. One study of 5,663 heterosexual women in the United States found that 12.5% had experienced forced sexual initiation. Of the women who were 15 years old or younger when they had their first sexual experience, 22% reported that those initiations were forced.[17] In the 1992 US National Health and Social Life Survey of over 3,400 adults, more than 4% of women reported coerced sexual initiation.[18]

In a study of over 24,000 women, the World Health Organization found the following rates of women reporting forced sexual initiation: 30% in a Bangladesh province, 24% in a Bangladesh city, 24% in a Peru province, 17% in an Ethiopia province, 17% in a United Republic of Tanzania province, 14% in a United Republic of Tanzania city, 8% in Samoa, 7% in a Peru city, 6% in a Namibia city, 5% in a Brazil province, 4% in a Thailand city, 3% in a Brazil city, 0.7% in a Serbia and Montenegro city, and 0.4% in a Japan city. In all of these sites except Ethiopia, the younger the woman was at the time of her first sexual experience, the more likely it was that that experience was forced sexual initiation.[19]

Gang rape

[edit]
Main article: Gang rape

Gang rape, or mass rape, occurs when a group of people participate in the rape of a single victim. Rape involving at least two or more perpetrators is widely reported to occur in many parts of the world.

Sexual trafficking

[edit]
Main article: Human trafficking

Each year hundreds of thousands of women and girls throughout the world are bought and sold into prostitution or sexual slavery.[20][21][22][23][24] Internationally, the most common destinations for victims of human trafficking are Thailand, Japan, Israel, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Turkey and the United States, according to a report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).[25]

Research in Kyrgyzstan has estimated that around 4,000 people were trafficked from the country in 1999, with the principal destinations being China, Germany, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation, Turkey and the United Arab Emirates. Of those trafficked, 62% reported being forced to work without pay, while over 50% reported being physically abused or tortured by their employers.[26]

A World Organization against Torture (OMCT) report suggested that more than 200,000 Bangladeshi women had been trafficked between 1990 and 1997.[27] Over 200,000 Nepali girls have been trafficked to red light areas of India,[28] and trafficking of Thai women to Japan has also been reported.[22] Trafficking of women also takes place internally within some countries, often from rural areas to cities.

In recent years, the problem of human trafficking has gotten very serious in Europe, where women from Eastern Europe, as well as from Asia, Africa and Latin America are trafficked to Western Europe. In Netherlands, it is estimated that there are from 1,000 to 7,000 trafficking victims a year. Most police investigations relate to legal sex businesses, with all sectors of prostitution being well represented, but with window brothels being particularly overrepresented. [29] [30] In 2008, there were 809 registered trafficking victims, 763 were women and at least 60 percent of them were forced to work in the sex industry. All victims from Hungary were female and were forced into prostitution.[31] [32] Out of all Amsterdam's 8,000 to 11,000 prostitutes, more than 75% are from Eastern Europe, Africa and Asia, according to a former prostitute who produced a report about the sex trade in Amsterdam, in 2008.[33] An article in Le Monde in 1997 found that 80% of prostitutes in the Netherlands were foreigners and 70% had no immigration papers.[34][35] In 2020, investigative journalists from Argos and Lost in Europe, found that the Dutch government had known for over five years that Vietnamese children go missing from protected shelters in The Netherlands, sparking fears of trafficking. In 2015, Argos stated, four Vietnamese girls went missing from a shelter, carrying brown suitcases of the same brand, 'a lot of cash and phones without sim cards.' Two of the minors carried 'sexy lingerie' in their suitcases.[36]

In Germany, the trafficking of women from Eastern Europe is often organized by people from that same region. The German Federal Police Office (BKA) reported in 2006 a total of 357 completed investigations of human trafficking, with 775 victims. Thirty-five percent of the suspects were Germans born in Germany and 8% were German citizens born outside of Germany.[37]

North America is also an important destination for international trafficking. A study undertaken under the auspices of the United States Central Intelligence Agency estimated that 45,000 to 50,000 women and children are trafficked annually to the United States.[38] Over 150 cases of trafficking were prosecuted between 1996 and 1999 by the United States Department of Justice.[38] In 2004, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) estimated that 600-800 persons are trafficked into Canada annually and that additional 1,500-2,200 persons are trafficked through Canada into the United States.[39] In Canada, foreign trafficking for prostitution is estimated to be worth $400 million annually.[40]

Sexual violence against sex workers

[edit]

Whether trafficked or not, sex workers are at high risk for both physical and sexual violence, particularly where sex work is illegal.[41] A survey of female sex workers in Leeds, England, and Glasgow and Edinburgh, Scotland, revealed that 30% had been slapped, punched or kicked by a client while working, 13% had been beaten, 11% had been raped and 22% had experienced an attempted rape.[42] Only 34% of those who had suffered violence at the hands of a client reported it to police.

A survey of sex workers in Bangladesh revealed that 49% of the women had been raped and 59% beaten by police in the previous year; the men reported much lower levels of violence.[43] In Ethiopia, a study of sex workers also found high rates of physical and sexual violence from clients, especially against the child sex workers.[44]

Stalking

[edit]

Stalking victimization involves a pattern of harassing or threatening tactics used by a perpetrator that is both unwanted and causes fear or safety concerns in the victim.[45] According to the CDC's The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey from 2015, 1 in 6 women in the U.S. were a victim of stalking at one point in her lifetime. The survey also found that about 1 in 17 men were victims of stalking at some point in their lives.[45]

Sexual violence in schools, health care settings, armed conflicts, prisons, and refugee settings

[edit]

Schools

[edit]
See also: Sexual harassment in education and Sexual harassment in education in the United States
See also: Sexual abuse in primary and secondary schools and Campus sexual assault

For many young women, the most common place where sexual coercion and harassment are experienced is in school. In an extreme case of violence in 1991, 71 teenage girls were raped by their classmates and 19 others were killed at a boarding school in Meru, Kenya.[46] While much of the research in this field comes from Africa, it is not clear whether this reflects a particularly high prevalence of the problem or simply the fact that the problem has had a greater visibility there than in other parts of the world.

Harassment of girls by boys is in all likelihood a global problem.[citation needed][47] In Canada, for example, 23% of girls had experienced sexual harassment while attending school.[48] A 2007 survey by the National Institute of Justice found that 19.0% of college women and 6.1% of college men experienced either sexual assault or attempted sexual assault since entering college.[49] In the University of Pennsylvania Law Review in 2017, D. Tuerkheimer reviewed the literature on rape allegations, and reported on the problems surrounding the credibility of rape victims, and how that relates to false rape accusations. She pointed to national survey data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that indicates 1 in every 5 women (and 1 in 71 men) will be raped during their lifetime at some point. Despite the prevalence of rape and the fact that false rape allegations are rare, Tuerkheimer reported that law enforcement officers often default to disbelief about an alleged rape. This documented prejudice leads to reduced investigation and criminal justice outcomes that are faulty compared to other crimes. Tuerkheimer says that women face "credibility discounts" at all stages of the justice system, including from police, jurors, judges, and prosecutors. These credibility discounts are especially pronounced when the victim is acquainted with the accuser, and the vast majority of rapes fall into this category.[50] The U.S. Department of Justice estimated from 2005 to 2007 that about 2% of victims who were raped while incapacitated (from drugs, alcohol, or other reasons) reported the rape to the police, compared to 13% of victims who experienced physically forced sexual assault.[49]

The research done in Africa, however, has highlighted the role of teachers there in facilitating or perpetrating sexual coercion. A report by Africa Rights[51] found cases of schoolteachers attempting to gain sex, in return for good grades or for not failing pupils, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Nigeria, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Zambia and Zimbabwe. A recent national survey in South Africa that included questions about experience of rape before the age of 15 years found that schoolteachers were responsible for 32% of disclosed child rapes.[5] In Zimbabwe, a retrospective study of reported cases of child sexual abuse over an 8-year period (1990 to 1997) found high rates of sexual abuse committed by teachers in rural primary schools. Many of the victims were girls between 11 and 13 years of age and penetrative sex was the most prevalent type of sexual abuse.[52]

In their 2002 survey, the AAUW reported that, of students who had been harassed, 38% were harassed by teachers or other school employees. One survey that was conducted with psychology students reports that 10% had sexual interactions with their educators; in turn, 13% of educators reported sexual interaction with their students.[53] In a national survey conducted for the American Association of University Women Educational Foundation in 2000, it was found that roughly 290,000 students experienced some sort of physical sexual abuse by a public school employee between 1991 and 2000. A major 2004 study commissioned by the U.S. Department of Education found that nearly 10 percent of U.S. public school students reported having been targeted with sexual attention by school employees. Charol Shakeshaft, a researcher in the field, claimed that sexual abuse in public schools "is likely more than 100 times the abuse by priests."[54]

A secondary analysis of a series of surveys conducted for the AAUW and administered to a representative sample of 2,064 8th through 11th-grade American students in 2000 showed that 9.6% of the students reported educator sex abuse. The students were asked if and how often they had experienced 14 types of behaviors which constitute sexual harassment. They then indicated who harassed them (students, teachers, school employees). Nonphysical sexual abuse (e.g., making sexual jokes) was more prevalent than physical abuse (8.7 and 6.7%). Girls were more likely to report educator sexual harassment than boys (10.3 and 8.8%). 12.3% of black, 12.2% of Latino, 8.4% of white and 1.8% of Asian students indicated that they had experienced sexual harassment by teachers.[55][56] In 1995, the CDC replicated part of this study with 8,810 students on 138 college campuses. They examined rape only, and did not look at attempted rape. They found that 20% of women and 4% of men had experienced rape in the course of her or his lifetime.[57][58]

On campuses, it has been found that alcohol is a prevalent issue in regards to sexual assault. It has been estimated that 1 in 5 women experience an assault, and of those women, 50–75% have had either the attacker, the woman, or both, consume alcohol prior to the assault.[59] Not only has it been a factor in the rates of sexual assault on campus, but because of the prevalence, assaults are also being affected specifically by the inability to give consent when intoxicated and bystanders not knowing when to intervene due to their own intoxication or the intoxication of the victim.[59][60]

Health care settings

[edit]

Sexual violence against patients in health facilities has been reported in many places.[61][62][63][64][65][66] A study of physicians disciplined for sexual offences in the United States, for instance, found that the number of cases had increased from 42 in 1989 to 147 in 1996, with the proportion of all disciplinary action that was sex-related rising from 2.1% to 4.4% over the same period.[64] This increase, though, could reflect a greater readiness to lodge complaints.

Other documented forms of sexual violence against female patients include the involvement of medical staff in the practice of clitoridectomy in Egypt,[67] forced gynecological examinations and the threat of forced abortions in China,[68] and inspections of virginity in Turkey.[69] Sexual violence is part of the broader problem of violence against women patients perpetrated by health workers that has been reported in a large number of countries and until recently has been much neglected.[70][71][72][73][74] Sexual harassment of female nurses by male doctors has also been reported.[75][76]

Armed conflicts and refugee settings

[edit]
Main article: War rape

Rape has been used as a strategy in many conflicts, including in Korea during the Second World War and in Bangladesh during the war of independence, as well as in a range of armed conflicts such as those in Algeria,[77] India (Kashmir),[78] Indonesia,[79] Liberia,[80] Rwanda and Uganda.[81] In some armed conflicts, for example, the ones in Rwanda and the states of the former Yugoslavia rape has been used as a deliberate strategy to subvert community bonds and thus the perceived enemy, and furthermore as a tool of ethnic cleansing.

In East Timor, there were reports of extensive sexual violence against women by the Indonesian military.[82] A study in Monrovia, Liberia, found that women under 25 years were more likely than those aged 25 years and over to report experiencing attempted rape and sexual coercion during the conflict (18% compared with 4%).[80] Women who were forced to cook for a warring faction were at significantly higher risk.

Another inevitable consequence of armed conflicts is the ensuing economic and social disruption which can force large numbers of people into prostitution,[82] an observation that applies equally to the situation of refugees, whether they are fleeing armed conflicts or natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes or powerful storms.

Refugees fleeing conflicts and other threatening conditions are often at risk of rape in their new setting. Data from the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, for instance, indicated that among the boat people who fled Vietnam in the late 1970s and early 1980s, 39% of the women were abducted or raped by pirates while at sea, a figure that is likely to be an underestimate.[83]

In many refugee camps as well, including those in Kenya and the United Republic of Tanzania, rape has been found to be a major problem.[84][85]

By women

[edit]

According to Lara Stemple, Andrew Flores, and Ilan H Meyer, when, in the United States, counting cases where the victim is made to penetrate the perpetrator against their will, women and men suffer from non-consensual sex at similar rates. 68.6% of men report female perpetrators. This does not show up in the Center for Disease Control's rape statistics, because they define rape as being penetrated against one's own will. Men are more likely to be made to penetrate someone else against their will than they are to be penetrated against their will. 79.2% of men who are made to penetrate someone else against their will report female perpetrators.[86]

Customary forms of sexual violence

[edit]

Child marriage

[edit]
Main article: Child marriage

Marriage is often used to legitimize a range of forms of sexual violence against women. The custom of marrying off young children, particularly girls, is found in many parts of the world. This practice is legal in many countries and is a form of sexual violence, since the children involved are unable to give or withhold their consent. The majority of them know little or nothing about sex before they are married. They therefore frequently fear it[87] and their first sexual encounters are often forced.[88]

Early marriage is most common in Africa and South Asia, though it also occurs in the Middle East and parts of Latin America and Eastern Europe.[89][90] In Ethiopia and parts of West Africa, for instance, marriage at the age of 7 or 8 years is not uncommon. In Nigeria, the mean age at first marriage is 17 years, but in the Kebbi State of northern Nigeria, the average age at first marriage is just over 11 years.[90] High rates of child marriage have also been reported in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali, Niger and Uganda.[89][91]

In South Asia, child marriage is especially common in rural areas, but exists also in urban areas.[90][92][93] In Nepal, the average age at first marriage is 19 years. Seven per cent of girls, though, are married before the age of 10 years, and 40% by the age of 15 years.[90] In India, the median age at first marriage for women is 16.4 years. A survey of 5000 women in the Indian state of Rajasthan found that 56% of the women had married before the age of 15 years, and of these, 17% were married before they were 10 years old. Another survey, conducted in the state of Madhya Pradesh, found that 14% of girls were married between the ages of 10 and 14 years.[90]

Elsewhere, in Latin America for instance, early age at first marriage has been reported in Cuba, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico and Paraguay.[89][90] In North America and Western Europe, less than 5% of marriages involve girls younger than 19 years of age (for example, 1% in Canada, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, 2% in Belgium and Germany, 3% in Spain, and 4% in the United States.[94]

Other customs leading to violence

[edit]

There are no reliable global estimates for the prevalence of child maltreatment. Data for many countries, especially low- and middle-income countries, are lacking. Current estimates vary widely depending on the country and the method of research used. Approximately 20% of women and 5–10% of men report being sexually abused as children, while 25–50% of all children report being physically abused.[95][96]

In many places, there are customs other than child marriage that result in sexual violence towards women. In Zimbabwe, for instance, there is the custom of ngozi, whereby a girl can be given to a family as compensation for a death of a man caused by a member of the girl's family. On reaching puberty the girl is expected to have sexual intercourse with the brother or father of the deceased person, so as to produce a son to replace the one who died. Another custom is chimutsa mapfiwa, according to which, when a married woman dies, her sister is obliged to replace her in the matrimonial home. Widow inheritance is or was practised by many cultures; when a man died, his widow was forced to marry one of his brothers.

By country

[edit]

Annual recorded statistics of victims of sexual violence per 100,000 population is shown below for available countries for the last available year as reported by law enforcement.[97] Definition of sexual violence and types of perpetrators might differ between countries.

Country Sex
of victim 		Type of perpetrator[97] Year
Domestic Non-domestic
Known to victim		 Unknown
to victim		 Not known
 Albania Female 0.1 - - - 2018
 Albania Male 0.1 0.8 0.1 6.2 2018
 Antigua and Barbuda Female - - - - 2018
 Antigua and Barbuda Male 4.6 22.6 - 69.2 2022
 Australia Female 78.8 - - - 2022
 Australia Male 9.7 - - - 2022
 Austria Female 18.6 47.3 24.6 2.0 2022
 Austria Male 3.8 5.9 3.8 0.2 2022
 Azerbaijan Female 0.0 - - 0.7 2020
 Azerbaijan Male - - - 0.5 2020
 Bahamas Female 13.1 22.9 11.2 0.0 2022
 Bahamas Male 2.6 0.5 0.0 0.0 2022
 Belize Female 19.8 1.0 51.6 0.0 2022
 Belize Male 0.5 0.0 1.0 0.0 2022
 Bolivia Female 58.1 6.5 55.6 45.8 2018
 Bolivia Male 2.3 0.1 2.5 2.0 2022
 Canada Female 69.1 78.4 26.9 0.2 2022
 Canada Male 7.4 12.4 4.6 0.0 2022
 Colombia Female 3.1 0.8 0.0 20.4 2022
 Colombia Male 0.2 0.1 0.0 2.7 2022
 Croatia Female 13.2 9.7 2.9 6.7 2022
 Croatia Male 0.9 0.7 0.2 0.7 2022
 Czech Republic Female 6.6 11.0 0.0 11.3 2022
 Czech Republic Male 0.5 3.6 0.0 1.7 2022
 Denmark Female - - - 176.6 2022
 Denmark Male - - - 20.8 2022
 El Salvador Female 14.9 5.0 168.7 - 2022
 El Salvador Male 1.0 0.0 18.1 - 2022
England England and Wales Wales Female 0.6 - - - 2021
England England and Wales Wales Male 0.1 - - - 2021
 Finland Female 11.4 - - 121.8 2022
 Finland Male 1.4 - - 11.9 2022
 France Female 62.7 - - 164.4 2022
 France Male 8.5 - - 26.1 2022
 Germany Female 19.2 43.4 37.7 9.1 2022
 Germany Male 2.5 6.8 4.6 2.2 2022
 Greece Female - - 0.1 - 2020
 Greece Male - - - - 2020
 Guatemala Female 0.1 - - - 2020
 Guatemala Male 0.0 - - 20.1 2020
 Guyana Female 66.6 10.9 0.0 0.0 2022
 Guyana Male 8.1 3.8 0.0 0.0 2022
 Honduras Female 11.8 4.2 0.0 - 2022
 Honduras Male 1.0 0.4 0.0 4.6 2022
 Hungary Female 4.0 3.1 1.3 0.0 2022
 Hungary Male 0.5 1.8 0.2 0.0 2022
 Ireland Female 11.8 13.9 3.8 1.5 2022
 Ireland Male 1.2 1.8 0.2 0.3 2022
 Italy Female - - - 17.6 2022
 Italy Male - - - 2.0 2022
 Kyrgyzstan Female 0.9 9.1 4.8 - 2020
 Kyrgyzstan Male - - - - 2020
 Latvia Female 6.9 8.8 2.7 1.6 2020
 Latvia Male 1.5 0.8 0.8 0.3 2020
 Lithuania Female 1.9 2.5 1.6 0.5 2022
 Lithuania Male 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.4 2022
 Mexico Female 22.8 12.4 25.2 40.3 2021
 Mexico Male 2.6 1.3 3.8 11.2 2022
 Mongolia Female 0.8 24.2 4.7 0.0 2018
 Mongolia Male 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 2018
 Morocco Female 0.5 0.5 1.7 6.2 2022
 Morocco Male 0.2 0.2 0.8 2.7 2022
 Myanmar Female 0.1 0.3 0.0 - 2022
 Myanmar Male 0.0 0.0 0.0 - 2018
 New Zealand Female 20.2 20.7 10.4 136.0 2018
 New Zealand Male 1.8 3.7 1.1 21.0 2018
 Norway Female - - - 142.0 2022
 Norway Male - - - 20.0 2022
 Oman Female 0.3 3.9 0.0 0.0 2018
 Oman Male 0.1 1.9 0.0 0.0 2018
 Panama Female 9.8 1.2 0.0 - 2020
 Panama Male 0.7 0.1 0.0 10.7 2020
 Poland Female - - - 14.0 2022
 Poland Male - - - 3.3 2022
 Romania Female 6.5 - - - 2022
 Romania Male 0.5 - - - 2022
 Saint Kitts and Nevis Female 8.1 40.6 40.6 129.8 2022
 Saint Kitts and Nevis Male 4.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 2022
 Slovakia Female 0.0 - 17.9 - 2022
 Slovakia Male 0.5 0.4 1.6 0.4 2022
 Slovenia Female 6.4 8.1 6.3 0.0 2022
 Slovenia Male 0.8 1.2 0.3 0.0 2022
 Spain Female 8.1 6.6 33.3 9.8 2022
 Spain Male 0.8 1.0 5.1 1.4 2022
 Sweden Female 43.4 65.5 87.8 164.2 2022
 Sweden Male 2.0 5.1 7.9 23.7 2022
 Switzerland Female 18.4 18.6 9.8 9.6 2022
 Switzerland Male 2.0 3.3 1.7 1.5 2022
 Venezuela Female 0.5 0.0 2.5 1.4 2018
 Venezuela Male 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.2 2018

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Ingemann-Hansen, Ole; Sabroe, Svend; Brink, Ole; Knudsen, Maiken; Charles, Annie Vesterbye (2009). "Characteristics of victims and assaults of sexual violence – Improving inquiries and prevention". Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. 16 (4): 182–188. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2008.07.004.
  2. ^ The international crime victim survey in countries in transition: national reports. Rome, United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, 1998.
  3. ^ Victims of crime in the developing world. Rome, United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, 1998
  4. ^ "Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against Women: Findings of the National Violence Against Women Survey" (PDF). National Institute of Justice. November 1998. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
  5. ^ a b c Jewkes R, Abrahams N. The epidemiology of rape and sexual coercion in South Africa: an overview. Social Science and Medicine (in press).
  6. ^ "Nearly 97% of women in the US are raped or suffer attempted rape at some point in their lives, a US study says". BBC World. 15 December 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
  7. ^ "National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey 2010 Summary Report" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 16 August 2016.
  8. ^ Tjaden P, Thoennes N. Full report of the prevalence, incidence and consequences of violence against women: findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC, National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, United States Department of Justice and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2000 (NCJ 183781).
  9. ^ Weiss P, Zverina J (1999). "Experiences with sexual aggression within the general population in the Czech Republic". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 28 (3): 265–269. doi:10.1023/A:1018740527252. PMID 10410202. S2CID 46251776.
  10. ^ Jewkes R; et al. (2001). "Relationship dynamics and adolescent pregnancy in South Africa". Social Science and Medicine. 52 (5): 733–744. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00177-5. PMID 11218177.
  11. ^ Matasha E; et al. (1998). "Sexual and reproductive health among primary and secondary school pupils in Mwanza, Tanzania: need for intervention". AIDS Care. 10 (5): 571–582. doi:10.1080/09540129848433. PMID 9828954.
  12. ^ Buga GA, Amoko DH, Ncayiyana DJ (1996). "Sexual behaviour, contraceptive practice and reproductive health among school adolescents in rural Transkei". South African Medical Journal. 86 (5): 523–527. PMID 8711547.
  13. ^ Rwenge M. "Sexual risk behaviours among young people in Bamenda, Cameroon. International Family Planning Perspectives, 2000; 118–123.
  14. ^ Halco´n L, Beuhring T, Blum R. A portrait of adolescent health in the Caribbean, 2000. Minneapolis, MN, University of Minnesota and Pan American Health Organization, 2000.
  15. ^ Halco´n L, Beuhring T, Blum R. A portrait of adolescent health in the Caribbean, 2000. Minneapolis, MN, University of Minnesota and Pan American Health Organization, 2000.
  16. ^ Caceres CF, Vanoss M, Sid Hudes E (2000). "Sexual coercion among youth and young adolescents in Lima, Peru". Journal of Adolescent Health. 27 (5): 361–367. doi:10.1016/s1054-139x(00)00096-3. PMID 11044709.
  17. ^ Campbell, Jacquelyn C.; Lucea, Marguerite B.; Stockman, Jamila K.; Draughon, Jessica E. (1 February 2013). "Forced Sex and HIV Risk in Violent Relationships". American Journal of Reproductive Immunology. 69 (1): 41–44. doi:10.1111/aji.12026. PMC 3573255. PMID 23066950.
  18. ^ "National Health and Social Life Survey". The University of Chicago. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  19. ^ "WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence against women". World Health Organization. 2002. hdl:10665/67422.
  20. ^ Migration Information Programme. Trafficking and prostitution: the growing exploitation of migrant women from central and eastern Europe. Geneva, International Organization for Migration, 1995.
  21. ^ Chauzy JP. Kyrgyz Republic: trafficking. Geneva, International Organization for Migration, 20 January 2001 (Press briefing notes).
  22. ^ a b Dinan K. Owed justice: Thai women trafficked into debt bondage in Japan. New York, NY, Human Rights Watch, 2000.
  23. ^ Richard AO. International trafficking in women to the United States: a contemporary manifestation of slavery and organized crime. Washington, DC, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1999.
  24. ^ Brown L. Sex slaves: the trafficking of women in Asia. London, Virago Press, 2001.
  25. ^ "UN highlights human trafficking". 26 March 2007.
  26. ^ Chauzy JP. Kyrgyzstan Republic: trafficking. Geneva, International Organization for Migration, 20 January 2001 (Press briefing notes).
  27. ^ Benninger-Budel C et al. Violence against women: a report. Geneva, World Organization Against Torture, 1999.
  28. ^ "Over 200,000 Nepali girls being trafficked to Indian red light areas_English_Xinhua". news.xinhuanet.com. Archived from the original on 18 February 2009.
  29. ^ "Third | Bureau of the Dutch Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings". Archived from the original on 29 June 2012. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
  30. ^ "Fourth | Bureau of the Dutch Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings". Archived from the original on 8 April 2012. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
  31. ^ "Dutch News in English". Archived from the original on 29 June 2012. Retrieved 6 January 2010.
  32. ^ "Dutch authorities register 809 human trafficking victims". 9 February 2009.
  33. ^ Timesonline.co.uk
  34. ^ "Netherlands - Facts on Trafficking and Prostitution". Archived from the original on 2 October 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2012.
  35. ^ "Human Trafficking & Modern-day Slavery - Netherlands".
  36. ^ "Vietnamese children dissapeared [sic] from protected shelters. And our government knew". Retrieved 18 October 2020.
  37. ^ Reports on human trafficking, by the BKA. (in German)
  38. ^ a b Richard AO. International trafficking in women to the United States: a contemporary manifestation of slavery and organized crime. Washington, DC, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1999.
  39. ^ Human Trafficking & Modern-day Slavery - Canada
  40. ^ Women & The Economy - Globalization & Migration Archived 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  41. ^ Barnard M (1993). "Violence and vulnerability: conditions of work for streetworking prostitutes". Sociology of Health and Illness. 15 (5): 683–705. doi:10.1111/1467-9566.ep11434434.
  42. ^ Church S; et al. (2001). "Violence by clients towards female prostitutes in different work settings: questionnaire survey". British Medical Journal. 322 (7285): 524–525. doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7285.524. PMC 26557. PMID 11230067.
  43. ^ Jenkins C. Street sex workers in Dhaka: their clients and enemies. In:The Proceedings of the International Conference on Violence Against Women and Children, Dhaka, Bangladesh, June 1998. Dhaka, 1998.
  44. ^ Ayalew T, Berhane Y (2000). "Child prostitution: magnitude and related problems". Ethiopian Medical Journal. 38 (3): 153–163. PMID 11132353.
  45. ^ a b Smith, S.G., Zhang, X., Basile, K.C., Merrick, M.T., Wang, J., Kresnow, M., Chen, J. (2018). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2015 Data Brief – Updated Release. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
  46. ^ Perlez J. For the oppressed sex: brave words to live by. New York Times, 6 June 1990.
  47. ^ "The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2015 Data Brief –Updated Release" (PDF). CDC. 2015.
  48. ^ Bagley C, Bolitho F, Bertrand L (1997). "Sexual assault in school, mental health and suicidal behaviors in adolescent women in Canada". Adolescence. 32 (126): 361–366. PMID 9179331.
  49. ^ a b Krebs, Christopher P.; Lindquist, Christine H.; Warner, Tara D.; Fisher, Bonnie S.; Martin, Sandra L. (December 2007). "The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study" (PDF). National Institute of Justice.
  50. ^ Deborah, Tuerkheimer (2017). "Incredible Women: Sexual Violence and the Credibility Discount". University of Pennsylvania Law Review. 166 (1).
  51. ^ Omaar R, de Waal A. Crimes without punishment: sexual harassment and violence against female students in schools and universities in Africa. African Rights, July 1994 (Discussion Paper No. 4).
  52. ^ Bagley C, Bolitho F, Bertrand L (1997). "Sexual assault in school, mental health and suicidal behaviors inadolescent women in Canada". Adolescence. 32 (126): 361–366. PMID 9179331.
  53. ^ "Sex Between Students & Professors". Retrieved 25 November 2016.
  54. ^ "Has Media Ignored Sex Abuse In School?". www.cbsnews.com. Archived from the original on 30 October 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2009.[title missing]
  55. ^ "Hostile Hallways" (PDF). American Association of University Women. 2001. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
  56. ^ Shakeshaft, Charol (Spring 2003). "Educator sexual abuse" (PDF). Hofstra Horizons: 10–13. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
  57. ^ Douglas, K. A.; et al. (1997). "Results from the 1995 national college health risk behavior survey". Journal of American College Health. 46 (2): 55–66. doi:10.1080/07448489709595589. PMID 9276349.
  58. ^ "Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance: The National College Health Risk Behavior Survey -- United States, 1995". Centers for Disease Control. 14 November 1997.
  59. ^ a b Pugh, Brandie; Ningard, Holly; Ven, Thomas Vander; Butler, Leah (2016). "Victim Ambiguity: Bystander Intervention and Sexual Assault in the College Drinking Scene". Deviant Behavior. 37 (4): 401–418. doi:10.1080/01639625.2015.1026777. S2CID 147081204.
  60. ^ Pugh, Brandie; Becker, Patricia (2 August 2018). "Exploring Definitions and Prevalence of Verbal Sexual Coercion and Its Relationship to Consent to Unwanted Sex: Implications for Affirmative Consent Standards on College Campuses". Behavioral Sciences. 8 (8): 69. doi:10.3390/bs8080069. ISSN 2076-328X. PMC 6115968. PMID 30072605.
  61. ^ Fary T, Fisher N (1992). "Sexual contact between doctors and patients: almost always harmful". British Medical Journal. 304 (6841): 1519–1520. doi:10.1136/bmj.304.6841.1519. PMC 1882417. PMID 1628046.
  62. ^ Lamont JA, Woodward C (1994). "Patient–physician sexual involvement: a Canadian survey of obstetriciangynecologists". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 150 (9): 1433–1439. PMC 1486668. PMID 8168007.
  63. ^ Thomasson GO (1999). "Educating physicians to prevent sexrelated contact with patients". Journal of the American Medical Association. 281 (5): 419–420. doi:10.1001/jama.281.5.419. PMID 9952199.
  64. ^ a b Dehlendorf CE, Wolfe SM (1998). "Physicians disciplined for sex-related offenses". Journal of the American Medical Association. 279 (23): 1883–1888. doi:10.1001/jama.279.23.1883. PMID 9634259.
  65. ^ McPhedran M (1996). "Sexual abuse in the health professions: who's counting?". World Health Statistics Quarterly. 49 (2): 154–157. PMID 9050195.
  66. ^ Silencio y complicidad: violencia contra las mujeres en los servicios pu' blicos en el Peru' . [Silence and complicity: violence against women in public services in Peru.] Lima, Committee of Latin America and the Caribbean for the Defense of the Rights of the Woman, and Center for Reproductive Law and Policy, 1998.
  67. ^ Fayad M. Female genital mutilation (female circumcision). Cairo, Star Press, 2000.
  68. ^ Human rights are women's rights. London, Amnesty International, 1999.
  69. ^ Frank MW; et al. (1999). "Virginity examinations in Turkey: role for forensic physicians in controlling female sexuality". Journal of the American Medical Association. 282 (5): 485–490. doi:10.1001/jama.282.5.485. PMID 10442667. S2CID 35147784.
  70. ^ Jaffre Y, Prual AM (1994). "Midwives in Niger: an uncomfortable position between social behaviours and health care constraints". Social Science and Medicine. 38 (8): 1069–1073. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(94)90224-0. PMID 8042055.
  71. ^ Gilson L, Alilio M, Heggenhougen K (1994). "Community satisfaction with primary health care services: an evaluation undertaken in the Morogoro region of Tanzania". Social Science and Medicine. 39 (6): 767–780. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(94)90038-8. PMID 7973873.
  72. ^ Jewkes R, Abrahams N, Mvo Z (1998). "Why do nurses abuse patients? Reflections from South African obstetric services". Social Science and Medicine. 47 (11): 1781–1795. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(98)00240-8. PMID 9877348.
  73. ^ Sargent C, Rawlins J (1992). "Transformations in maternity services in Jamaica". Social Science and Medicine. 35 (10): 1225–1232. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(92)90176-q. PMID 1439906.
  74. ^ d'Oliveira AF, Diniz SG, Schraiber LB (2002). "Violence against women in health-care institutions: an emerging problem". Lancet. 359 (9318): 1681–1685. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(02)08592-6. PMID 12020546. S2CID 1617484.
  75. ^ Shaikh MA (2000). "Sexual harassment in medical profession: perspectives from Pakistan". Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association. 50 (4): 130–131. PMID 10851835.
  76. ^ Kisa A, Dziegielewski SF (1996). "Sexual harassment of female nurses in a hospital in Turkey". Health Services Management Research. 9 (4): 243–253. doi:10.1177/095148489600900404. PMID 10162521. S2CID 2259156.
  77. ^ Chelala C (1998). "Algerian abortion controversy highlights rape of war victims". Lancet. 351 (9113): 1413. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)79457-5. PMID 9593424. S2CID 38898194.
  78. ^ Asia Watch. Rape in Kashmir: a crime of war. New York, NY, Human Rights Watch, 1993.
  79. ^ Xiau W (1999). "Silent consent: Indonesian abuse of women". Harvard International Review. 21: 16–17.
  80. ^ a b Swiss S; et al. (1998). "Violence against women during the Liberian civil conflict". Journal of the American Medical Association. 279 (8): 625–629. doi:10.1001/jama.279.8.625. PMID 9486762. S2CID 53396.
  81. ^ Swiss S, Giller JE (1993). "Rape as a crime of war: a medical perspective". Journal of the American Medical Association. 270 (5): 612–615. doi:10.1001/jama.270.5.612. PMID 8331761.
  82. ^ a b Pacific Women Against Violence. Violence against East Timor women. Pacific Women's Network Against Violence Against Women, 2000; 5:1–3.
  83. ^ Mollica RF, Son L (1989). "Cultural dimensions in the evaluation and treatment of sexual trauma: an overview". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 12 (2): 363–379. doi:10.1016/S0193-953X(18)30437-4. PMID 2748443.
  84. ^ Morrell R, ed. Changing men in Southern Africa. Pietermaritzburg, University of Natal Press, 2001.
  85. ^ Nduna S, Goodyear L. Pain too deep for tears: assessing the prevalence of sexual and gender violence among Burundian refugees in Tanzania. Kibondo, International Rescue Committee, 1997.
  86. ^ Lara Stemple, Andrew Flores b, Ilan H Meyer "Sexual victimization perpetrated by women: Federal data reveal, surprising prevalence." Aggression and Violent Behavior 34 (2017) 302–311. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.09.007. http://webshare.law.ucla.edu/Faculty/bibs/stemple/Stemple-SexualVictimizationPerpetratedFinal.pdf
  87. ^ George A. Sexual behavior and sexual negotiation among poor women and men in Mumbai: an exploratory study. Baroda, Sahaj Society for Health Alternatives, 1997.
  88. ^ Sharma V, Sujay R, Sharma A (1998). "Can married women say no to sex? Repercussions of the denial of the sexual act". Journal of Family Welfare. 44: 1–8.
  89. ^ a b c Early marriage: whose right to choose? London, Forum on Marriage and the Rights of Women and Girls, 2000.
  90. ^ a b c d e f UNICEF Innocenti Research Center. Early marriage: child spouses. Innocenti Digest, 2001, No. 7.
  91. ^ 100. UNICEF Innocenti Research Center. Early marriage: child spouses. Innocenti Digest, 2001, No. 7.
  92. ^ Ahmed EM. Violence against women: the legal system and institutional responses. Lahore, AGHS Legal Aid Cell, 1998.
  93. ^ Kumari R, Singh R, Dubey A. Growing up in rural India: problems and needs of adolescent girls. New Delhi, Radiant Publishers, 1990.
  94. ^ Indicators on marriage and marital status. In: 1997 Demographic yearbook, 49th ed. New York, NY, United Nations Statistics Division, 1999.
  95. ^ Krug et al., "World report on violence and health" Archived 2015-08-22 at the Wayback Machine, World Health Organization, 2002.
  96. ^ Stoltenborgh M.; Van IJzendoorn M.H.; Euser E.M.; Bakermans-Kranenburg M.J. (2011). "A global perspective on child abuse: Meta-analysis of prevalence around the world". Child Maltreatment. 26 (2): 79–101. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1029.9752. doi:10.1177/1077559511403920. PMID 21511741. S2CID 30813632.
  97. ^ a b "United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, crime-violent-offences". Retrieved 17 August 2024.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=Estimates_of_sexual_violence&oldid=1260582263"