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{{Redirect|Eisenhower|other people with the surname|Eisenhower (name)}}
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{{Infobox officeholder
|birthname = David Dwight Eisenhower
|image = Dwight D. Eisenhower, official photo portrait, May 29, 1959.jpg
|caption = Eisenhower in 1959
|office = [[List of Presidents of the United States|34th]] [[President of the United States]]
|vicepresident = [[Richard Nixon]]
|term_start = January 20, 1953
|term_end = January 20, 1961
|predecessor = [[Harry S. Truman]]
|successor = [[John F. Kennedy]]
|office2 = [[Supreme Allied Commander Europe|1st]] [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe|Supreme Allied Commander Europe]]
|president2 = [[Harry S. Truman]]
|term_start2 = April 2, 1951
|term_end2 = May 30, 1952
|deputy2 = [[Arthur Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder|Arthur Tedder]]
|predecessor2 = ''Position established''
|successor2 = [[Matthew Ridgway]]
|order3 = [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army#List of Chiefs of Staff of the Army (1903 – present)|16th]]
|title3 = [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army|Chief of Staff of the Army]]
|term_start3 = November 19, 1945
|term_end3 = February 6, 1948
|president3 = [[Harry S. Truman]]
|deputy3 = [[J. Lawton Collins]]
|predecessor3 = [[George Marshall]]
|successor3 = [[Omar Bradley]]
|office4 = [[Allied-occupied Germany#Military governors and commissioners|1st]] [[Allied-occupied Germany|Governor of the American Zone of Occupied Germany]]
|president4 = [[Harry S. Truman]]
|term_start4 = May 8, 1945
|term_end4 = November 10, 1945
|predecessor4 = ''Position established''
|successor4 = [[Joseph T. McNarney]]
|office5 = [[List of Presidents of Columbia University|13th]] [[List of Presidents of Columbia University|President of Columbia University]]
|term_start5 = 1948
|term_end5 = 1953
|predecessor5 = [[Nicholas Murray Butler]]
|successor5 = [[Grayson L. Kirk|Grayson Kirk]]
|birth_date = {{birth date|1890|10|14}}
|birth_place = [[Denison, Texas|Denison]], [[Texas]], U.S.
|death_date = {{death date and age|1969|3|28|1890|10|14}}
|death_place = [[Walter Reed General Hospital]]<br />[[Washington, D.C.]], U.S.
|restingplace = {{nowrap|[[Eisenhower Presidential Center]]}}<br />[[Abilene, Kansas|Abilene]], [[Kansas]], U.S.
|party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|spouse = [[Mamie Eisenhower|Mamie Geneva Doud]]
|children = [[Doud Eisenhower]]<br />[[John Eisenhower]]
|alma_mater = [[United States Military Academy|U.S. Military Academy]]
|profession = [[Officer (armed forces)|Army officer]]
|religion = [[Presbyterianism]]
|signature = Dwight Eisenhower Signature.svg
|signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
|rank = [[File:US-O11 insignia.svg|24px]] [[General of the Army (United States)|General of the Army]]
|branch = {{army|USA}}
|serviceyears = 1915–1953<br />1961–1969<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eisenhower.utexas.edu/all_about_ike/post_presidential.html |title=The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum Homepage |publisher=Eisenhower.utexas.edu |accessdate=September 5, 2012}}</ref>
|battles = [[World War II]]
|awards = [[Distinguished Service Medal (Army)|Army Distinguished Service Medal]] (5)<br>[[Navy Distinguished Service Medal]]<br>[[Legion of Merit]]<br>[[Order of the Southern Cross]]<br>[[Order of the Bath]]<br>[[Order of Merit]]<br>[[Legion of Honor]]<br>''[[#Awards and decorations|See more]]''}}

'''Dwight David''' "'''Ike'''" '''Eisenhower''' (pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|z|ən|h|aʊər}}, {{respell|EYE|zən-how-ər}}; October 14, 1890&nbsp;– March 28, 1969) was the [[List of Presidents of the United States|34th]] [[President of the United States]] from 1953 until 1961. He was a [[General of the Army (United States)|five-star general]] in the [[United States Army]] during World War II and served as [[Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Commander]] of the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Forces]] in Europe; he had responsibility for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in [[Operation Torch]] in 1942–43 and the successful [[Invasion of Normandy|invasion of France]] and [[Drive to the Siegfried Line|Germany]] in 1944–45 from the [[Western Front (World War II)|Western Front]]. In 1951, he became the first [[Supreme Allied Commander Europe|supreme commander of NATO]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aco.nato.int/page61411944.aspx |title=Former SACEURs |publisher=Aco.nato.int |accessdate=January 26, 2012}}</ref>

Eisenhower was of [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] ancestry and was raised in a large family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He attended and graduated from [[The United States Military Academy|West Point]] and later married and had two sons. After World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President [[Harry S. Truman]], then assumed the post of President at [[Columbia University]].<ref>Ambrose (1983).</ref>

Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator [[Robert A. Taft]] and to crusade against "Communism, Korea and corruption". He won by a landslide, defeating Democrat [[Adlai Stevenson II|Adlai Stevenson]] and ending two decades of the [[New Deal Coalition]]. In the first year of his presidency, Eisenhower deposed the leader of Iran in the [[1953 Iranian coup d'état]] and used nuclear threats to conclude the [[Korean War]] with [[Peoples Republic of China|China]]. His [[New Look (policy)|New Look]] policy of [[nuclear deterrence]] gave priority to inexpensive [[Nuclear weapons and the United States|nuclear weapons]] while reducing the funding for conventional military forces; the goal was to keep pressure on the [[Soviet Union]] and reduce federal deficits. In 1954, Eisenhower first articulated the [[domino theory]] in his description of the threat presented by the spread of communism. The Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the [[Formosa Resolution of 1955|Formosa Resolution]], which enabled him to prevent Chinese communist aggression against Chinese nationalists and established the U.S. policy of defending Taiwan. When the Soviets launched [[Sputnik]] in 1957, he had to play catch-up in the space race. Eisenhower forced [[Israel]], the UK, and France to end their invasion of Egypt during the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956. In 1958, he sent 15,000 U.S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the pro-Western government from falling to a [[Nasser]]-inspired revolution. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a summit meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the [[1960 U-2 incident|U-2 incident]].<ref>Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. ''A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House'' (1965), pp. 233, 238</ref> In his 1961 [[Eisenhower's farewell address|farewell address to the nation]], Eisenhower expressed his concerns about future dangers of massive military spending, especially deficit spending, and coined the term "[[military–industrial complex]]".

On the domestic front, he covertly opposed [[Joseph McCarthy]] and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking the modern expanded version of [[executive privilege]]. He otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, [[Richard Nixon]]. He was a moderate [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] who continued [[New Deal]] agencies and expanded [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]].

Among his enduring innovations, he launched the [[Interstate Highway System]]; the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ([[DARPA]]), which led to the internet, among many invaluable outputs; the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ([[NASA]]), driving peaceful discovery in space; the establishment of strong science education via the [[National Defense Education Act]]; and encouraging peaceful use of nuclear power via amendments to the [[Atomic Energy Act]].<ref name="Commission2008">Dwight D. Eisenhower and Science & Technology, (2008).Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission, [http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/onepage/IKE%20&%20Science.Oct08.EN.FINAL%20(v2).pdf Source].</ref>

In social policy, he sent federal troops to [[Little Rock, Arkansas]], for the first time since [[Reconstruction era (United States)|Reconstruction]] to enforce federal court orders to desegregate public schools. He also signed civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 to protect the right to vote. He implemented desegregation of the armed forces in two years and made five appointments to the Supreme Court. He was the first term-limited president in accordance with the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|22nd Amendment]].
Eisenhower's two terms were peaceful ones for the most part and saw considerable economic prosperity except for a sharp recession in 1958–59. Eisenhower is often [[Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States#Scholar survey results|ranked]] highly among the U.S. presidents.

==Early life and education==
[[File:Eisenhower familyhome.jpg|thumb|left|upright|175px|Eisenhower family home, [[Abilene, Kansas]]]]
The Eisenhauer (German for "iron hewer/miner") family migrated from [[Karlsbrunn]], [[Germany]], to North America. The Eisenhower family settled in [[York, Pennsylvania]], in 1741, and in the 1880s they moved to [[Kansas]].<ref name="barnett19421109">{{cite news | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JUAEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA112&pg=PA112#v=onepage&q&f=false | title=General "Ike" Eisenhower | work=Life | date=November 9, 1942 | accessdate=May 31, 2011 | author=Barnett, Lincoln | page=112}}</ref> Accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was changed to a more English spelling of Eisenhower.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YVD0jK03EPEC&dq=Ike:+An+American+Hero&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mc8LUPH1Fuma0QXN64i_Cg&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA | title=Ike: An American Hero | author=Korda,Michael | year=2007 | accessdate=July 22, 2012 | page=63}}</ref> Eisenhower's [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] ancestors, who were primarily farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn, who migrated to [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]], in 1741.<ref name="Ambrose 1983, p.14">Ambrose (1983), p. 14.</ref> Hans' great-great grandson, David Jacob Eisenhower (1863–1942), was Dwight's father, and was a college-educated engineer, despite his own father Jacob's urging to stay on the family farm. Eisenhower's mother, [[Ida Stover Eisenhower|Ida Elizabeth (Stover) Eisenhower]], born in Virginia, of German [[Lutheran]] ancestry, moved to Kansas from Virginia. She married David on September 23, 1885, in [[Lecompton, Kansas]], on the campus of their alma mater, [[Lane University]]. David owned a general store in [[Hope, Kansas]], but the business failed due to economic conditions and the family became impoverished. The Eisenhowers then lived in Texas from 1889 until 1892, and later returned to Kansas, with $24 to their name at the time; David worked as a mechanic with a railroad and then with a creamery.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 16–18.</ref> By 1898, the family was self-sustaining with suitable accommodations for their large family.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 19.</ref>

Eisenhower was born on October 14, 1890, in [[Denison, Texas]], the third of seven boys.<ref>{{cite book|last=D'Este|first=Carlo|title=Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life |year=2003|place=New York, New York|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=0-8050-5687-4|page=30|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RCeteK7LEiYC}}</ref> His mother originally named him David Dwight but reversed the two names after his birth to avoid the confusion of having two Davids in the family.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 18.</ref> All of the boys were called "Ike", such as "Big Ike" (Edgar) and "Little Ike" (Dwight); the nickname was intended as an abbreviation of their last name.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 22.</ref> By World War II, only Dwight was still called "Ike".{{r|barnett19421109}} In 1892, the family moved to [[Abilene, Kansas]], which Eisenhower considered as his home town.{{r|barnett19421109}} As a child, he was involved in an accident that cost his younger brother an eye; he later referred to this as an experience teaching him the need to be protective of those under him. Dwight developed a keen and enduring interest in exploring outdoors, hunting/fishing, cooking and card playing from an illiterate named Bob Davis who camped on the [[Smoky Hill River]].<ref name=ease/><ref>D'Este, Carlo (2002). ''Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life'', p. 25.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://home.nps.gov/eise/forteachers/classrooms/upload/webed-Molding-of-a-Leader-Lesson-3-Materials.pdf |title=Getting on the Right TRRACC |work=Lesson Plans: The Molding of a Leader |publisher=Eisenhower National Historic Site |accessdate=April 27, 2013 |quote=...Ike spent his weekends at Davis’s camp on the Smoky Hill River. }}</ref> And though his mother was against war, it was her collection of history books that first sparked Eisenhower's early and lasting interest in military history. He persisted in reading the books in her collection and became a voracious reader in the subject. Other favorite subjects early in his education were arithmetic and spelling.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 32.</ref>

His parents set aside specific times at breakfast and at dinner for daily family Bible reading. Chores were regularly assigned and rotated among all the children, and misbehavior was met with unequivocal discipline, usually from David.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 25.</ref> His mother, previously a member (with David) of the [[River Brethren]] sect of the [[Mennonite]]s, joined the [[Bible Student movement#International Bible Students Association|International Bible Students Association]], later known as [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915, though Eisenhower never joined the International Bible Students.<ref>Bergman, Jerry. "Steeped in Religion: President Eisenhower and the Influence of the Jehovah's Witnesses", ''Kansas History'' (autumn 1998).</ref> His later decision to attend West Point saddened his mother, who felt that warfare was "rather wicked," but she did not overrule him.<ref>D'Este, Carlo (2002). ''Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life'', p. 58.</ref> While speaking of himself in 1948, Eisenhower said he was "one of the most deeply religious men I know" though unattached to any "sect or organization". He was baptized in the [[Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)|Presbyterian Church]] in 1953.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,889614,00.html online "Faith Staked Down"], ''Time'', February 9, 1953.</ref>

Eisenhower attended Abilene High School and graduated with the class of 1909.<ref name="gradyear">{{Cite news |title=Public School Products |date=September 14, 1959 |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> As a freshman, he injured his knee and developed a leg infection which extended into his groin and which his doctor diagnosed as life threatening; the doctor insisted that the leg be amputated but Dwight refused to allow it, and miraculously recovered, though he had to repeat his freshman year.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 36.</ref> He and brother [[Edgar N. Eisenhower|Edgar]] both wanted to attend college, though they lacked the funds. They made a pact to take alternate years at college while the other worked, in order to earn the tuitions.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 37.</ref> Edgar took the first turn at school, and Dwight was employed as a night supervisor at the Belle Springs Creamery.<ref>{{Cite news|accessdate=May 23, 2008|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,839998-3,00.html|title=Eisenhower: Soldier of Peace|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=April 4, 1969}}</ref> Edgar asked for a second year, Dwight consented and worked for a second year. At that time, a friend "Swede" Hazlet was applying to the [[United States Naval Academy|Naval Academy]] and urged Dwight to apply to the school, since no tuition was required. Eisenhower requested consideration for either Annapolis or West Point with his U.S. Senator, [[Joseph L. Bristow]]. Though Eisenhower was among the winners of the entrance-exam competition, he was beyond the age limit for the Naval Academy.<ref name="Education">{{cite web|accessdate=May 23, 2008|url=http://www.dwightdeisenhower.com/biodde.html|title=Biography: Dwight David Eisenhower |publisher=[[Eisenhower Foundation]]}}</ref> He then accepted an appointment to West Point in 1911.<ref name="Education"/>

[[File:Eisenhower Football.jpg|thumb|left|Eisenhower (2nd from left) and [[Omar Bradley]] (2nd from right) were members of the [[1912 Army Cadets football team|1912 West Point football team]].]]
At West Point, Eisenhower relished the emphasis on traditions and on sports, but was less enthusiastic about the hazing, though he willingly accepted it as a plebe; he was also a regular violator of the more detailed regulations, and finished school with a less than stellar discipline rating. Academically, Eisenhower's best subject by far was English; otherwise his performance was average, though he thoroughly enjoyed the typical emphasis of engineering on science and mathematics.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 44–48.</ref> In athletics, Eisenhower later said that "not making the baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest."<ref name = "rayaip">{{cite web|accessdate=May 23, 2008|url=http://www.baseball-almanac.com/prz_qde.shtml|title=President Dwight D. Eisenhower Baseball Related Quotations|publisher=Baseball Almanac}}</ref> He did make the football team, and was a varsity starter as running back and linebacker in 1912, tackling the legendary [[Jim Thorpe]] of the [[Carlisle Indians football|Carlisle Indians]] that year.<ref>{{Cite news |accessdate=May 23, 2008 |url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/07/09/jim.thorpe/ |title=Roller-coaster life of Indian icon, sports' first star |publisher=CNN|date=July 15, 1912|author=Botelho, Greg}}</ref> Eisenhower suffered a torn knee in that, his last, game; he re-injured his knee on horseback and in the boxing ring,{{r|barnett19421109}}<ref name=ease>Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1967). At Ease: Stories I Tell to Friends, Garden City, New York, Doubleday & Company, Inc.</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=May 23, 2008|url=http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/stories/Ike-and-team.htm|title=Ike and the Team |publisher=[[Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial]]}}</ref> so he turned to fencing and gymnastics.{{r|barnett19421109}} Eisenhower later served as junior varsity football coach and cheerleader. [[Eisenhower Baseball Controversy|Controversy persists]] over whether Eisenhower played [[minor league baseball]] for [[Junction City, Kansas|Junction City]] in the Central Kansas League the year before he attended West Point, where he played amateur football.<ref name="ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil">{{cite web|title=Eisenhower BOQ 1915 |url=http://ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil/fshmuse/tour8.htm |accessdate=August 23, 2012 |publisher=[[Fort Sam Houston]]|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070717161130/http://ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil/fshmuse/tour8.htm |archivedate= July 17, 2007}}</ref><ref name="ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil 2">{{cite web|url=http://ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil/fshmuse/eisen_football.htm |title=Lt Eisenhower and Football Team |accessdate=August 23, 2012 |publisher=[[Fort Sam Houston]]|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070717161130/http://ameddregiment.amedd.army.mil/fshmuse/eisen_football.htm |archivedate= July 17, 2007}}</ref> He graduated in the middle of the class of 1915,<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=May 23, 2008|url=http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/ddeisenhower.html|title=Dwight David Eisenhower|publisher=[[Internet Public Library]]}}</ref> which became known as "[[the class the stars fell on]]", because 59 members eventually became [[general officer]]s.

==Personal life==
[[File:Mamie eisenhower.gif|thumb|200px|[[Mamie Eisenhower]]]]
Eisenhower met and fell in love with [[Mamie Eisenhower|Mamie Geneva Doud]] of [[Boone, Iowa]], six years his junior, while he was stationed in Texas.{{r|barnett19421109}} He and her family were also immediately taken with one another. He proposed to her on Valentine's Day in 1916.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/03mar/05.cfm | title =The Man Who Changed America, Part I | author =Richard F. Weingroff | publisher =fhwa.dot.gov | date =March/April 2003}}</ref> A November wedding date in Denver was moved up to July 1 due to the pending US entry into World War I. In their first 35 years of marriage, they moved many times.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp. 59–60.</ref>

The Eisenhowers had two sons. Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower was born September 24, 1917, and died of [[scarlet fever]] on January 2, 1921, at the age of three;<ref>{{Cite book|author=Berger-Knorr, Lawrence|title=The Pennsylvania Relations of Dwight D. Eisenhower|page=8}}</ref> Eisenhower was mostly reticent to discuss his death.{{r|beckett}} Their second son, [[John Eisenhower|John Sheldon Doud Eisenhower]], was born on August 3, 1922, while they were in Panama; John served in the [[United States Army]], retired as a brigadier general, became an author and served as [[Diplomatic missions of Belgium|U.S. Ambassador to Belgium]] from 1969 to 1971. John, coincidentally, graduated from [[West Point]] on D-Day, June 6, 1944. He married Barbara Jean Thompson on June 10, 1947. John and Barbara had four children: [[David Eisenhower|Dwight David II "David"]], Barbara Ann, [[Susan Eisenhower|Susan Elaine]] and [[Mary Jean Eisenhower|Mary Jean]]. David, after whom [[Camp David]] is named,<ref>[http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/camp_david.html]"Camp David" at Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum, and Boyhood Home" site. Says "Ike re-named it "Camp David" in honor of his grandson David Eisenhower." Retrieved August 2, 2012</ref> married [[Richard Nixon]]'s daughter [[Julie Nixon Eisenhower|Julie]] in 1968.

Eisenhower was a golf enthusiast later in life, and joined the [[Augusta National Golf Club]] in 1948.<ref name=Masters>[[David Owen (author)|Owen, David]] (1999). ''The Making of the Masters: Clifford Roberts, Augusta National, and Golf's Most Prestigious Tournament'', Simon and Schuster, ISBN 0-684-85729-4.</ref> He played golf frequently during and after his presidency and was unreserved in expressing his passion for the game, to the point of golfing during winter, and ordered his golf balls painted black so he could see them better against snow on the ground. He had a small, basic golf facility installed at [[Camp David]], and became close friends with the Augusta National Chairman [[Clifford Roberts]], inviting Roberts to stay at the [[White House]] on several occasions; Roberts, an investment broker, also handled the Eisenhower family's investments. Roberts also advised Eisenhower on tax aspects of publishing his memoirs, which proved to be financially lucrative.<ref name=Masters/>

After golf, [[oil painting]] was Eisenhower's second hobby.{{r|beckett}} While at Columbia, Eisenhower began the art after watching [[Thomas E. Stephens]] paint Mamie's portrait. He painted about 260 oils during the last 20 years of his life to relax, mostly landscapes but also portraits of subjects such as Mamie, their grandchildren, General Montgomery, [[George Washington]], and [[Abraham Lincoln]].<ref name="dodson19901117">{{cite news | url=http://articles.latimes.com/1990-11-17/local/me-4317_1_nixon-library | title=New Exhibit Offers a Look at Eisenhower the Artist | work=Los Angeles Times | date=November 17, 1990 | accessdate=January 13, 2012 | author=Dodson, Marcida}}</ref> [[Wendy Beckett]] stated that Eisenhower's work, "simple and earnest, rather cause us to wonder at the hidden depths of this reticent president". A conservative in both art and politics, he in a 1962 speech denounced modern art as "a piece of canvas that looks like a broken-down [[Tin Lizzie]], loaded with paint, has been driven over it."<ref name="beckett">{{cite journal | url=http://www.whha.org/whha_publications/publications_documents/whitehousehistory_21.pdf. | title=President Eisenhower: Painter | author=Beckett, Wendy | journal=White House History | issue=21 | pages=30–40 | ref=harv}}</ref>

''[[Angels in the Outfield (1951 film)|Angels in the Outfield]]'' was Eisenhower's favorite movie.<ref>{{cite web|last=Erickson|first=Hal|title=Angels in the Outfield (1951): Review Summary|url=http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/83734/Angels-in-the-Outfield/overview|publisher=New York Times|accessdate=25 September 2013}}</ref> His favorite reading material for relaxation were the Western novels of [[Zane Grey]].<ref name="Rhodes Scholars">{{cite book|last=Schaeper|first=Thomas J.|title=Rhodes Scholars, Oxford, and the Creation of an American Elite|year=2010|publisher=Berghahn Books|location=Oxford, NY|isbn=978-1845457211|page=210}}</ref>

==Early military career==
{{See also|Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower}}

===World War I===
After graduation in 1915, Lieutenant (2nd) Eisenhower put in for assignment in the Philippines which was denied, and served with the [[infantry]], initially in supplies, until 1918 at various camps in Texas and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. In 1916, while stationed at [[Fort Sam Houston]], Eisenhower was football coach for St. Louis College, now [[St. Mary's University, Texas|St. Mary's University]].<ref>Ambrose (1983), p.56.</ref> In late 1917 while in charge of training at Ft. Oglethorpe in Georgia, Mamie had their first son.

When the US entered [[World War I]] he immediately requested an overseas assignment but was again denied and then assigned to Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p.61–62.</ref> In February 1918 he was transferred to Camp Meade in Maryland with the 65th Engineers. His unit was later ordered to France but to his chagrin he received orders for the new [[Tank Corps, National Army|tank corps]], where he rose to temporary ([[Brevet (military)|Bvt.]]) [[Lieutenant colonel (United States)|Lieutenant Colonel]] in the [[National Army (USA)|National Army]].<ref>Ambrose (1983), p.62.</ref> He trained tank crews at "Camp Colt"—his first command—at the site of "Pickett's Charge" on the [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]] [[American Civil War|Civil War]] battleground. Though Ike and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills, as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p.63.</ref> Once again his spirits were raised when the unit under his command received orders overseas to France; this time his wishes were thwarted when the armistice was signed, just a week before departure.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p.65.</ref> Completely missing out on the warfront left him depressed and bitter for a time, despite being given the [[Distinguished Service Medal (Army)|Distinguished Service Medal]] for his work at home. In World War II, rivals who had combat service in the first great war (led by Gen. [[Bernard Montgomery]]) sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his previous lack of combat duty, despite his stateside experience establishing a camp, completely equipped, for thousands of troops, and developing a full combat training schedule.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p.68.</ref>

===In service of generals===
[[File:Eisenhower transcontinental military convoy.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower, far right, with three unidentified friends, in 1919 four years after graduating from West Point.]]
After the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of [[Captain (U.S. Army)|captain]] and a few days later was promoted to [[Major (United States)|major]], a rank he held for 16 years.<ref name="Ambrose 1983, p.14"/> The major was assigned in 1919 to a transcontinental Army convoy to test vehicles and dramatize the need for improved roads in the nation. Indeed, the convoy averaged only 5&nbsp;mph from Washington, D.C. to San Francisco; later the improvement of highways became a signature issue for Eisenhower as President.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 69.</ref> He assumed duties again at [[Camp Meade]], [[Maryland]], commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922. His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank in it. His new expertise in [[tank warfare]] was strengthened by a close collaboration with [[George S. Patton]], [[Sereno E. Brett]], and other senior tank leaders; their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors who considered the new approach too radical and preferred the tank continue to be used in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. Eisenhower was even threatened with court martial for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented.<ref>{{harvnb|Sixsmith|1973|p=6}}</ref><ref>Ambrose (1983), pp. 70–73.</ref>

From 1920, Eisenhower served with an unprecedented succession of generals&nbsp;– [[Fox Conner]], [[John J. Pershing]], [[Douglas MacArthur]] and [[George Marshall]]. He first became executive officer to General Conner in the [[Panama Canal Zone]], where, joined by Mamie, he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including [[Carl von Clausewitz]]'s ''[[On War]]''), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that "Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew." Conner's comment on Ike was, "[he] is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met."<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp. 73–76.</ref> On Conner's recommendation, in 1925–26 he attended the [[Command and General Staff College]] at [[Fort Leavenworth]], Kansas, where he graduated first in a class of 245 officers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/bender/bender.asp |title=Watershed at Leavenworth |accessdate=September 6, 2008 |last=Bender |first=Mark C. |year=1990 |publisher=U.S. Army Command and General Staff College }}</ref><ref>American President: An Online Reference Resource, ''Dwight David Eisenhower (1890–1969)'', [http://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/essays/biography/2 "Life Before the Presidency,"] Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia.</ref> He then served as a [[battalion]] commander at [[Fort Benning]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], until 1927.

During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Eisenhower's career in the post war army stalled somewhat, as military priorities diminished; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs. He was assigned to the [[American Battle Monuments Commission]] directed by General Pershing, and with the help of his brother [[Milton Eisenhower]], then a journalist at the Agriculture Dept., he produced a guide to American battlefields in Europe. He then was assigned to the [[United States Army War College|Army War College]] and graduated in 1928. After a one year assignment in France, Eisenhower served as executive officer to General George V. Mosely, Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to February 1933.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 82.</ref> His primary duty was planning for the next war which proved most difficult in the midst of the great depression.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 88.</ref> He then was posted as chief military aide to General MacArthur, Army [[Chief of staff (military)|Chief of Staff]]. In 1932, he participated in the clearing of the [[Bonus March]] encampment in Washington DC. Although he was against the actions taken against the veterans and strongly advised MacArthur against taking a public role in it, he later wrote the Army's official incident report, endorsing MacArthur's conduct.<ref name=Wukovits43>{{Cite book |title=Eisenhower |last=Wukovits |first=John F. |year=2006 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=0-230-61394-2 |page=43 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=om5ZykQFGrwC&pg=PA43#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=June 15, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life |last=D'Este |first=Carlo |authorlink=Carlo D'Este |year=2002 |publisher=Henry Holt & Co. |location=New York |isbn=0-8050-5687-4 |page=223 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RCeteK7LEiYC&pg=PA223#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=June 15, 2011 }}</ref>

In 1935, he accompanied MacArthur to the [[Philippines]], where he served as assistant military adviser to the Philippine government in developing their army. Eisenhower had strong philosophical disagreements with his patron regarding the role of the [[Philippine Army]] and the leadership qualities that an American army officer should exhibit and develop in his subordinates. The dispute and resulting antipathy lasted the rest of their lives.<ref>Irish, Kerry. "Dwight Eisenhower and Douglas MacArthur in the Philippines: There Must Be a Day of Reckoning", ''Journal of Military History'', April 2010, Vol. 74, Issue 2, pp. 439–473.</ref> Historians have concluded that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of [[Winston Churchill]], George S. Patton, George Marshall and General Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower later emphasized that too much had been made of the disagreements with MacArthur, and that a positive relationship endured.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 94.</ref> While in Manila Mamie suffered a life threatening stomach ailment but recovered fully. Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of permanent lieutenant colonel in 1936. He also learned to fly, although he was never rated as a military pilot. He made a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937.

Eisenhower returned to the U.S. in 1939 and held a series of staff positions in [[Washington, D.C.]], [[California]] and [[Texas]]. In June 1941, he was appointed Chief of Staff to General [[Walter Krueger]], Commander of the [[Third United States Army|3rd Army]], at Fort Sam Houston in [[San Antonio]], [[Texas]]. After successfully participating in the [[Louisiana Maneuvers]], he was promoted to [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]] on October 3, 1941.<ref>Korda (2007), pp&nbsp;239–243</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dwightdeisenhower.com/general.html |title=The Eisenhowers: The General |publisher=Dwightdeisenhower.com |accessdate=May 3, 2010}}</ref> Although his administrative abilities had been noticed, on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II he had never held an active command above a battalion and was far from being considered by many as a potential commander of major operations.

==World War II==
After the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and [[Nazi Germany|Germany]]. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division (WPD), General [[Leonard T. Gerow]], and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Then he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of the new Operations Division (which replaced WPD) under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, who spotted talent and promoted accordingly.<ref>Ambrose, Stephen E. (1983). ''Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect, 1890–1952''</ref>

At the end of May 1942, Eisenhower accompanied Lt. Gen. [[Henry H. Arnold]], commanding general of the [[United States Army Air Forces|Army Air Forces]], to London to assess the effectiveness of the theater commander in England, Maj. Gen. James E. Chaney. He returned to Washington on June 3 with a pessimistic assessment, stating he had an "uneasy feeling" about Chaney and his staff. On June 23, 1942, he returned to London as Commanding General, [[European Theater of Operations]] (ETOUSA), based in London,<ref>Eisenhower lived in 'Telegraph Cottage', Warren Road, [[Coombe, Kingston upon Thames|Coombe]], [[Kingston upon Thames]] from 1942 to 1944. In 1995, a plaque commemorating this was placed there by the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames. It can be seen at the north end of Warren Road.</ref> and replaced Chaney.<ref name="huston">{{cite book| author=Huston, John W.| chapter=| title=American Airpower Comes of Age: General Henry H. "Hap" Arnold's World War II Diaries| editor=Maj. Gen. John W. Huston, USAF| publisher=Air University Press| isbn= 1-58566-093-0| year=2002| pages=288, 312}}</ref>

===Operations Torch and Avalanche===
[[File:Dwight D. Eisenhower as General of the Army crop.jpg|thumb|upright|150px|General Eisenhower.]]
In November 1942, he was also appointed [[Supreme Commander Allied (Expeditionary) Force]] of the [[North African Theater of Operations]] (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters [[AFHQ|A(E)FHQ]]. The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. The campaign in North Africa was designated [[Operation Torch]] and was [[Admiralty Tunnel|planned underground]] within the [[Rock of Gibraltar]]. Eisenhower was the first non British person to command Gibraltar for 200 years.<ref name=gibraltar>{{cite news|last=Gallagher|first=Wes|title=Eisenhower Commanded Gibraltar|url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19421222&id=h5c0AAAAIBAJ&sjid=rGgFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3799,6270005|accessdate=29 April 2013|newspaper=The Lewiston Daily Sun|date=December 1942}}</ref>

French cooperation was deemed necessary to the campaign, and Eisenhower encountered a "preposterous situation' with the multiple rival factions in France. His primary objective was to move forces successfully onto Tunisia, and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to [[François Darlan]] as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices of state in [[Vichy France]] and his continued role as Commander in Chief of French armed forces. The Allied leaders were "thunderstruck" by this from a political standpoint, though none of them had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in the course of planning the operation. Eisenhower was severely criticized for the move. Darlan was assassinated later that year by [[Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle]]. Eisenhower did not take action to prevent the arrest and extrajudicial execution of Bonnier de La Chapelle by associates of Darlan acting without authority from either Vichy or the Allies, considering it a criminal rather than a military matter.<ref>Atkinson, ''An Army at Dawn'', pp. 251-52.</ref> Eisenhower later appointed General [[Henri Giraud]] as High Commissioner, who had been installed by the Allies as Darlan's commander in chief, and who had refused to postpone the execution.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p.204–210.</ref>

Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of [[Erwin Rommel|Erwin Rommel's]] move into the [[Kasserine Pass]], Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by some interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates. He also was initially indecisive in his removal of [[Lloyd Fredendall]]. He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p.&nbsp;230–233.</ref> In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the [[British 8th Army]], commanded by General [[Bernard Law Montgomery]]. The [[Eighth United States Army|8th Army]] had advanced across the [[Western Desert Campaign|Western Desert]] from the east and was ready for the start of the [[Tunisia Campaign]]. Eisenhower gained his fourth star and gave up command of ETOUSA to be commander of NATOUSA.

After the capitulation of [[Axis Powers|Axis]] forces in North Africa Eisenhower oversaw the highly successful [[Operation Husky|invasion of Sicily]]. Once Mussolini had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with [[Operation Avalanche]]. But while Eisenhower argued with Roosevelt and Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional terms of surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country&nbsp;– making the job more difficult, by adding 19 divisions and initially outnumbering the Allied forces 2 to 1, Nevertheless, the invasion of Italy was highly successful.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p.254–255.</ref>

===Supreme Allied commander and Operation Overlord===
[[File:Eisenhower d-day.jpg|thumb|left|Eisenhower with U.S. paratroopers of the [[502d Parachute Infantry Regiment]], [[101st Airborne Division]] on June 5, 1944]]
In December 1943, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] decided that Eisenhower—not Marshall—would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force]] (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp.275–276.</ref> He was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied [[Normandy Landings|assault on the coast of Normandy]] in June 1944 under the code name [[Operation Overlord]], the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany.
[[File:American World War II senior military officials, 1945.JPEG|thumb|right|From left, front row includes army officers Simpson, Patton, Spaatz, Eisenhower, Bradley, Hodges and Gerow in 1945]]
Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skill sets had all strengthened in preparation for the next most difficult campaign against the Germans&nbsp;– a beach landing assault. His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with de Gaulle to use French resistance forces in covert and sabotage operations against the Germans in advance of Overlord.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p.280–281.</ref> Admiral [[Ernest J. King]] fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from the Pacific.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p.284.</ref> He also insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic air forces to facilitate Overlord, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, as he did.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp.286–288.</ref> Eisenhower then designed a bombing plan in France in advance of Overlord and argued with Churchill over the latter's concern with civilian casualties; de Gaulle interjected that the casualties were justified in shedding the yoke of the Germans, and Eisenhower prevailed.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p.289.</ref> He also had to skillfully manage to retain the services of the often unruly [[George S. Patton]], by severely reprimanding him, when Patton earlier had slapped a subordinate and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp.250, 298.</ref>

The [[D-Day]] [[Normandy landings]] on June 6, 1944 were costly but successful; a month later the [[Operation Dragoon|invasion of Southern France]] took place, and control of the forces which took part in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. Many prematurely considered that victory in Europe would come by summer's end; however German capitulation would not come for almost a year. From then until the [[The end of World War II in Europe|end of the war in Europe]] on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower through SHAEF had command of all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA, administrative command of all U.S. forces, on the [[Western Front (World War II)|Western Front]] north of the [[Alps]]. He was ever mindful of the inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced on an individual level by the troops under his command and their families. This prompted him to make a point of personally visiting every division involved in the invasion.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 278.</ref> Ike's sense of responsibility was underscored by his draft of a statement to be issued if the invasion failed; it has been called one of the great speeches of history:
<blockquote>Our landings in the Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone.<ref>William Safire, ''Lend me your ears: great speeches in history'' (2004) p 1143</ref></blockquote>

===Liberation of France and victory in Europe===
[[File:Allied Commanders after Germany Surrendered.jpg|thumb|right|210px|Eisenhower and the Allied Commanders at Rheims Surrender]]
Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy, and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany. Gen. Montgomery insisted priority be given to his 21st Army Group's attack being made in the north, while Gens. Bradley (U.S. 12th Army Group) and Devers (U.S. Sixth Army Group) insisted they be given priority in the center and south of the front. Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical, though sometimes ineffective, latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at Antwerp was successfully, albeit belatedly, opened in late 1944, and victory became a more distinct probability.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp. 340–354.</ref>

In recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944 he was promoted to [[General of the Army (United States)|General of the Army]], equivalent to the rank of [[Field Marshal]] in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He interacted adeptly with allies such as [[Winston Churchill]], Field Marshal [[Bernard Montgomery]] and General [[Charles de Gaulle]]. He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He dealt with Soviet [[Georgy Zhukov|Marshal Zhukov]], his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends.<ref>Jean Edward Smith, ''Eisenhower in War and Peace'' (2012) p. 451.</ref>

The Germans launched a surprise counter offensive in the [[Battle of the Bulge]] in December 1944 which was turned back in early 1945 by the Allies after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the Air Force to engage.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp. 375–380.</ref> German defenses continued to deteriorate on both the eastern front with the Soviets and the western front with the Allies. The British wanted Berlin but Eisenhower decided it would be a military mistake for him to attack Berlin, and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit. The British backed down, but then wanted Eisenhower to move into Czechoslovakia for political reasons. Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against Moscow. The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon. The Soviet [[Red Army]] captured Berlin in a [[Battle of Berlin|very large-scale bloody battle]], and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, 1945.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp. 395–406.</ref>

==Post World War II==

===Military Governor in Germany and Army Chief of Staff===
[[File:EisenhowerChiefofStaffPortrait.jpg|thumb|upright|150px|General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower, Chief of Staff of the United States Army by [[Nicodemus David Hufford III]].]]
Following the German unconditional surrender, Eisenhower was appointed Military Governor of the [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany|U.S. Occupation Zone]], based in [[Frankfurt am Main]]. He had no responsibility for the other three zones, controlled by Britain, France and the Soviet Union. Upon discovery of the [[Nazi concentration camps]], he ordered camera crews to document evidence of the atrocities in them for use in the [[Nuremberg Trials]]. He reclassified German [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] (POWs) in U.S. custody as [[Disarmed Enemy Forces]] (DEFs). Eisenhower followed the orders laid down by the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] (JCS) in directive [[JCS 1067]], but softened them by bringing in 400,000 tons of food for civilians and allowing more fraternization.<ref>Zink, Harold (1947). ''American military government in Germany'', pp. 39–86</ref><ref>Goedde, Petra. "From Villains to Victims: Fraternization and the Feminization of Germany, 1945–1947", ''Diplomatic History'', Winter 1999, Vol. 23, Issue 1, pp. 1–19</ref><ref>Tent, James F. (1982), ''Mission on the Rhine: Reeducation and Denazification in American-Occupied Germany''</ref> In response to the devastation in Germany, including food shortages and an influx of refugees, he arranged distribution of American food and medical equipment.<ref>Zink, Harold (1957). ''The United States in Germany, 1944–1955''</ref> His actions reflected the new American attitudes of the German people as Nazi victims not villains, while aggressively purging the ex-Nazis.<ref>Ambrose (1983). ''Eisenhower'', pp. 421–25</ref><ref>Goedde, Petra (2002). ''GIs and Germans: Culture, Gender and Foreign Relations, 1945–1949''</ref>

In November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington to replace Marshall as Chief of Staff of the Army. His main role was rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, a slow job that was delayed by lack of shipping. Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported the new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs. However, in formulating policies regarding the [[atomic bomb]] and relations with the Soviets [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] was guided by the U.S. State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]]. By mid-1947, as East-West tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the [[Greek Civil War]] escalated, Eisenhower gave up his hopes for cooperation with the Soviets and agreed with a containment policy to stop Soviet expansion.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp. 432–452.</ref>

As the 1948 election approached, Eisenhower was repeatedly urged by prominent citizens from both parties nationwide to run for president. President Truman even approached him, offering to serve as his Vice-President if he would agree to run as president on the Democratic ticket. Eisenhower maintained no political party affiliation during this time, though he was clear in not aligning with the Democrats. He firmly declined all the offers and many believed he was foregoing his only opportunity to be president; [[Thomas E. Dewey]] was considered the other probable winner, would presumably serve two terms, and Eisenhower, at age 66 in 1956, would then be too old.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp. 455–460.</ref>

===President at Columbia University and NATO Supreme Commander===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-14059-0018, Berlin, Oberbefehlshaber der vier Verbündeten.jpg|thumb|The Supreme Commanders on June 5, 1945 in Berlin: [[Bernard Montgomery]], Dwight D. Eisenhower, [[Georgy Zhukov]] and [[Jean de Lattre de Tassigny]].]]
In 1948, Eisenhower became President of [[Columbia University]], a premier private university in New York. The assignment was described as not being a good fit in either direction.<ref>Ambrose (1983). ''Eisenhower'', ch. 24</ref> During that year Eisenhower's memoir, ''[[Crusade in Europe]]'', was published.<ref>''Crusade in Europe'', Doubleday; 1st edition (1948), 559 pages, ISBN 1-125-30091-4</ref> Critics regarded it as one of the finest U.S. military memoirs, and it was a major financial success as well. Eisenhower's profit on the book was substantially aided by an unprecedented ruling by the [[U.S. Department of the Treasury]] that Eisenhower was not a professional writer, but rather, marketing the lifetime asset of his experiences, and thus he only had to pay capital gains tax on his $635,000 advance instead of the much higher personal tax rate. This ruling saved Eisenhower about $400,000.<ref>Pietrusza, David, 1948: Harry Truman's Victory and the Year That Transformed America, Union Square Punlishing, 2011, pg. 201</ref>

Eisenhower's stint as the president of Columbia University was punctuated by his activity within the [[Council on Foreign Relations]], a study group he led as president concerning the political and military implications of the [[Marshall Plan]], and [[The American Assembly]], Eisenhower's "vision of a great cultural center where business, professional and governmental leaders could meet from time to time to discuss and reach conclusions concerning problems of a social and political nature". His biographer Blanche Weisen Cook suggested that this period served as "the political education of General Eisenhower", since he had to prioritize wide-ranging educational, administrative, and financial demands for the university. Through his involvement in the Council on Foreign Relations, he also gained exposure to economic analysis, which would become the bedrock of his understanding in economic policy. "Whatever General Eisenhower knows about economics, he has learned at the study group meetings," one Aid to Europe member claimed.

Eisenhower accepted the presidency of the university to expand his ability to promote "the American form of democracy" through education. He was clear on this point to the trustees involved in the search committee. He informed them that his main purpose was "to promote the basic concepts of education in a democracy." As a result he was "almost incessantly" devoted to the idea of the American Assembly, a concept which he developed into an institution by the end of 1950.

Within months of beginning his tenure as the president of the university, Eisenhower was requested to advise [[U.S. Secretary of Defense]] [[James Forrestal]] on the unification of the armed services. About six months after his appointment, he became the informal [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] in Washington. Two months later he fell ill, and he spent over a month in recovery at the [[Augusta National Golf Club]]. He returned to his post in [[New York]] in mid-May, and in July 1949 took a two-month vacation out-of-state. Because the American Assembly had begun to take shape, he traveled around the country during mid-to-late 1950, building financial support from Columbia Associates, an alumni association.

Eisenhower was unknowingly building resentment and a reputation among the Columbia University faculty and staff as an absentee president who was using the university for his own interests. As a career military man, he naturally had little in common with the academics.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp. 479–483.</ref>

The contacts gained through university and American Assembly fund-raising activities would later become important supporters in Eisenhower's bid for the Republican party nomination and the presidency. Meanwhile, Columbia University's liberal faculty members became disenchanted with the university president's ties to oilmen and businessmen, including Leonard McCollum, the president of [[Continental Oil]]; Frank Abrams, the chairman of [[Standard Oil of New Jersey]]; Bob Kleberg, the president of the King Ranch; H. J. Porter, a Texas oil executive; Bob Woodruff, the president of the [[Coca-Cola Corporation]]; and Clarence Francis, the chairman of [[General Foods]].

As the president of Columbia, Eisenhower gave voice and form to his opinions about the supremacy and difficulties of American democracy. His tenure marked his transformation from military to civilian leadership. His biographer Travis Beal Jacobs also suggested that the alienation of the Columbia faculty contributed to sharp intellectual criticism of him for many years.<ref>Warshaw, Shirley Anne (1993). ''Reexamining the Eisenhower presidency'', Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-313-28792-9</ref>

The trustees of Columbia University refused to accept Eisenhower's resignation in December 1950, when he took an extended leave from the university to become the Supreme Commander of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), and he was given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service as an Army general on May 31, 1952, and he resumed his presidency of Columbia. He held this position until January 20, 1953, when he became the [[President of the United States]].

NATO did not have strong bipartisan support in Congress at the time that Eisenhower assumed its military command. Eisenhower advised the participating European nations that it would be incumbent upon them to demonstrate their own commitment of troops and equipment to the NATO force before such would come from the war-weary United States.

At home, Eisenhower was more effective in making the case for NATO in Congress than the Truman administration was. By the middle of 1951, American and European support for NATO was substantial enough to give it a genuine military power. Nevertheless, Eisenhower thought that NATO would become a truly European alliance, with the American and Canadian commitments ending after about ten years.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp. 502–511.</ref>

===Presidential campaign of 1952===
{{Main|United States presidential election, 1952}}
[[File:I Like Ike button, 1952.png|thumb|right|"I Like Ike" button from the 1952 campaign]]
President Truman, symbolizing a broad-based desire for an Eisenhower candidacy for president, again in 1951 pressed him to run for the office as a Democrat. It was at this time that Eisenhower voiced his disdain for the Democratic party and declared himself and his family to be Republicans.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 512.</ref> A "[[Draft Eisenhower]]" movement in the Republican Party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the [[United States presidential election, 1952|1952 presidential election]] to counter the candidacy of [[Non-interventionism|non-interventionist]] Senator [[Robert Taft]]. The effort was a long struggle; Eisenhower had to be convinced that political circumstances had created a genuine duty for him to offer himself as a candidate, and that there was a mandate from the populace for him to be their President. Henry Cabot Lodge, who served as his campaign manager, and others succeeded in convincing him, and in June 1952 he resigned his command at NATO to campaign full-time.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp. 524–528.</ref> Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination, having won critical delegate votes from Texas. Eisenhower's campaign was noted for the simple but effective slogan, "[[I Like Ike]]". It was essential to his success that Ike express his opposition to Roosevelt's policy at Yalta and against Truman's policies in Korea and China, matters in which he had once participated.<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 530.</ref><ref name="time 2008">{{Cite news
|url=http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1857862,00.html|work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=November 10, 2008|title=When New President Meets Old, It's Not Always Pretty |first= Nancy|last=Gibbs}}</ref> In defeating Taft for the nomination, it became necessary for Eisenhower to appease the right wing [[Old Right (United States)|Old Guard]] of the Republican Party; his selection of [[Richard M. Nixon]] as the Vice-President on the ticket was designed in part for that purpose. Nixon also provided a strong anti-communist presence as well as some youth to counter Ike's more advanced age.<ref>Ambrose (1983), pp. 541–546.</ref>
[[File:ElectoralCollege1952.svg|left|thumb|275px|1952 electoral vote results]]
In the general election, against the advice of his advisors, Eisenhower insisted on campaigning in the South, refusing to surrender the region to the Democrats. The campaign strategy, dubbed "K<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>", was to focus on attacking the Truman and Roosevelt administrations on three issues: Korea, Communism and corruption. In an effort to accommodate the right, he stressed that the liberation of Eastern Europe should be by peaceful means only; he also distanced himself from his former boss President Truman. Two controversies arose during the campaign which tested him and his staff but were without effect on the campaign; one involved a report that Nixon had improperly received funds from a secret trust&nbsp;– Nixon spoke out adroitly to avoid potential damage but the matter permanently alienated the two candidates. The second issue centered around Eisenhower's relented decision to confront the controversial methods of [[Joseph McCarthy]] on his home turf in a Wisconsin appearance.<ref>Ambrose (1983). ''Eisenhower'', pp. 556–567.</ref> Just two weeks prior to the election, Eisenhower vowed to go to Korea and end the war there. He promised to maintain a strong commitment against Communism while avoiding the topic of NATO; finally, he stressed a corruption-free, frugal administration at home. He defeated Democrat [[Adlai Stevenson II|Adlai Stevenson]] in a landslide, with an electoral margin of 442 to 89, marking the first Republican return to the White House in 20 years.<ref name="time 2008"/> In the election he also brought with him a Republican majority in the House (by eight votes) and in the Senate (actually a tie, with Nixon providing the majority vote).<ref>Ambrose (1983), p. 571.</ref>

Eisenhower was the last president born in the 19th century, and at age 62, was the oldest man to be elected President since [[James Buchanan]] in 1856. (President Truman stood at 64 in 1948 as the incumbent president at the time of his election four years earlier.)<ref name="'70s">{{Cite book|title= How We Got Here: The '70s|last= Frum|first= David|authorlink= David Frum|year= 2000|publisher= Basic Books|location= New York, New York|isbn= 0-465-04195-7|page= 7|url= }}</ref> Eisenhower was the only general to serve as President in the 20th century, and the most recent President to have never held elected office prior to the Presidency. (The other Presidents who did not have prior elected office were [[Zachary Taylor]], [[Ulysses S. Grant]], [[William Howard Taft]] and [[Herbert Hoover]].)

==Presidency 1953–1961==
{{Main|Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
Due to a complete estrangement between the two as a result of campaigning, Truman and Eisenhower had minimal discussions about the transition of administrations.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p.14.</ref> After selecting his budget director, [[Joseph M. Dodge]], Eisenhower asked [[Herbert Brownell]] and [[Lucius D. Clay|Lucius Clay]] to make recommendations for his cabinet appointments. He accepted their recommendations without exception; they included [[John Foster Dulles]] and [[George M. Humphrey]] with whom he developed his closest relationships, and one woman, [[Oveta Culp Hobby]]. Eisenhower's cabinet, consisting of several corporate executives and one labor leader, was dubbed by one journalist, "Eight millionaires and a plumber."<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 24.</ref> The cabinet was notable for its lack of personal friends, office seekers, or experienced government administrators. He also upgraded the role of the National Security Council in planning all phases of the Cold War.<ref>Ambrose (1984), pp. 20–25.</ref>

Prior to his inauguration, he led a meeting of advisors at Pearl Harbor addressing foremost issues; agreed objectives were to balance the budget during his term, to bring the Korean War to an end, to defend vital interests at lower cost through nuclear deterrent, and to end price and wage controls.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 32.</ref> Eisenhower also conducted the first pre-inaugural cabinet meeting in history in late 1952; he used this meeting to articulate his anti-communist Russia policy. His inaugural address as well was exclusively devoted to foreign policy and included this same philosophy as well as a commitment to foreign trade and the U. N.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p.43</ref>

Eisenhower made greater use of press conferences than any prior president, holding almost 200 in his two terms. While he saw a positive relationship with the press as invaluable, his primary objective in press conferences was to maintain an indispensable direct contact with the people.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 52.</ref>

Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower adhered to a political philosophy of dynamic conservatism.<ref>Black, Allida and Hopkins, June, et al. editors (2003), ''The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers'', [http://web.archive.org/web/20070105034523/http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/glossary/eisenhower-dwight.htm "Dwight Eisenhower"], Teaching Eleanor Roosevelt, Hyde Park, New York: Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site. Retrieved November 26, 2011.</ref> He continued all the major [[New Deal]] programs still in operation, especially [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]. He expanded its programs and rolled them into a new cabinet-level agency, the [[United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare|Department of Health, Education and Welfare]], while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers. He implemented integration in the Armed Services in two years, which had not been completed under Truman.<ref name="Miller">[http://articles.boston.com/2007-11-21/news/29228077_1_civil-rights-nichols-truman-s-executive-order James A. Miller, "An inside look at Eisenhower's civil rights record"], ''Boston Globe'', November 21, 2007. Retrieved October 28, 2011</ref>

As the 1954 congressional elections approached, and it became evident that the Republicans were in danger of losing their thin majority in both houses, Eisenhower was among those blaming the Old Guard for the losses, and took up the charge to stop suspected efforts by the right wing to take control of the GOP. Ike then articulated his position as a moderate, progressive Republican: "I have just one purpose&nbsp;... and that is to build up a strong progressive Republican Party in this country. If the right wing wants a fight, they are going to get it&nbsp;... before I end up, either this Republican Party will reflect progressivism or I won't be with them anymore."<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 220.</ref>

Initially Eisenhower planned on serving only one term, but as with other decisions he maintained a position of maximum flexibility in case leading Republicans wanted him to run again. During his recovery from a heart attack late in 1955, he huddled with his closest advisors to evaluate the GOP's potential candidates; the group, in addition to his doctor, concluded a second term was well advised, and he announced in February 1956 he would run again.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p.285–288.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jean Edward Smith|title=Eisenhower in War and Peace|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jO2gLXNNa2wC&pg=PA674|year=2012|publisher=Random House |pages=674–83|isbn=978-0-679-64429-3}}</ref> Ike was publicly noncommittal about Nixon's repeating as the Vice President on his ticket; the question was an especially important one in light of his heart condition. He personally favored [[Robert B. Anderson]], a Democrat, who rejected his offer; Eisenhower then resolved to leave the matter in the hands of the party.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 321–325.</ref> In 1956, Eisenhower faced Adlai Stevenson again and [[United States presidential election, 1956|won by an even larger landslide]], with 457 of 531 electoral votes and 57.6% of the popular vote. The level of campaigning was curtailed out of health considerations.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 297.</ref>

Eisenhower valued the brief respites and the amenities of an office which he endowed with an arduous daily schedule. He made full use of his valet, chauffeur and secretarial support&nbsp;– he rarely drove or dialed a phone number. He was an avid fisherman, golfer, painter and bridge player, and preferred active rather than passive forms of entertainment.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 25.</ref> On August 26, 1959, Ike was aboard the maiden flight of [[Air Force One]], which replaced the previous Presidential aircraft, the ''Columbine''.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 537.</ref>

===Interstate Highway System===
{{Main|Interstate Highway System}}
{{listen
|filename=Cadillacsquareexcerpt.ogg
|title= Remarks in Cadillac Square, Detroit
|description=President Eisenhower delivered remarks about the need for a new highway program at Cadillac Square in Detroit on October 29, 1954<br /> [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/audiotext.htm#cadillac Text of speech excerpt]
}}
One of Eisenhower's enduring achievements was championing and signing the bill that authorized the [[Interstate Highway System]] in 1956.<ref name="economist">{{Cite news | title = The cracks are showing |work=The Economist | date = June 26, 2008 | url = http://www.economist.com/obituary/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8447241
| accessdate =October 23, 2008 }}</ref> He justified the project through the [[Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956]] as essential to American security during the [[Cold War]]. It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible war, hence the highways were designed to facilitate their evacuation and ease military maneuvers.

Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by difficulties encountered during his involvement in the U.S. Army's 1919 [[Transcontinental Motor Convoy]]. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of U.S. Army vehicles coast to coast.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=May 23, 2008|url=http://www.usswashington.com/dl30au39h1.htm|title=The Last Week&nbsp;– The Road to War|publisher=[[USS Washington (BB-56)]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=May 23, 2008|url=http://usswashington.com/worldwar2plus55/index.htm|title=About the Author|publisher=[[USS Washington (BB-56)]]}}</ref> His subsequent experience with German [[autobahn]]s during World War II convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System. Noticing the improved ability to move logistics throughout the country, he thought an Interstate Highway System in the U.S. would not only be beneficial for military operations, but provide a measure of continued economic growth.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=August 21, 1012|url=http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/interstate_highway_system.html |title=Interstate Highway System|publisher=[[Eisenhower Presidential Center]]}}</ref> The legislation initially stalled in the Congress over the issuance of bonds to finance the project, but the legislative effort was renewed and the law was signed by Ike in June 1956.<ref>Ambrose (1984), pp. 301, 326.</ref>

===Foreign policy===
In 1953, the Republican's Old Guard presented Eisenhower with a dilemma by insisting he disavow the Yalta Agreements as beyond the constitutional authority of the Executive Branch; however, the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953 made the matter a practical moot point.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 66.</ref> At this time Eisenhower gave his [[Chance for Peace speech]] in which he attempted, unsuccessfully, to forestall the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union by suggesting multiple opportunities presented by peaceful uses of nuclear materials. Biographer Stephen Ambrose opined that this was the best speech of Eisenhower's presidency.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p.94.</ref><ref>Eisenhower, Susan, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/14/AR2011011404915.html "50 years later, we're still ignoring Ike's warning"], ''The Washington Post'', January 16, 2011, p. B3.</ref> Nevertheless, the [[Cold War]] escalated during his presidency. When Russia successfully tested a hydrogen bomb, Eisenhower, against the advice of Dulles, decided to initiate a disarmament proposal to the Russians. In an attempt to make their refusal more difficult, he proposed that both sides agree to dedicate fissionable material away from weapons toward peaceful uses, such as power generation; this approach was labeled "Atoms for Peace".<ref>Ambrose (1984), pp. 132–134, 147.</ref>

The U.N. speech was well received but the Russians never acted upon it, due to an overarching concern for the greater stockpiles of nuclear weapons in the U.S. arsenal. Indeed, Eisenhower embarked upon a greater reliance on the use of nuclear weapons, while reducing conventional forces, and with them the overall defense budget. This approach became known as the "New Look", and was initiated with defense cuts in late 1953.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 144.</ref> In 1955 American nuclear arms policy became one aimed primarily at arms control as opposed to disarmament. The failure of negotiations over arms until 1955 was due mainly to the refusal of the Russians to permit any sort of inspections. In talks located in London that year, they expressed a willingness to discuss inspections; the tables were then turned on Eisenhower, when he responded with an unwillingness on the part of the U.S. to permit inspections. In May of that year the Russians agreed to sign a treaty giving independence to Austria, and paved the way for a Geneva summit with the U.S., U.K. and France.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p.247.</ref> At the Geneva Conference Eisenhower presented a proposal called "Open Skies" to facilitate disarmament, which included plans for Russia and the U.S. to provide mutual access to each other's skies for open surveillance of military infrastructure. Russian leader Nikita Khrushchev dismissed the proposal out of hand.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p.265.</ref>

In 1954, Ike articulated the [[domino theory]] in his outlook towards communism in Southeast Asia and also in Central America; he believed that if the communists were allowed to prevail in Vietnam, this would cause a succession of countries to fall to communism, from Laos through Malaysia and Indonesia ultimately to India. Likewise, the fall of Guatemala would end with the fall of neighboring Mexico.<ref>Ambrose (1984), pp. 180, 236–237.</ref> That year the loss of North Vietnam to the communists and the rejection of his proposed European Defense Community (EDC) were serious defeats, but he remained optimistic in his opposition to the spread of communism, saying "Long faces don't win wars".<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 211.</ref> As he had threatened the French in their rejection of EDC, he afterwards moved to restore Germany, as a full NATO partner.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 207.</ref>

With Eisenhower's leadership and Dulles' direction, CIA activities increased, to resist the spread of communism in poorer countries;<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 111.</ref> the CIA in part deposed the leaders of Iran in [[1953 Iranian coup d'état|Operation Ajax]], of Guatemala through [[1954 Guatemalan coup d'état|Operation Pbsuccess]], and possibly the newly independent [[Congo Crisis|Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)]].<ref>Ambrose (1984), pp. 112–113, 194.</ref> In 1954 Ike wanted to increase surveillance inside the Soviet Union. With Dulles' recommendation, he authorized the deployment of thirty [[Lockheed U-2|Lockheed U-2's]] at a cost of $35 million.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 228.</ref> The Eisenhower administration also planned the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]] to overthrow [[Fidel Castro]] in Cuba, which [[John F. Kennedy]] was left to carry out."<ref>Greenberg, David (January 14, 2011) [http://web.archive.org/web/20110119121008/http://www.slate.com/id/2281124/pagenum/all/ "Beware the military–industrial Complex"], ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]''</ref>

====Space race====
On the whole, Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling space program was modest until the Soviet launch of [[Sputnik]] in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige around the world. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education. He rushed construction of more advanced satellites, created [[NASA]] as a civilian space agency, signed a landmark science education law, and fostered improved relations with American scientists.<ref>Yankek Mieczkowski, ''Eisenhower's Sputnik Moment: The Race for Space and World Prestige'' (Cornell University Press; 2013)</ref>

In strategic terms, it was Eisenhower who devised the American basic strategy of nuclear deterrence based upon the triad of B-52 bombers, land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).<ref>Peter J. Roman, ''Eisenhower and the Missile Gap'' (1996)</ref>

====Korean War, China, and Taiwan====
[[File:1951 Chung Baik Eisenhower.jpg|thumb|210px|left|[[Korean War]]]]
In late 1952, Eisenhower went to Korea and discovered a military and political stalemate. Once in office, when the Chinese began a buildup in the Kaesong sanctuary, he threatened to use nuclear force if an armistice were not concluded. His earlier military reputation in Europe was effective with the Chinese.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 51.</ref> The National Security Council, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Strategic Air Command (SAC) devised detailed plans for nuclear war against China.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Matthew |last=Jones |title=Targeting China: U.S. Nuclear Planning and 'Massive Retaliation' in East Asia, 1953–1955 |journal=Journal of Cold War Studies |year=2008 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=37–65 |doi=10.1162/jcws.2008.10.4.37 |ref=harv }}</ref> With the death of Stalin in early March 1953, Russian support for a Chinese hard-line weakened and China decided to compromise on the prisoner issue. In July 1953, an armistice took effect with Korea divided along [[Military Demarcation Line|approximately the same boundary as in 1950]]. The armistice and boundary remain in effect today, with American soldiers stationed there to guarantee it. The armistice, concluded despite opposition from Secretary Dulles, South Korean President [[Syngman Rhee]], and also within Eisenhower's party, has been described by biographer Ambrose as the greatest achievement of the administration; Eisenhower had the insight to realize that unlimited war in the nuclear age was unthinkable, and limited war unwinnable.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p.&nbsp;106–7</ref>

A point of emphasis in Ike's campaign had been his endorsement of a policy of liberation from communism as opposed to a policy of containment. This continued to be his preference despite the armistice with Korea.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 173.</ref> Throughout his terms Eisenhower took a hard-line attitude toward China, as demanded by conservative Republicans, with the goal of driving a wedge between China and the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Qiang Zhai |title=Crisis and Confrontations: Chinese-American Relations during the Eisenhower Administration |journal=Journal of American-East Asian Relations |year=2000 |volume=9 |issue=3/4 |pages=221–249 |doi=10.1163/187656100793645921 |ref=harv }}</ref> He continued Truman's policy of recognizing the [[Republic of China]] (based in [[Formosa]]/[[Taiwan]]) as the legitimate government of China, not the Beijing regime. There were localized flare-ups when the Red Army began shelling the islands of [[Quemoy]] and [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]] in September 1954. Ike received recommendations embracing every variation of response to the aggression of the Chinese communists. He thought it essential to have every possible option available to him as the crisis unfolded. The Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with Taiwan was signed in December 1954. He requested and secured from Congress their "Formosa Resolution" in January 1955 which gave Eisenhower the unprecedented power in advance to use military force at any level of his choosing in defense of Formoso and the Pescadores. The Resolution bolstered the morale of the Chinese nationalists, and signaled to Beijing that the U.S. was committed to holding the line.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 231.</ref> Eisenhower openly threatened the Chinese with use of nuclear weapons, authorizing a series of bomb tests labeled [[Operation Teapot]]; nevertheless, he left the Chinese communists guessing as to the exact nature of his nuclear response. This allowed Eisenhower to accomplish all of his objectives&nbsp;– the end of this communist aggression, the retention of the Islands by the Chinese nationalists and continued peace.<ref>Ambrose (1984), pp. 245, 246.</ref> Defense of Taiwan from an invasion remains a core American policy.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Robert |last=Accinelli |title=Eisenhower, Congress, and the 1954–55 offshore island crisis |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |year=1990 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=329–348 |doi=10.2307/27550618 |ref=harv }}</ref>

By the end of 1954 Eisenhower's military and foreign policy experts&nbsp;– the NSC, JCS and State Dept.&nbsp;– had unanimously urged him, on no less than five occasions, to launch an atomic attack against China; yet he consistently refused to do so and felt a distinct sense of accomplishment in having sufficiently confronted communism while keeping world peace.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 229.</ref>

====Mideast and Eisenhower doctrine====
[[Image:ShahEisenhower.jpg|thumb|200px|upper|right|Eisenhower with the Shah [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] of Iran]]
Even before he was inaugurated Eisenhower accepted a request from the British government to restore [[the Shah]] to power. He therefore [[1953 Iranian coup d'état|authorized the Central Intelligence Agency to help the Iranian army]] overthrow Prime Minister [[Mohammad Mosaddegh]].<ref>Eisenhower gave verbal approval to Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] and to Director of Central Intelligence [[Allen Dulles]] to proceed with the coup; Ambrose, ''Eisenhower, Vol. 2: The President'' p. 111; Ambrose (1990), ''Eisenhower: Soldier and President'', New York: Simon and Schuster, p. 333</ref> This resulted in an increased strategic control over Iranian oil by U.S. and British companies.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 129.</ref>

In November 1956, Eisenhower forced an end to the combined British, French and Israeli invasion of [[Egypt]] in response to the [[Suez Crisis]]. Simultaneously he condemned the brutal Soviet invasion of [[Hungary]] in response to the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]]. Therefore he publicly disavowed his allies at the United Nations, and used financial and diplomatic pressure to make them withdraw from Egypt.<ref>Kingseed, Cole (1995), ''Eisenhower and the Suez Crisis of 1956'', ch 6</ref> Controversy surrounds [[Harold Macmillan]]'s secret meeting with Eisenhower on September 25, 1956, after which Macmillan relayed to Prime Minister [[Anthony Eden]] that Eisenhower promised to support an invasion.<ref>Williams, Charles ''Harold Macmillan'' (2009) pp. 250–252</ref><ref>Boyle, 2005, p. 172</ref> In 1965 Eisenhower explicitly defended his strong position against Israel, Britain and France in his memoirs.<ref>Dwight D. Eisenhower, ''Waging Peace: 1956–1961'' (1965) p 99</ref>
[[File:Eisenhower and Nixon at Dinner with King Saud.jpg|thumb|left|Eisenhower and Vice President [[Richard Nixon]] with their host, King [[Saud of Saudi Arabia]], Washington 1957]]
After the Suez Crisis the United States became the protector of unstable friendly governments in the Middle East via the "[[Eisenhower Doctrine]]". Designed by Secretary of State Dulles, it held the U.S. would be "prepared to use armed force&nbsp;... [to counter] aggression from any country controlled by international communism". Further, the United States would provide economic and military aid and, if necessary, use military force to stop the spread of communism in the Middle East.<ref>Isaac Alteras, ''Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.-Israeli relations, 1953–1960'' (1993), p. 296</ref>

Eisenhower applied the doctrine in 1957–58 by dispensing economic aid to shore up the Kingdom of [[Jordan]], and by encouraging [[Syria]]'s neighbors to consider military operations against it. More dramatically, in July 1958, he sent 15,000 Marines and soldiers to [[Lebanon]] as part of [[Operation Blue Bat]], a non-combat peace-keeping mission to stabilize the pro-Western government and to prevent a radical revolution from sweeping over that country. The mission proved a success and the Marines departed three months later. The deployment came in response to the urgent request of Lebanese president [[Camille Chamoun]] after sectarian violence had erupted in the country. Washington considered the military intervention successful since it brought about regional stability, weakened Soviet influence, and intimidated the Egyptian and Syrian governments, whose anti-West political position had hardened after the Suez Crisis.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Little |first=Douglas |title=His finest hour? Eisenhower, Lebanon, and the 1958 Middle East Crisis |journal=Diplomatic History |year=1996 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=27–54 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.1996.tb00251.x |ref=harv }}</ref>

Most Arab countries were skeptical about the "Eisenhower doctrine" because they considered "Zionist imperialism" the real danger. However, they did take the opportunity to obtain free money and weapons. Egypt and Syria, supported by the Soviet Union, openly opposed the initiative. However, Egypt received American aid until the [[Six Day War]] in 1967.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hahn |first=Peter L. |title=Securing the Middle East: The Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957 |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |year=2006 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=38–47 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00285.x |ref=harv }}</ref>

As the [[Cold War]] deepened, Dulles sought to isolate the [[Soviet Union]] by building regional alliances of nations against it. Critics sometimes called it "[[Pactomania|pacto-mania]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Navari |first=Cornelia |year=2000 |title=Internationalism and the State in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Routledge |page=316 |isbn=978-0-415-09747-5 }}</ref>

====Southeast Asia====
Early in 1953, the French asked Eisenhower for help in [[French Indochina]] against the Communists, supplied from China, who were fighting the [[First Indochina War]]. Eisenhower sent Lt. General [[John W. O'Daniel|John W. "Iron Mike" O'Daniel]] to [[Vietnam]] to study and "assess" the French forces there.<ref>Dunnigan, James and Nofi, Albert (1999), ''Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War''. St. Martins Press, p. 85. ISBN 0-312-19857-4</ref> Chief of Staff [[Matthew Ridgway]] dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary. Eisenhower stated prophetically that "this war would absorb our troops by divisions."<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 175.</ref>

Eisenhower did provide France with bombers and non-combat personnel. After a few months with no success by the French, he added other aircraft to drop napalm for clearing purposes. Further requests for assistance from the French were agreed to but only on conditions Ike knew were impossible to meet&nbsp;– allied participation and congressional approval.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 175–177.</ref> When Dien Bien Phu fell in May 1954, Ike refused to intervene despite urgings from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, the Vice President and the head of NCS.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 185.</ref> Eisenhower responded with the formation of SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization), alliance with the U.K., France, New Zealand and Australia in defense of Vietnam against communism. At that time the French and Chinese reconvened Geneva peace talks; Eisenhower agreed the U.S. would participate only as an observer. After France and the Communists agreed to a partition of Vietnam, Eisenhower rejected the agreement, offering military and economic aid to southern Vietnam.<ref name="Nofi Albert p 257">Dunnigan, James and Nofi, Albert (1999), ''Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War'', p. 257</ref> Ambrose argues that Eisenhower, by not participating in the Geneva agreement, had kept the U.S out of Vietnam; nevertheless, with the formation of SEATO, he had in the end put the U.S. back into the conflict.<ref>Ambrose (1984), pp. 204–209.</ref>

In late 1954, [[J. Lawton Collins|Gen. J. Lawton Collins]] was made ambassador to "Free Vietnam" (the term [[South Vietnam]] came into use in 1955), effectively elevating the country to sovereign status. Collins' instructions were to support the leader [[Ngo Dinh Diem]] in subverting communism, by helping him to build an army and wage a military campaign.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 215.</ref> In February 1955, Eisenhower dispatched the first American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army. After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, commonly known as South Vietnam) in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance.<ref>{{cite book|author=David L. Anderson|title=Trapped by Success: The Eisenhower Administration and Vietnam, 1953-1961|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tM88nZNx2J8C|year=1991|publisher=Columbia U.P.}}</ref> In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of US military advisors in South Vietnam to 900 men.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swarthmore.edu/library/peace/conscientiousobjection/OverviewVietnamWar.htm|title=Vietnam War|publisher=Swarthmore College Peace Collection|ref=harv}}</ref> This was due to [[North Vietnam]]'s support of "uprisings" in the south and concern the nation would fall.<ref name="Nofi Albert p 257"/> In May 1957 Diem, then [[Leaders of South Vietnam|President of South Vietnam]], made a [[state visit]] to the United States for ten days. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diem's honor in New York City. Although Diem was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diem had been selected because there were no better alternatives.<ref>Karnow, Stanley. (1991), ''Vietnam, A History'', p. 230</ref> After the election of November 1960, Eisenhower in briefing with [[John F. Kennedy]] pointed out the communist threat in Southeast Asia as requiring prioritization in the next administration. Eisenhower told Kennedy he considered [[Laos]] to be "the cork in the bottle" with regard to the regional threat.<ref>Reeves, Richard (1993), ''President Kennedy: Profile of Power'', p. 75</ref>

====1960 U-2 incident====
{{Main|1960 U-2 incident}}
On May 1, 1960, a U.S. one-man [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] spy plane was reportedly shot down at high altitude over [[Soviet Union]] airspace. The flight was made to gain photo intelligence before the scheduled opening of an East–West summit conference, which had been scheduled in Paris, 15 days later.<ref>{{cite book |title=The U-2 Spyplane; Toward the Unknown |last=Pocock |first=Chris |year=2000 |publisher=Schiffer Military History |isbn=978-0-7643-1113-0}}</ref> Captain [[Francis Gary Powers]] had bailed out of his aircraft and was captured after parachuting down onto Russian soil. Four days after Powers disappeared, the Eisenhower Administration had NASA issue a very detailed press release noting that an aircraft had "gone missing" north of Turkey. It speculated that the pilot might have fallen unconscious while the autopilot was still engaged, and falsely claimed that "the pilot reported over the emergency frequency that he was experiencing oxygen difficulties."<ref name = "Russian officer">{{cite web |last=Orlov |first=Alexander |url=https://www.cia.gov/csi/studies/winter98_99/art02.html |title=The U-2 Program: A Russian Officer Remembers |accessdate= 29 April 2013 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060713154414/http://www.cia.gov/csi/studies/winter98_99/art02.html |archivedate=13 July 2006}}</ref>
[[File:US Air Force U-2 (2139646280).jpg|thumb|200px|A U-2 reconnaissance aircraft in flight]]
Soviet Premier [[Nikita Khrushchev]] announced that a "spy-plane" had been shot down but intentionally made no reference to the pilot. As a result, the Eisenhower Administration, thinking the pilot had died in the crash, authorized the release of a cover story claiming that the plane was a "weather research aircraft" which had unintentionally strayed into Soviet airspace after the pilot had radioed "difficulties with his oxygen equipment" while flying over Turkey.<ref>{{cite book |title=History of the Cold War: From the Korean War to the present |first=André |last=Fontaine |author2=translator R. Bruce |publisher=Pantheon Books |year=1968 |page=338 |series=History of the Cold War |volume=2}}</ref> The Soviets put Captain Powers on trial and displayed parts of the U-2 which had been recovered almost fully intact. The 1960 Four Power Paris Summit between President Dwight Eisenhower, Nikita Khrushchev, [[Harold Macmillan]] and [[Charles de Gaulle]] collapsed because of the incident. Eisenhower refused to accede to Khrushchev's demands that he apologize. Therefore Khrushchev would not take part in the summit. Up until this event, Eisenhower felt he had been making progress towards better relations with the Soviet Union. Nuclear arms reduction and Berlin were to have been discussed at the summit. Eisenhower stated it had all been ruined because of that "stupid U-2 business".<ref name = "The Cold War">Bogle, Lori Lynn, ed. (2001), The Cold War, Routledge, p. 104. 978-0815337218</ref> The affair was an embarrassment for United States prestige. Further, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee held a lengthy inquiry into the U-2 incident.<ref name = "The Cold War"/> In Russia, Captain Powers made a forced confession and apology. On August 19, 1960, Powers was convicted of espionage and sentenced to imprisonment. On February 10, 1962, Powers was exchanged for [[Rudolf Abel]] in Berlin and returned to the U.S.<ref name = "Russian officer"/>

===Civil rights===
While President Truman had begun the process of desegregating the Armed Forces in 1948, actual implementation had been slow. Eisenhower made clear his stance in his first State of the Union message in February 1953, saying "I propose to use whatever authority exists in the office of the President to end segregation in the District of Columbia, including the Federal Government, and any segregation in the Armed Forces".<ref>of the Union Address, February 2, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 30–31.</ref> When he encountered opposition from the services, he used government control of military spending to force the change through, stating "Wherever Federal Funds are expended&nbsp;... , I do not see how any American can justify&nbsp;... a discrimination in the expenditure of those funds".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=9798 |title=Eisenhower Press Conference, March 19, 1953 |publisher=The American Presidency Project |accessdate=October 17, 2012}}</ref> When [[Robert B. Anderson]], Eisenhower's first [[Secretary of the Navy]] argued that the Navy must recognize the "customs and usages prevailing in certain geographic areas of our country which the Navy had no part in creating", Eisenhower overruled him: "We have not taken and we shall not take a single backward step. There must be no second class citizens in this country."<ref>Byrnes to DDE, August 27, 1953, Eisenhower Library"</ref>

The administration declared [[racial discrimination]] a [[national security]] issue, as Communists around the world used the racial discrimination and history of violence in the U.S. as a point of propaganda attack.<ref>Dudziak, Mary L. (2002), ''Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy''</ref> The day after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in ''Brown v. Board of Education'', that segregated schools were unconstitutional, Eisenhower told District of Columbia officials to make Washington a model for the rest of the country in integrating black and white public school children.<ref>{{harvnb|Eisenhower|1963|p=230}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Parmet|1972|pp=438–439}}</ref> He proposed to Congress the Civil Rights Acts of [[Civil Rights Act of 1957|1957]] and [[Civil Rights Act of 1960|1960]] and signed those acts into law. The 1957 act for the first time established a permanent civil rights office inside the Justice Department and a Civil Rights Commission to hear testimony about abuses of voting rights. Although both acts were much weaker than subsequent civil rights legislation, they constituted the first significant civil rights acts since [[Civil Rights Act of 1875|1875]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Michael S. |last=Mayer |title=The Eisenhower Administration and the Civil Rights Act of 1957 |journal=Congress & the Presidency |year=1989 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=137–154 |doi=10.1080/07343468909507929 |ref=harv }}</ref>

In 1957, the state of [[Arkansas]] refused to honor a federal court order to integrate their public school system stemming from the ''Brown'' decision. Eisenhower demanded that Arkansas governor [[Orval Faubus]] obey the court order. When Faubus balked, the president placed the [[Arkansas Army National Guard|Arkansas National Guard]] under federal control and sent in the [[101st Airborne Division]]. They escorted and protected [[Little Rock Nine|nine black students]]' entry to [[Little Rock Central High School]], an all-white public school, for the first time since the [[Reconstruction era (United States)|Reconstruction era]].<ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Nichol |title=A Matter of Justice: Eisenhower and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution |year=2007 |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1-4165-4150-9 }}</ref> [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], wrote to Eisenhower to thank him for his actions, writing "The overwhelming majority of southerners, Negro and white, stand firmly behind your resolute action to restore law and order in Little Rock".<ref>to DDE, September 25, 1957, Eisenhower Library</ref>

===Relations with Congress===
Eisenhower had a Republican Congress for only his first two years in office; in the Senate, the Republican majority was by a one vote margin. Senator Taft assisted the President greatly in working with the Old Guard, and was sorely missed when his death left Eisenhower with his successor [[William Knowland]], whom Eisenhower disliked.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 118.</ref>

This prevented Eisenhower from openly condemning Joseph McCarthy's highly criticized methods against communism. In order to facilitate relations with Congress, Ike decided to ignore McCarthy's controversies and thereby deprive them of more energy from involvement of the White House. This position drew criticism from a number of corners.<ref>Ambrose (1984), pp. 56–62.</ref> In late 1953 McCarthy declared on national T.V. that the employment of communists within the government was a menace and would be a pivotal issue in the 1954 elections; Ike was urged to respond directly and specify the various measures he had taken to purge the government of communists.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 140.</ref> Nevertheless he refused. Among Ike's objectives in not directly confronting McCarthy was to prevent McCarthy from dragging the Atomic Energy Commission into McCarthy's witch hunt for communists, which would interfere with, and perhaps delay, the AEC's important work on H-bombs. The administration had discovered through its own investigations that one of the leading scientists on the AEC, [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], had urged that the H-bomb work be delayed; Eisenhower removed him from the agency and revoked his security clearance, though he knew this would create fertile ground for the extremist McCarthy.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 167.</ref> In May 1955 McCarthy threatened to issue subpoenas to White House personnel; Eisenhower was furious, and issued an order as follows: "It is essential to efficient and effective administration that employees of the Executive Branch be in a position to be completely candid in advising with each other on official matters&nbsp;... it is not in the public interest that any of their conversations or communications, or any documents or reproductions, concerning such advice be disclosed." This was an unprecedented step by Eisenhower to protect communication beyond the confines of a cabinet meeting, and soon became a tradition known as [[Executive privilege]]. Ike's denial of McCarthy's access to his staff reduced McCarthy's hearings to rants about trivial matters, and contributed to his ultimate downfall.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 188–189.</ref>

In early 1954 the Old Guard put forward a constitutional amendment, called the Bricker Amendment, which would curtail international agreements by the Chief Executive, such as the Yalta Agreements; Eisenhower opposed the measure.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 154.</ref> The Old Guard agreed with Ike, however, on the development and ownership of nuclear reactors by private enterprises, which the Democrats opposed. The President succeeded in getting legislation creating a system of licensure for nuclear plants by the AEC.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 157.</ref>

The Democrats gained a majority in both houses in the 1954 election.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p. 219.</ref> He had to work with the Democratic Majority Leader [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (later U.S. president) in the Senate and Speaker [[Sam Rayburn]] in the House, both of Texas. [[Joseph W. Martin, Jr.|Joe Martin]], the Republican Speaker from 1947 to 1949 and again from 1953 to 1955, wrote that Eisenhower "never surrounded himself with assistants who could solve political problems with professional skill. There were exceptions, [[Leonard W. Hall]], for example, who as chairman of the [[Republican National Committee]] tried to open the administration's eyes to the political facts of life, with occasional success. However, these exceptions were not enough to right the balance."<ref name=martin>Joseph W. Martin as told to Donavan, Robert J. (1960), ''My First Fifty Years in Politics'', New York: McGraw Hill, p. 227</ref> Speaker Martin concluded that Eisenhower worked too much through subordinates in dealing with Congress, with results, "often the reverse of what he has desired" because Members of Congress,"resent having some young fellow who was picked up by the White House without ever having been elected to office himself coming around and telling them 'The Chief wants this'. The administration never made use of many Republicans of consequence whose services in one form or another would have been available for the asking."<ref name=martin/>

===Judicial appointments===

====Supreme Court====
{{Main|Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Court candidates}}
Eisenhower appointed the following [[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States|Justices]] to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
* [[Earl Warren]], 1953 (Chief Justice)
* [[John Marshall Harlan II]], 1954
* [[William J. Brennan]], 1956
* [[Charles Evans Whittaker]], 1957
* [[Potter Stewart]], 1958

Whittaker was unsuited for the role and soon retired. Stewart and Harlan were conservative Republicans, while Brennan was a Democrat who became a leading voice for liberalism.<ref>Newton, ''Eisenhower'' (2011) pp. 356–7</ref> In selecting a Chief Justice Eisenhower looked for an experienced jurist who could appeal to liberals in the party as well as law-and-order conservatives, noting privately that Warren "represents the kind of political, economic, and social thinking that I believe we need on the Supreme Court&nbsp;... He has a national name for integrity, uprightness, and courage that, again, I believe we need on the Court".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/presidential-papers/first-term/documents/460.cfm |title=Personal and confidential To Milton Stover Eisenhower, 9 October 1953. In ''The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower'', ed. L. Galambos and D. van Ee, (1996) doc. 460 |publisher=Eisenhowermemorial.org |accessdate=January 26, 2012}}</ref> In the next few years Warren led the Court in a series of liberal decisions that revolutionized the role of the Court. After his retirement, Eisenhower referred to his appointments of Warren and Brennan as his "great mistakes as President."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Supreme Court and McCarthy-Era Repression: One Hundred Decisions|first=Robert M.|last=Lichtman |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-252-03700-9 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IPYm0t7hv9UC&pg=PA223 |page=223}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Chief Justice: A Biography of Earl Warren |first=Ed |last=Cray |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-684-80852-9 |page=337 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2oS_DhU7zfkC&pg=PA337}}</ref>

====Other courts====
{{Main|Dwight D. Eisenhower judicial appointments}}
In addition to his five Supreme Court appointments, Eisenhower appointed 45 judges to the [[United States Courts of Appeals]], and 129 judges to the [[United States district courts]].

===States admitted to the Union===
* [[Alaska]]&nbsp;– January 3, 1959 <small>49th state</small>
* [[Hawaii]]&nbsp;– August 21, 1959 <small>50th state</small>

===Health issues===
Eisenhower was a [[chain smoker]] until March 1949.<ref>{{cite web|author=Alex Forman |url=http://www.tallslimerect.com/presidents/34.html |title=Tall, Slim & Erect: Dwight Eisenhower, 34th |publisher=Tallslimerect.com |date=March 28, 1969 |accessdate=December 10, 2011}}</ref> He was probably the first president to release information about his health and medical records while in office,<ref>Ferrell, R. H. (1992), ''Ill-Advised: Presidential Health & Public Trust'', University of Missouri Press, Columbia, MO. pp. 53–150</ref> On September 24, 1955, while vacationing in [[Colorado]], he had a serious heart attack that required six weeks' hospitalization, during which time Nixon, Dulles and Sherman Adams assumed administrative duties and provided communication with the President.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p.272.</ref> He was treated by Dr. [[Paul Dudley White]], a cardiologist with a national reputation, who regularly informed the press of the President's progress. Instead of eliminating him as a candidate for a second term as President, his physician recommended a second term as essential to his recovery.<ref>Ambrose (1984), p.281.</ref> As a consequence of his heart attack, Eisenhower developed a left ventricular [[aneurysm]], which was in turn the cause of a mild stroke on November 25, 1957. This incident occurred during a cabinet meeting when Eisenhower suddenly found himself unable to speak or move his right hand. The stroke had caused an aphasia. The president also suffered from [[Crohn's disease]], a chronic inflammatory condition of the intestine, which necessitated surgery for a bowel obstruction on June 9, 1956. He was still recovering from this operation during the [[Suez Crisis]].

Eisenhower's health issues forced him to give up smoking and make some changes to his dietary habits, but he still indulged in alcohol. During a visit to England he complained of dizziness and had to have his blood pressure checked on August 29, 1959; however, before dinner at Chequers on the next day his doctor General Howard Snyder recalled Eisenhower "drank several gin-and-tonics, and one or two gins on the rocks&nbsp;... three or four wines with the dinner".<ref>Williams, Charles ''Harold Macmillan'' (2009) p. 345</ref>

The last three years of Eisenhower's second term in office were ones of relatively good health. Eventually after leaving the White House, he suffered several additional and ultimately crippling heart attacks.<ref name="drzebra">{{cite web|url=http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g34.htm|title=President Dwight Eisenhower: Health & Medical History|publisher=doctorzebra.com|accessdate=January 22, 2013}}</ref> A severe heart attack in August 1965 largely ended his participation in public affairs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/all_about_ike/post_presidential.html |title=Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum |publisher=Eisenhower.archives.gov |accessdate=December 10, 2011}}</ref> In August 1966 he began to show symptoms of [[cholecystitis]], for which he underwent surgery on December 12, 1966 when his gallbladder was removed, containing 16 gallstones.<ref name="drzebra"/> After Eisenhower's death in 1969 (see below), an autopsy unexpectedly revealed an adrenal [[pheochromocytoma]],<ref>Messerli FH, Loughlin KR, Messerli AW, Welch WR: The President and the pheochromocytoma. ''Am J Cardiol'' 2007; 99: 1325–1329.</ref> a benign adrenaline-secreting tumor that may have made the President more vulnerable to heart disease. Eisenhower suffered seven heart attacks in total from 1955 until his death.<ref name="drzebra"/>

===End of presidency 1960–1961===
[[File:Dwight D. Eisenhower, official Presidential portrait.jpg|thumb|225px|upright|Official [[White House]] portrait of Dwight D. Eisenhower.]]
The [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|22nd Amendment to the U.S. Constitution]] was ratified in 1951, and it set term limits to the presidency of two terms. It stipulated that [[Harry S. Truman]], the incumbent at the time, would not be affected by the amendment. In 1961, Eisenhower became the first U.S. president to be constitutionally prevented from running for re-election to the office, having served the maximum two terms allowed.

Eisenhower was also the first outgoing President to come under the protection of the [[Former Presidents Act]]; two living former Presidents, [[Herbert Hoover]] and [[Harry S. Truman]], left office before the Act was passed. Under the act, Eisenhower was entitled to receive a lifetime pension, state-provided staff and a [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] detail.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=May 23, 2008|url=http://www.archives.gov/about/laws/former-presidents.html|title=Former Presidents Act|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]}}</ref>

In the 1960 election to choose his successor, Eisenhower endorsed his own Vice President, Republican [[Richard Nixon]] against Democrat [[John F. Kennedy]]. He told friends, "I will do almost anything to avoid turning my chair and country over to Kennedy."<ref name="time 2008"/> He actively campaigned for Nixon in the final days, although he may have done Nixon some harm. When asked by reporters at the end of a televised press conference to list one of Nixon's policy ideas he had adopted, Eisenhower joked, "If you give me a week, I might think of one. I don't remember." Kennedy's campaign used the quote in one of its campaign commercials. Nixon narrowly lost to Kennedy. Eisenhower, who was the oldest president in history at that time (then 70), was succeeded by the youngest elected president, as Kennedy was 43.<ref name="time 2008"/>

[[File:Eisenhower farewell address.ogg|right|thumb|Eisenhower's farewell address, January 17, 1961. Length 15:30.]]
On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the [[Oval Office]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=May 23, 2008|url=http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/eisenhower-farewell.html|title=Dwight D. Eisenhower Farewell Address|publisher=USA Presidents}}</ref> In his [[Eisenhower's farewell address|farewell speech]], Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the U.S. armed forces. He described the Cold War: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method&nbsp;..." and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals and continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military–industrial complex." He said, "we recognize the imperative need for this development&nbsp;... the potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist&nbsp;... Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together."

Because of legal issues related to holding a military rank while in a civilian office, Eisenhower had resigned his permanent commission as [[General of the Army (United States)|General of the Army]] before entering the office of President of the United States. Upon completion of his Presidential term, his commission was reactivated by Congress and Eisenhower again was commissioned a five-star general in the United States Army.<ref>[http://eisenhower.archives.gov/All_About_Ike/Post_Presidential/Post_Presidential.html ''Post Presidential Years'']. Eisenhower Archives. "President Kennedy reactivated his commission as a five star general in the United States Army. With the exception of [[George Washington]], Eisenhower is the only United States President with military service to reenter the Armed Forces after leaving the office of President."</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum, A Chronology from The New York Times, March 1961|url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/New+York+Times+Chronology/1961/March.htm|date=March 23, 1961|accessdate=May 30, 2009|quote=Mr. Kennedy signed into law the act of Congress restoring the five-star rank of General of the Army to his predecessor, Dwight D. Eisenhower. (15:5)}}</ref>

==Retirement, death and funeral==
[[File:LBJ and Eisenhower.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower meets with [[Lyndon B. Johnson|President Johnson]] in October 1965]]
[[File:Funeral services for Dwight D. Eisenhower, March 1969.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower's funeral service]]
Eisenhower retired to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]], only thirty miles from his ancestral home of York. In 1967, the Eisenhowers donated the farm to the [[National Park Service]]. In retirement, the former president did not completely retreat from political life; he spoke at the [[1964 Republican National Convention]] and appeared with [[Barry Goldwater]] in a Republican campaign commercial from Gettysburg.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=January 20, 2011|url=http://www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/1964/ike-at-gettysburg|title=Ike at Gettysburg (Goldwater, 1964)|work=1964: Johnson vs. Goldwater|publisher=Museum of the Moving Image}}</ref> However, his endorsement came somewhat reluctantly because Goldwater had attacked the former president as "a dime-store New Dealer".

On March 28, 1969, Eisenhower died in Washington, D.C. of [[congestive heart failure]] at [[Walter Reed Army Hospital]]. The following day his body was moved to the [[Washington National Cathedral]]'s Bethlehem Chapel, where he lay in repose for 28 hours. On March 30, his body was brought by [[caisson (military)|caisson]] to the [[United States Capitol]], where he lay in state in the [[Capitol Rotunda]]. On March 31, Eisenhower's body was returned to the [[Washington National Cathedral|National Cathedral]], where he was given an [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal Church]] funeral service. That evening, Eisenhower's body was placed onto a train en route to [[Abilene, Kansas]]. His body arrived on April 2, and was interred later that day in a small chapel on the grounds of the [[Eisenhower Presidential Library]]. Eisenhower is buried alongside his son Doud, who died at age 3 in 1921. His wife Mamie was buried next to him after her death in 1979.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=August 21, 2012|url=http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/all_about_ike/final_post.html|title=Dwight D. Eisenhower&nbsp;– Final Post|publisher=[[Eisenhower Presidential Center]]}}</ref>

Richard Nixon, then President, spoke of Eisenhower, <blockquote>Some men are considered great because they lead great armies or they lead powerful nations. For eight years now, Dwight Eisenhower has neither commanded an army nor led a nation; and yet he remained through his final days the world's most admired and respected man, truly the first citizen of the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1969/Eisenhower%2C-Judy-Garland-Die/12303189849225-9/|title=1969 Year in Review: Eisenhower, Judy Garland die |publisher=UPI|date=October 25, 2005 |accessdate=May 3, 2010}}</ref></blockquote>

==Legacy and memory==
After Eisenhower left office, his reputation declined. He was widely seen{{By whom|date=July 2013}} as an inactive, uninspiring president compared to his vigorous young successor. Despite his unprecedented use of Army troops to enforce a federal desegregation order at [[Little Rock Central High School|Central High School]] in Little Rock, Eisenhower was criticized for his reluctance to support the [[civil rights]] movement to the degree that activists wanted. Eisenhower also attracted criticism for his handling of the [[1960 U-2 incident]] and the associated international embarrassment,<ref name="'70s 27">
{{Cite book|title= How We Got Here: The '70s|last= Frum|first= David|authorlink= David Frum|year= 2000|publisher= Basic Books|location= New York, New York|isbn= 0-465-04195-7|page= 27|url= }}</ref><ref name="us news">{{Cite news|title= Presidential Lies and Deceptions|last= Walsh|first= Kenneth T.|date= June 6, 2008|publisher= ''US News and World Report|url=http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/politics/2008/06/06/presidential-lies-and-deceptions.html }}
</ref>
for the Soviet Union's perceived leadership in the [[nuclear arms race]] and the [[Space Race]], and for his failure to oppose [[McCarthyism]] in public. In particular, Eisenhower was criticized for failing to defend [[George Marshall]] from attacks by [[Joseph McCarthy]], though he privately deplored McCarthy's tactics and claims.<ref>{{cite web |accessdate=May 23, 2008 |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/34_eisenhower/eisenhower_politics.html |title=Presidential Politics |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]]}}</ref> Such omissions were held against him during the [[American liberalism|liberal]] climate of the 1960s and 1970s. Since that time, however, Eisenhower's reputation has risen. [[Historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|Recent surveys]] of historians{{When|date=July 2013}} often rank Eisenhower in the top 10 of all U.S. presidents.

[[File:72-901-1 HR7786 Veterans Day June 1 1954.jpg|thumb|On June 1, 1954, this signing ceremony changed [[Armistice Day]] to [[Veterans Day (United States)|Veterans Day]].]]

Historian [[John Lewis Gaddis]] has summarized the turnaround in evaluations by historians:

<blockquote>Historians long ago abandoned the view that Eisenhower's was a failed presidency. He did, after all, end the Korean War without getting into any others. He stabilized, and did not escalate, the Soviet-American rivalry. He strengthened European alliances while withdrawing support from European colonialism. He rescued the Republican Party from isolationism and McCarthyism. He maintained prosperity, balanced the budget, promoted technological innovation, facilitated (if reluctantly) the civil rights movement and warned, in the most memorable farewell address since Washington's, of a "military–industrial complex" that could endanger the nation's liberties. Not until Reagan would another president leave office with so strong a sense of having accomplished what he set out to do.<ref>John Lewis Gaddis, "He Made It Look Easy: 'Eisenhower in War and Peace,' by Jean Edward Smith," [http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/books/review/eisenhower-in-war-and-peace-by-jean-edward-smith.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all ''New York Times Book Review'' April 20, 2012]</ref></blockquote>

Although conservatism in politics was strong during the 1950s and Eisenhower generally espoused conservative sentiments, his administration concerned itself mostly with foreign affairs (an area in which the career-military president had more knowledge) and pursued a hands-off domestic policy. Eisenhower looked to moderation and cooperation as a means of governance.<ref name="jstor.org">Griffith, Robert. "Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Corporate Commonwealth." http://www.jstor.org/stable/1863309</ref> Although he sought to slow or contain the New Deal and other federal programs, he did not attempt to repeal them outright, and in doing so was popular among the liberal wing of the Republican Party.<ref name="jstor.org"/> Conservative critics of his administration found that he did not do enough to advance the goals of the right: "Eisenhower's victories were," according to [[Hans Morgenthau]], "but accidents without consequence in the history of the Republican party."<ref>Morgenthau, Hans J.: "Goldwater&nbsp;– The Romantic Regression", in ''Commentary,'' September 1964.</ref>

Eisenhower introduced the office of a [[White House Chief of Staff]] or "gatekeeper"&nbsp;– an idea which he borrowed from the United States Army. Every president after [[Lyndon Johnson]] has also appointed staff to this position. Initially, [[Gerald Ford]] and [[Jimmy Carter]] tried to operate without a chief of staff, but each eventually appointed one.

Eisenhower founded [[People to People International]] in 1956, based on his belief that citizen interaction would promote cultural interaction and world peace. The program includes a [[People to People Student Ambassadors|student ambassador component]] which sends American youth on educational trips to other countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Our Heritage |url=http://www.peopletopeople.com/AboutUs/Pages/OurHeritage.aspx |publisher=peopletopeople.com |accessdate=September 29, 2009}}</ref>

[[File:Meeting with President Eisenhower. President Kennedy, President Eisenhower, military aides. Camp David, MD. - NARA - 194198.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower with [[John F. Kennedy]], April 22, 1961]]

==Tributes and memorials==
Eisenhower is remembered for his role in World War II, the creation of the [[Interstate Highway System]] and ending the [[Korean War]].

[[File:Eisenhower Interstate System IMG 4192.JPG|150px|thumb|Eisenhower Interstate System sign south of [[San Antonio]], Texas]]
[[File:Eisenhower bronze.jpg|150px|thumb|upright|Bronze statue of Eisenhower at [[United States Capitol rotunda|Capitol rotunda]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aoc.gov/cc/art/nsh/eisenhower.cfm |title=Dwight D. Eisenhower |accessdate=November 29, 2008 |work=aoc.gov |publisher=Architect of the Capitol }}</ref>]]
The Interstate Highway System is officially known as the 'Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways' in his honor. Commemorative signs reading "Eisenhower Interstate System" and bearing Eisenhower's permanent [[General of the Army|5-star rank]] insignia were introduced in 1993 and are currently displayed throughout the Interstate System. Several highways are also named for him, including the [[Interstate 290 (Illinois)|Eisenhower Expressway]] (Interstate 290) near [[Chicago]] and the [[Eisenhower Tunnel]] on [[Interstate 70]] west of [[Denver]].

The British A4 class steam locomotive No. 4496 (renumbered 60008) ''Golden Shuttle'' was renamed ''[[LNER Class A4 4496 Dwight D Eisenhower|Dwight D. Eisenhower]]'' in 1946. It is preserved at the [[National Railroad Museum]] in [[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]], Wisconsin.
[[USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69)|USS ''Dwight D. Eisenhower'']], the second [[Nimitz class carrier|''Nimitz''-class]] [[supercarrier]], was named in his honor.

[[Eisenhower College]] was a small, liberal arts college chartered in [[Seneca Falls (village), New York|Seneca Falls]], New York in 1965, with classes beginning in 1968. Financial problems forced the school to fall under the management of the [[Rochester Institute of Technology]] in 1979. Its last class graduated in 1983.

Eisenhower Hall, the cadet activities building at West Point, was completed in 1974.<ref>Agnew, James B. (1979). ''Eggnog Riot''. San Rafael, CA: Presidio Press. p. 197.</ref> In 1983, the [[Eisenhower Monument]] was unveiled at West Point.

The [[Eisenhower Medical Center]] in [[Rancho Mirage, California|Rancho Mirage]], California was named after the President in 1971.

The [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center]], located at [[Fort Gordon]] near [[Augusta, Georgia|Augusta]], Georgia, was named in his honor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ddeamc.amedd.army.mil/Visitor/history.htm |title=History of Eisenhower Army Medical Center |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070203232831/http://www.ddeamc.amedd.army.mil/Visitor/history.htm|publisher=[[Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center]] |archivedate=February 3, 2007|accessdate=May 23, 2008}}</ref>

In 1983, [[The Eisenhower Institute]] was founded in Washington, D.C., as a policy institute to advance Eisenhower's intellectual and leadership legacies.

In 1989, U.S. Ambassador [[Charles H. Price II|Charles Price]] and [[Prime Minister of the UK|British Prime Minister]] [[Margaret Thatcher]] dedicated a bronze statue of Eisenhower in [[Grosvenor Square]], London. The statue is located in front of the current [[Embassy of the United States in London|US Embassy, London]] and across from the former command center for the Allied Expeditionary Force during World War II, offices Eisenhower occupied during the war.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://london.usembassy.gov/grsvnrsq/eisen.html |title=Statue of President Eisenhower in Grosvenor Square |accessdate=August 21, 2012 |publisher=US Embassy}}</ref>

In 1999, the [[United States Congress]] created the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial]] Commission, to create an enduring [[national memorial]] in Washington, D.C.. In 2009, the commission chose the architect [[Frank Gehry]] to design the memorial.<ref>{{Cite news| title=Frank Gehry to design Eisenhower Memorial | url=http://www.bizjournals.com/albuquerque/stories/2009/03/30/daily41.html | work=The Business Journals | publisher=American City Business Journals | date=April 1, 2009 | accessdate=April 3, 2009 | first=New | last=Mexico}}</ref><ref name="WPmemorial">{{Cite news
|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/01/AR2009040101880.html
|title=Architect Gehry Gets Design Gig For Ike Memorial
|last=Trescott
|first=Jacqueline
|date=April 2, 2009
|work=The Washington Post
|publisher=[[The Washington Post Company]]
}}</ref>
The memorial will stand near the [[National Mall]] on Maryland Avenue, SW across the street from the [[National Air and Space Museum]].<ref>{{Cite news
|url=http://washington.bizjournals.com/washington/stories/2010/01/18/daily80.html
|title=Gilbane to manage design and construction of Eisenhower Memorial
|last=Plumb
|first=Tiereny
|date=January 22, 2010
|work=[[Washington Business Journal]]
|publisher=American City Business Journals, Inc
}}</ref>

On May 7, 2002, the [[Old Executive Office Building]] was officially renamed the Eisenhower Executive Office Building. This building is part of the [[White House Complex]], and is west of the [[West Wing]]. It currently houses a number of executive offices, including ones for the Vice President and his or her spouse.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/eeobtour/timeline.html |title=The White House. Eisenhower Executive Office Building. ''Construction Chronology & Historical Events for the Eisenhower Executive Office Building'' |publisher=Whitehouse.gov |accessdate=May 3, 2010}}</ref>

A county park in [[East Meadow, New York|East Meadow]], New York ([[Long Island]]) is named in his honor.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=May 23, 2008|url=http://www.nassaucountyny.gov/agencies/Parks/WhereToGo/active/eisenhower.html|title=Eisenhower Park|publisher=[[Nassau County, New York]]}}</ref> [[Eisenhower State Park (Texas)|Eisenhower State Park]] on [[Lake Texoma]] near his birthplace of Denison is named in his honor.

His birthplace is currently operated by the State of Texas as the [[Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site]]. Since 1980, the National Park Service has allowed visitors to the Eisenhower Farm adjacent to the [[Gettysburg Battlefield]].

Many public [[Eisenhower High School (disambiguation)|high schools]] and [[Eisenhower Middle School (disambiguation)|middle schools]] in the U.S. are named after Eisenhower.

[[Mount Eisenhower]] was named in the [[Presidential Range]] of the [[White Mountains (New Hampshire)|White Mountains]] in [[New Hampshire]].

The Eisenhower Golf Club at the [[United States Air Force Academy]], a 36-hole facility featuring the Blue and Silver courses, which is ranked No. 1 among [[United States Department of Defense|DoD]] courses, is named in his honor.

Eisenhower Park on Washington Square in [[Newport, Rhode Island]], dedicated by President Eisenhower in 1960.

The 18th hole at [[Cherry Hills Country Club]], near [[Denver]], is named in his honor. Eisenhower was a longtime member of the club, which operated one of his favorite courses.<ref>''The World Atlas of Golf'', second edition, 1988, Mitchell and Beazely publishers, London.</ref>

A [[loblolly pine]], known as the "Eisenhower Pine", is located on the 17th hole, approximately 210 yards (192 m) from [[the Masters]] tee. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, an [[Augusta National]] member, hit the tree so many times that, at a 1956 club meeting, he proposed that it be cut down. Not wanting to offend the president, the club's chairman, [[Clifford Roberts]], immediately adjourned the meeting rather than reject the request.{{Citation needed |date=April 2013}}

During a visit to Augusta National, then General Eisenhower returned from a walk through the woods on the eastern part of the grounds, and informed [[Clifford Roberts]] that he had found a perfect place to build a dam if the club would like a fish pond. Ike's Pond was built and named, and the dam is located just where Eisenhower said it should be.{{Citation needed |date=April 2013}}

==Awards and decorations==
[[File:Orden-Pobeda-Marshal Vasilevsky.jpg|thumb|The star of the Soviet [[Order of Victory]] awarded to Eisenhower.<ref>Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands in an interview with H.G. Meijer, published in "Het Vliegerkruis", Amsterdam 1997, ISBN 90-6707-347-4. page 92.</ref>]]

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"
| colspan=2 |'''U.S. military decorations'''
|-
|{{ribbon devices|number=4|type=oak|ribbon=Distinguished Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Army Distinguished Service Medal]] w/ 4 [[oak leaf cluster]]s
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Navy Distinguished Service ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Navy Distinguished Service Medal]]
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Legion of Merit ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Legion of Merit]]
|- style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"
| colspan=2 |'''U.S. Service Medals'''
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Mexican Border Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Mexican Border Service Medal]]
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=World War I Victory Medal ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[World War I Victory Medal (United States)|World War I Victory Medal]]
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=American Defense Service ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[American Defense Service Medal]]
|-
|{{ribbon devices|number=9|type=service-star|ribbon=European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal]] w/ 9 [[service star]]s
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=World War II Victory Medal ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[World War II Victory Medal]]
|-
|{{ribbon devices|number=0|type=service-star|ribbon=Army of Occupation ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Army of Occupation Medal]] w/ "Germany" clasp
|-
|{{ribbon devices|number=1|type=service-star|ribbon=National Defense Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[National Defense Service Medal]] w/ 1 [[service star]]
|- style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"
| colspan=2 |'''International and Foreign Awards'''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/all_about_ike/awards_medals.html|title=USA and Foreign Decorations of Dwight D. Eisenhower|publisher=[[Eisenhower Presidential Center]]|accessdate=June 10, 2012}}</ref>
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=ARG Order of the Liberator San Martin - Grand Cross BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Liberator San Martin]], Grand Cross ([[Argentine]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=AUT Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria - 2nd Class BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria|Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash]] ([[Austria]])<ref>{{cite web | title=Questions to the Chancellor | year=2012 | publisher=Austrian Parliament | url=http://www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/VHG/XXIV/AB/AB_10542/imfname_251156.pdf | page=194 | accessdate=September 30, 2012}}</ref>
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Grand Crest Ordre de Leopold.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Leopold (Belgium)|Order of Leopold]], Grand Cordon ([[Belgium]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Oorlogskruis with Palm.jpg|width=60}}
|[[War Cross (Belgium)|Croix de guerre]] w/ palm ([[Belgium]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of the Southern Cross Grand Collar Ribbon.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Southern Cross]], Grand Cross ([[Brazil]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of Military Merit.png|width=60}}
|Order of Military Merit, Grand Cross ([[Brazil]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of Aeronautical Merit (Brazil) - ribbon bar.gif|width=60}}
|[[Order of Aeronautical Merit (Brazil)|Order of Aeronautical Merit]], Grand Cross ([[Brazil]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=BRA War Medal.png|width=60}}
|War Medal ([[Brazil]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=BRA Campaign Medal.png|width=60}}
|Campaign Medal ([[Brazil]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=National Order of Merit Grand Officer Ribbon.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Merit of Chile]], Grand Cross ([[Chile]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of the Cloud and Banner 1st.gif|width=60}}
|[[Order of Cloud and Banner]], Grand Cordon, Special Class ([[Republic of China|China]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=TCH Rad Bileho Lva 1 tridy (pre1990) BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the White Lion]], Grand cross ([[Czechoslovakia]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945 Ribbon.png|width=60}}
|[[Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945|War Cross 1939–1945]] ([[Czechoslovakia]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=National Order of the Southern Cross K R.jpg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Elephant]], Knight ([[Denmark]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of Abdon Calderón.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Abdon Calderón]], First Class ([[Ecuador]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=EGY Order of Ismail.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Ismail]], Grand Cordon with Star ([[Egypt]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=ETH Order of Solomon BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Solomon]], Knight Grand Cross with Cordon ([[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of The Queen of Sheba (Ethiopia) ribbon.gif|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Queen of Sheba]], Member ([[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Legion of Honor]], Grand Cross (France)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ruban de l'Ordre de la Libération (2).PNG|width=60}}
|[[Order of Liberation]], Companion (France)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ruban de la Médaille militaire.PNG|width=60}}
|[[Médaille militaire|Military Medal]] (France)<ref>{{Cite book|title=Allies|author=Eisenhower, John S. D.}}</ref>
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Croix de guerre 1939-1945 with palm.jpg|width=60}}
|[[Croix de guerre 1939–1945|Croix de guerre]] w/ palm (France)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=GRE Order of George I - Grand Cross BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Royal Order of George I]], Knight Grand Cross with Swords ([[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=GRE Order Redeemer 1Class.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Savior|Royal Order of the Savior]], Knight Grand Cross ([[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Noribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Cross of Military Merit]], First Class ([[Guatemala]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Haiti National Order of Honour and Merit.png|width=60}}
|[[National Order of Honour and Merit]], Grand Cross with Gold Badge ([[Haiti]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Equestrian order of the Holy Sepulcher of Jerusalem BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Holy Sepulchre]], Knight ([[Holy See]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Cavaliere di gran Croce BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Military Order of Italy]], Knight Grand Cross with Swords ([[Italy]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ribbon of Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum.gif|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Chrysanthemum]], Grand Cordon (Japan)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=LUX Order of the Oak Crown - Grand Cross BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Oak Crown]], Grand Cross ([[Luxembourg]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=LUX Croix de Guerre ribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Luxembourg War Cross]] ([[Luxembourg]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=MEX Order of the Aztec Eagle 1Class BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Aztec Eagle]], Collar ([[Mexico]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Mexican Medal of Military Merit.png|width=60}}
|[[Military decorations of Mexico#Medal of Military Merit|Medal of Military Merit]] ([[Mexico]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Noribbon.svg|width=60}}
|[[Medal of Civic Merit]] ([[Mexico]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Grand Cross of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite ribbon.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Ouissam Alaouite]], Grand Cross ([[Morocco]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ord.Neth.Lion.jpg|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Netherlands Lion]], Knight Grand Cross ([[Netherlands]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order Sint Olaf 1 kl.png|width=60}}
|[[Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav]], Grand Cross ([[Norway]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ord.Nishan-i-Pakistan.ribbon.gif|width=60}}
|[[Nishan-e-Pakistan|Order of Nishan-e-Pakistan]], First Class ([[Pakistan]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=PAN Order of Vasco Nunez de Balboa - Grand Cross BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Orden Vasco Núñez de Balboa]], Grand Cross ([[Panama]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=PAN Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero - Grand Cross BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero]], Grand Collar ([[Panama]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=PHL Order of Sikatuna - Grand Cross BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Sikatuna]], Grand Collar (Philippines)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=PHL Legion of Honor - Chief Commander BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Legion of Honor]], Chief Commander (Philippines)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=PHL Distinguished Service Star BAR.png|width=60}}
|[[Distinguished Service Star]], ([[Philippines]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=POL Polonia Restituta Kawalerski BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Polonia Restituta]], Knight ([[Poland]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=POL Virtuti Militari Wielki BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Virtuti Militari]], First Class ([[Poland]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=POL Order Krzyża Grunwaldu 1 Klasy BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Cross of Grunwald]], First Class ([[Poland]])
|-
||{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Croix Croix du Mérite ordre de Malte militaire.PNG|width=60}}
|[[Order pro merito Melitensi]], Knight Grand Cross ([[Sovereign Military Order of Malta]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of the Royal House of Chakri (Thailand) ribbon.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Royal House of Chakri]], Knight ([[Thailand]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ordre du Nichan Iftikhar GC ribbon (Tunisia).svg|width=60}}
|[[Order of Glory (Tunisia)|Order of Nichan Iftikhar]], Grand Cordon ([[Tunisia]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order_of_the_Bath_UK_ribbon.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of the Bath]], Knight Grand Cross (United Kingdom)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Galó de l'Orde del Mèrit (UK).png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Merit]], Member (United Kingdom)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Africa Star 8th 1st BAR.svg|width=60}}
|[[Africa Star]], with "8" and "1" numerical devices (United Kingdom)
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Ordervictory rib.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Victory]], Star ([[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|USSR]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=Order of Suvorov 106x30.png|width=60}}
|[[Order of Suvorov]], First Class ([[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|USSR]])
|-
|{{ribbon devices|ribbon=The Royal Yugoslav Commemorative War Cross rib.png|width=60}}
|[[The Royal Yugoslav Commemorative War Cross]] ([[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]])
|}

==Other honors==
* In 1947 [[Wilhelmina of the Netherlands|Queen Wilhelmina]] of the [[Netherlands]] presented General Eisenhower with a golden inlaid [[Honorary Sabre]].{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}
* In 1966, Eisenhower was the second person to be awarded [[Civitan International]]'s World Citizenship Award.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Armbrester |first=Margaret E. |title=The Civitan Story |year=1992 |publisher=Ebsco Media |location=Birmingham, AL |page=97 }}</ref>
* The {{USS|Dwight D. Eisenhower|CVN-69}} aircraft carrier, commissioned in 1977, was named after the former president.
* Eisenhower's name was given to a variety of streets, avenues, etc., in cities around the world, including Paris, France.
* In December 1999, Eisenhower was listed on [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th century]].
* In 2009, Eisenhower was named to the [[World Golf Hall of Fame]] in the Lifetime Achievement category for his contributions to the sport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pgatour.com/2009/r/06/26/wghof_eisenhower/index.html |title=President Eisenhower named to World Golf Hall of Fame |publisher=PGA Tour |accessdate=May 3, 2010}}</ref>
* An apartment at the top of the [[Culzean Castle]] in Scotland was given to General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower in recognition of his role as Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe during the Second World War. The General first visited Culzean Castle in 1946 and stayed there four times, including once while President of the United States. An Eisenhower exhibition occupies one of the rooms, with mementoes of his lifetime.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aboutscotland.co.uk/culzean/index.html |title=Culzean Castle Scotland The Eisenhower Apartment Hotel Accommodation |accessdate=January 21, 2013 |work=About Scotland |publisher=John Boyd-Brent }}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Biography|United States Army|World War I|World War II|1950s}}
* [[And I don't care what it is]], phrase by Eisenhower, 1952, on religion
* [[Atoms for Peace]], a speech to the UN General Assembly in December 1953
* [[Eisenhower Dollar]]
* [[Eisenhower National Historic Site]]
* [[U.S. Presidents on U.S. postage stamps#Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower on U.S. Postage stamps]]
* [[Eisenhower Presidential Center]]
* [[Historical rankings of United States Presidents]]
* [[History of the United States (1945–1964)]]
* [[Ike: Countdown to D-Day]] A 2004 American television film about Eisenhower's difficult decisions he had to make as Supreme Commander that led to the successful D-Day invasion of World War II.
* [[List of Presidents of the United States]]
* [[People to People Student Ambassador Program]]
* [[Kay Summersby]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==

===General biographies===
* {{Cite book|first=Stephen|last=Ambrose|title=Eisenhower: (vol. 1) Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect (1893–1952)|location=New York|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|year=1983}}
* {{Cite book|first=Stephen|last=Ambrose|title=Eisenhower: (vol. 2) The President (1952–1969)|location=New York|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|year=1984}}
* {{Cite book|first=Carlo|last=D'Este |authorlink=Carlo D'Este |title=Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life|year=2002|ref=harv}}
* Krieg, Joann P. ed. (1987). ''Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman''. 24 essays by scholars.
* Newton, Jim. ''Eisenhower: The White House Years'' (2011)
* {{Cite book|first=Herbert S.|last=Parmet|title=Eisenhower and the American Crusades|year=1972|ref=harv}}
* Smith, Jean Edward. ''Eisenhower in War and Peace'' (Random House; 2012) 950 pages

===Military career===
* Ambrose, Stephen E. (1970) ''The Supreme Commander: The War Years of Dwight D. Eisenhower'' [http://www.amazon.com/Supreme-Commander-Years-Dwight-Eisenhower/dp/0307946622/ excerpt and text search]
* Ambrose, Stephen E. (1998). [http://books.google.com/books?id=ag7omy2OvBgC&printsec=frontcover ''The Victors: Eisenhower and his Boys: The Men of World War II''], New York : Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-85628-X
* Eisenhower, David (1986). ''Eisenhower at War 1943–1945'', New York : Random House. ISBN 0-394-41237-0. A detailed study by his grandson.
* Eisenhower, John S. D. (2003). ''General Ike'', Free Press, New York. ISBN 0-7432-4474-5
* Irish, Kerry E. "Apt Pupil: Dwight Eisenhower and the 1930 Industrial Mobilization Plan", ''The Journal of Military History'' 70.1 (2006) 31–61 online in Project Muse.
* {{Cite book|last= Jordan |first= Jonathan W. |title = Brothers, Rivals, Victors: Eisenhower, Patton, Bradley, and the Partnership That Drove the Allied Conquest in Europe |publisher = NAL | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-451-23212-0|ref= harv|postscript= <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}
* Pogue, Forrest C. ''The Supreme Command'', Washington, D.C. : [[Office of the Chief of Military History]], Dept. of the Army, 1954. The official Army history of SHAEF.
* Weigley, Russell (1981). ''Eisenhower's Lieutenants'', Indiana University Press. Ike's dealings with his key generals in World War II.

===Civilian career===
* Bowie, Robert R. and Immerman, Richard H. (1998). ''Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy'', Oxford University Press.
* [[Ira Chernus|Chernus, Ira]] (2008). ''Apocalypse Management: Eisenhower and the Discourse of National Insecurity'', Stanford University Press.
* Damms, Richard V. ''The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953–1961'' (2002).
* David Paul T., ed. (1954). ''Presidential Nominating Politics in 1952''. 5 vols., Johns Hopkins Press.
* Divine, Robert A. (1981). ''Eisenhower and the Cold War''.
* Greenstein, Fred I. (1991). ''The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader''.
* Harris, Douglas B. "Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption", ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol. 27, 1997.
* Harris, Seymour E. (1962). ''The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy''.
* Medhurst, Martin J. (1993). ''Dwight D. Eisenhower: Strategic Communicator'' Greenwood Press.
* Mayer, Michael S. (2009). ''The Eisenhower Years'', 1024 pp; short biographies by experts of 500 prominent figures, with some primary sources.
* Newton, Jim. (2011) ''Eisenhower: The White House Years''
* Pach, Chester J. and Richardson, Elmo (1991). ''Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower''. Standard scholarly survey.

===Historiography and interpretations by scholars===
* Burk, Robert. "Eisenhower Revisionism Revisited: Reflections on Eisenhower Scholarship", ''Historian'', Spring 1988, Vol. 50, Issue 2, pp.&nbsp;196–209
* McAuliffe, Mary S. "Eisenhower, the President", ''Journal of American History'' 68 (1981), pp.&nbsp;625–632 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1901942 in JSTOR]
* McMahon, Robert J. "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," ''Political Science Quarterly'' (1986) 101#3 pp.&nbsp;453–473 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2151625 in JSTOR]
* Rabe, Stephen G. "Eisenhower Revisionism: A Decade of Scholarship," ''Diplomatic History'' (1993) 17#1 pp&nbsp;97–115.
* Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur. "The Ike Age Revisited," ''Reviews in American History'' (1983) 11#1 pp.&nbsp;1–11 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2701865 in JSTOR]
* Streeter, Stephen M. "Interpreting the 1954 U.S. Intervention In Guatemala: Realist, Revisionist, and Postrevisionist Perspectives," ''History Teacher'' (2000) 34#1 pp&nbsp;61–74. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/305437 in JSTOR]

===Primary sources===
* Boyle, Peter G., ed. (1990). ''The Churchill–Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953–1955''. University of North Carolina Press.
* Boyle, Peter G., ed. (2005). ''The Eden–Eisenhower correspondence, 1955–1957''. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2935-8
* Butcher, Harry C. ''My Three Years With Eisenhower The Personal Diary of Captain Harry C. Butcher, USNR'' (1946), candid memoir by a top aide
* Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1948). ''Crusade in Europe'', his war memoirs.
* {{Cite book|first=Dwight D.|last=Eisenhower|title=Mandate for Change, 1953–1956|year=1963|ref=harv}}
* Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1965). ''The White House Years: Waging Peace 1956–1961'', Doubleday and Co.
* [http://millercenter.org/scripps/reference/papers/eisenhower.html ''Eisenhower Papers''] 21 volume scholarly edition; complete for 1940–1961.
* Summersby, Kay (1948). ''Eisenhower was My Boss'', New York: Prentice Hall; (1949) Dell paperback.

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=no}}

===Audio and video===
* {{YouTube|id=Y9RAxAgksSE|title=1952 Ike for President TV Ad}}
* [http://millercenter.org/scripps/archive/speeches#dwighteisenhower Full audio of Eisenhower speeches via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (University of Virginia)]
* [http://millercenter.org/scripps/digitalarchive/presidentialrecordings/eisenhower/index Eisenhower's Secret White House Recordings via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (University of Virginia)]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=EisenhowerD Audio clips of Eisenhower's speeches]
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.2569699|name=Big Picture: The Dwight D. Eisenhower Story}}
* {{Internet Archive film clip|id=1959-08-27_Bonn_Hails_Ike|description=Bonn Hails Ike! Says U.S. Will Stand By Berlin, 1959/08/27 (1959)}}
* [http://americanpresidents.org/presidents/president.asp?PresidentNumber=33 Dwight D. Eisenhower] at [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]''
* [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/landingpage/collection/p15324coll20 Audio and images of Eisenhower becoming an honorary fellow for life of the Metropolitan Museum of Art]

===For additional research===
* [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/finding_aids/e.html Finding aids to the Papers and Records of Dwight D. Eisenhower at the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library]
* [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents.html Documents available online from the Dwight D. Presidential Library]
* [http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/hh63sv908 Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University]
* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Eisenhower,+Dwight Annotated Bibliography for Dwight D. Eisenhower from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/eisenhower/index.html Dwight D. Eisenhower: A Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress
* {{NYTtopic|people/e/dwight_david_eisenhower}}
* [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/eisen1.asp First Inaugural Address]
* [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/eisen2.asp Second Inaugural Address]
* [[s:Eisenhower's farewell address|Farewell Address]] (Wikisource)
* [http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?david-ben-gurion-on-eisenhower Original Letters and Primary Sources: Dwight D. Eisenhower] Shapell Manuscript Foundation
* [http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/presidential-papers/index.htm The Presidential Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower (searchable online)]
* [http://www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19690404,00.html ''TIME'' Magazine Cover: Dwight D. Eisenhower, April 4, 1969]
* [http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/29ike/29ike.htm ''Thaw in the Cold War: Eisenhower and Khrushchev at Gettysburg,'' a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan]
* [http://millercenter.org/index.php/academic/americanpresident/eisenhower Essay on Dwight D. Eisenhower] with shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs

===Organizations===
* [http://www.dwightdeisenhower.com/library-museum.html Eisenhower Presidential Library & Museum, including Home and Tomb]
* [http://www.ikecenter.uno.edu The Eisenhower Center for American Studies at the University of New Orleans]
* [http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/ The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas]

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{{Persondata
|NAME=Eisenhower, Dwight David
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Ike (common referent)
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=United States general and President
|DATE OF BIRTH={{Birth date|1890|10|14|mf=y}}
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Denison, Texas|Denison]], Texas
|DATE OF DEATH={{Death date|1969|3|28|mf=y}}
|PLACE OF DEATH=Washington, D.C.
}}
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Revision as of 16:27, 18 October 2013

he was in the military

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