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Draft:Social schema theory

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In Psychology, Social Schemas are supported by social and cognative theories, emphasising how information is received, stored, recalled and amended as a result of constant interactions with the surrounding environment. This theory uses the term schema to refer to mental representation of a concept [1] and focuses on the organisation of social categories and how these subsequently impact human behaviour.

The influence of the self, others and the environment influence the formation and storage of a schema

As such, social schema theory [2] identifies four main types of schemas:

  • Self-schema - stores information relating to the person’s identity
  • Person schema - organises information pertinent to the assumed membership of peers to certain social groups
  • Event schema - predominantly uses information from past experiences to produce appropriate behaviour
  • Role schema - interprets information based on societal norms

The formation of social schemas is automatic and unconsciously based on past and current contexts. Importantly, social schemas help to interpret the ever-changing and fast-paced social world, enabling humans to interact with the external environment in an approaprate and timely manner. As a result, social schema theory has a wide social application despite its theory being based heavily on theoretical background. Some gaps are left in measuring and operationalising the formation of social schemas and their subtypes.

What is a schema?

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The term schema can be traced back to the Greek word “schéma” and refers to a theoretical mental framework or heuristic used to interpret incoming information and direct behaviour [3]. Depending on the nature of the incoming information, schemas can be further broken down into four subsections [4]. Once this information is organised into the correct schema subsection, information already stored here may be altered in an effort to maintain an accurate representation of an event or person. Subsequently, schemas are imperative for learning and development as this flexible approach allows for the reinterpretation of experience as more knowledge is acquired [5].

Furthermore, schemas are then used to recall information when faced with similar situations to facilitate the production of appropriate behaviours [6]. Concisely, this process allows for socially related knowledge to be organised, interpreted, edited if necessary and recalled in a short space of time. This theory has had several practical applications, such as schema therapy in the context of love trauma syndrome[7], in an attempt to reduce distressing symptoms after the conclusion of a romantic relationship.

Limitations of schemas

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Critically, schemas are inherently independant by nature and as such, application is limited to single case studies. Social schemas and their construction are primarly based on interactions with the environment which is subject to individual interpretation and contexts. As a result, practical applications such as love trauma therapy, cannot be implimented in a precriptive approach. As a result, the generalised application of social schema therapy may require more consideration.

Self schemas

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The term self-schema is used to denote how an individual views themselves morally and characteristically. The concept of the self in the self-schema can be represented in many different ways, from perceptions about one’s own body image and appearance to understanding one’s own personality, ethical standards and preferences [8]. Understanding our self-schemas can assist us in comprehending our motivations and change our actions accordingly. These self-schemas adapt and evolve over time, allowing for personal growth and development whilst building on previous experiences of similar or new situations [9].We perceive ourselves as having a cause-and-effect relationship with the environment, and as such, our self-schemas are likely to influence our behaviour [10].

Furthering this concept, how we perceive ourselves will affect how we view other people. If an individual and their self-schema strongly hold onto a specific characteristic, this feature is also likely to be salient when evaluating other people and places. An example of the prevalence and importance of a self-schema can be demonstrated when reviewing academic performance among children[11]. Those whose self-schema represents interest and value in education and learning in a specific subject are more likely to participate and actively engage in academic tasks.

Due to the internal and introspective neature of a self schema, a lack of empirical and causal evidence can only provide a correlational relationship regarding the presence and formation of a schema [12]. As such, the attribution of self-schemas is largely dependent on anecdotal evidence that could be a result of circumstantial or confounding variables. In summary, self-schemas are required to gain valuable insight into one’s own motivations and preferences when behaving but are, however, not currently quantifiable.

Person schemas

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Person schemas are developed and used when meeting and interacting with other people. Person schemas draw on relevant and available information when meeting a stranger and combine it with previous knowledge to categorise the individual into face-value social groups. Conversely, when interacting with friends or family members, these schemas hold a prescribed list of personal characteristics and social groups to which they belong, assisting in faster and more socially accurate communication [13].

Person schemas can, however, be wrongly applied to individuals based on inherent bias or outdated and stereotypical schemas. As such, when approaching a new individual, one might judge someone by their appearance [14], the intonation or language used when speaking [15] or the social groups that their assoicates belong to. Upon observation of these factors, schemas will determine what social group we deem them to belong to, thus creating a shortcut for the next time we interact with them.

These schemas are required when interacting with strangers and family members and can subsequently cause distress when not appropriately utilised or forgotten. An example of a person’s schema being disturbed is Capgras delusion [16]. This is when an individual believes that a close family member or friend has been removed and replaced by a stranger or imposter. This misidentification disorder displays the importance of person schemas, as the individuals themselves are intact, but the interpretation of their qualities is disorganised and, therefore, not applied, resulting in distress and confusion.

However, it is important for human cognition not to be oversimplified. Alternative theories suggest that too much emphasis is attributed to schemas, limiting investigations into the underlying factors that integrate incoming information and coordinate between other processes, such as perception and memory. This theory also has explanatory power in real-world applications in attributing characteristics to strangers when first meeting them, however, it is unclear if social schema theory holds the only explanatory power for such conditions[17].

Event schemas

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Schemas hold general information relative to a subject or event. These schemas organise and suggest a broad principle for an action, then used in context as a mental shortcut to act appropriately in the moment [18]. An event schema helps in the recollection of abstract or situational models of events by drawing on past experiences of similar situations [19][20].

Common event schema of entering a restaurant

These event schemas are flexible and are based upon a large bank of continuously evolving information from the environment. For example, the process of entering and ordering at a restaurant is largely the same regardless of the establishment (It is generally accepted that you wait by a stand until a server takes you to your table). These similar events are combined into event schemas in which this process becomes easily activated and automatic so that an accurate representation of an event is now formed from this schema. Event schemas are reactivated when engaging in similar situations and help to dictate appropriate behaviour [21].

One limitation of an event schema is the tendency to construct and fill in any gaps of missing information in an ambiguous situation with assumptions from previous similar events. This gap-filling process tends to bias our interpretation of ambiguous events, and as such, a neutral or positive situation could be interpreted as negative. Stereotyped schematic information can colour new experiences, preventing the schema from evolving [22] and editing the event schema to account for this change. This acts as a type of schematic self-sabotage as individuals get stuck in a cycle of biased interpretations and ultimately inappropriate avoidance and reinforcing behaviour. Application of event schemas should, therefore, be monitored to prevent such a cycle from being started.

Role schemas

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Role schemas are defined as frameworks from which knowledge about a personal role in society influences the interpretation and production of behaviour [23]. Schemas organised in this category can be used to understand different role expectations between and within certain cultures [24]. Alternative cultures will have differing social norms and expectations when discussing the same societal roles. For example, more traditional cultural settings would hold the rigid stereotype schema that men are more likely to be managers in corporate settings [25].An individual, therefore, may assume that when interacting with women in this context, they would not be the manager. In comparison, more individualistic cultures may have a more flexible view and would not make this assumption, opting to wait to find out if this individual was, in fact, the manager.

As schemas are heavily influenced by previous experiences of social groups and categories within our own social and cultural norms, this could lead to misinterpretation when in alternative social contexts. Conflicts may arise as different social categories disagree on the role of an individual and, subsequently, the appropriate actions they should display in certain situations, causing tension or discrimination between groups[26] [27].

Alternatively, dual coding theory suggests the interpretation of information is better facilitated through the combination of verbal and non-verbal information. This explanation would provide a more comprehensive explanation of how cultural differences are bridged through nonverbal cues and universal gestures [28]. The assumed nature of social schema theory may hinder the transition of roles through cultures. However, this theory could still be present, with dual process theory supporting this culturally sensitive communication of role-related information.

Schema malfunction

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The application of social schemas in everyday situations is limited due to the possibility of malfunction, resulting in inappropriate behaviour. For example, an inappropriate schema may be selected for a specific event; a self-schema may focus on an internal characteristic and lead to the fixation of this trait, and forced rigidity of role schemas can lead to prejudice or bias. The increased likelihood of this occurring is influenced by an individual’s need to read a quick conclusion or judgment in a socially pressured environment [29].

1908 depiction of an embarrassing situation

Consistent interactions with similar events or people can lead to automatic assumptions, which can if reinforced, evolve into stereotypes. In these situations, someone may depend on stereotypical schemas and apply these in an event which does not fit the stereotypical assumptions, therefore causing them to act inappropriately. An example of this could include assuming that someone will hold the same political opinions and ideologies as you based on their physical appearance, situation or culture where you interacted with them. This could result in a potentially embarrassing environment where bias or conflict is created as a direct result of this assumption. Mismatching schema can also occur in a more theoretical context where written language may be misinterpreted to use one definition, where later on in the text, it is clear that the other definition was intended by the author [30]. Therefore, despite the large variety and application of schemas in different situations, their application may not be trustworthy, resulting in the need for caution and to check one’s intuition before automatically acting.

Future dirrections

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Gaps in current research into schemas and, by extension, the four social subcategories indicate more investigation is required in the area of methodological development to quantify the production and use of schemas throughout social interactions. Questions have been raised as to how the process of developing a schema occurs and how limited schemas become more complex and specific over time. As such, further research could investigate the change in schema development based on environment or cognitive maturation.

References

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