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Draft:Great War against the Crimean Expansion

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Great War against the Crimean Expansion
Part of Russo-Crimean Wars, Crimean-Circassian Wars
DateMid-16th to Late 17th Century
Location
Kuban, Azov, Black Sea, North Caucasus, Crimea
Result

Russo-Circassian victory

  • limiting Crimean Khanate's expansion
Territorial
changes		 Restoration of Circassian control over lands previously threatened by Crimean Khanate raids; strategic positioning in alliance with Russia
Belligerents
 Russia
 Circassia
Cossacks		  Crimean Khanate
Nogai Horde
 Ottoman Empire
Commanders and leaders
Various Circassian tribal leaders, Russian emissaries Mengli I Giray, Sahib I Giray, other Crimean khans
Strength
30,000-60,000 100,000[1]-160,000[2]
Casualties and losses
Minimal losses 40,000+ killed

The Great War against the Crimean Expansion spanned from the mid-16th to the late 17th century, with Circassians playing a leading role in resisting the Crimean Khanate's efforts to dominate the North Caucasus. Through joint defensive efforts and tactical alliances with Russia, Circassian forces repeatedly thwarted Crimean invasions, preserving their autonomy and securing a significant geopolitical victory against Ottoman-aligned forces.[3][4][5][6][7]

Background

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Located at a strategic crossroads, the North Caucasus was both a trade and military frontier. Circassians, being one of the region’s primary defenders, faced repeated incursions from the Crimean Khanate, whose expansionist aims were fueled by the support of the Ottoman Empire.[8] The Crimean khans viewed Circassian lands as critical for their influence in the Caucasus. However, Circassian tribes, leveraging their mountainous terrain and skilled warfare, managed to sustain a powerful resistance against these incursions.[9][10]

Initial Circassian Resistance and Alliance with Russia

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The first significant joint action between Circassians and Russians occurred in 1553, when Circassian leaders coordinated with Moscow to defend against Crimean invasions.[11] This alliance was fortified through battles in 1555 and 1556, which saw Circassian and Russian forces successfully repel Crimean advances, ensuring the protection of Circassian autonomy.[12] Circassians established themselves not only as steadfast defenders of their lands but also as pivotal allies for Russia, which recognized their military contributions as essential in countering Ottoman influence.[13]

Ottoman-Crimean Strategies and Circassian Counteractions

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Crimean khans, such as Sahib I Giray, expanded their attacks with the support of Ottoman forces, attempting to enforce dominance over Circassian territories.[14] However, Circassian resistance continued to strengthen, especially as the alliance with Russia offered additional resources and strategic support.[15] By leveraging their knowledge of local geography and utilizing guerrilla tactics, Circassians created formidable defenses that nullified several Ottoman-backed campaigns.[16]

The alliance with Russia allowed Circassians to conduct organized counter-attacks. During the late 16th century, these actions effectively constrained Crimean expansion and weakened Ottoman influence in the region.[17]

Political and Cultural Resistance

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Circassians not only resisted militarily but also maintained their autonomy through strategic social and political structures, such as the practice of atalychestvo (fosterage), which allowed Circassian leaders to create networks of alliances while limiting Crimean influence in their internal affairs.[18] This social practice fortified Circassian unity and solidified their resistance against Crimean political encroachment, allowing Circassian nobility to retain authority and manage relations with the khanate on their terms.[19]

Strategic Shifts in the 17th Century

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During the 17th century, Circassian resilience continued to deter Crimean invasions. The Treaty of Bakhchisarai in 1681 was a monumental victory for Circassians and their Russian allies, as it officially recognized Circassian independence and limited the Crimean Khanate's reach. This outcome highlighted the strategic strength of Circassians in the region, establishing them as critical defenders against Ottoman-aligned forces.[20]

With continued support from Russia, Circassians successfully resisted several large-scale Crimean campaigns in the 1670s, further weakening the khanate's influence. These victories cemented the Circassian-Russian alliance and laid the groundwork for Russian expansion into the Caucasus in the following centuries, while underscoring the Circassians' role as primary defenders of their homeland.[21]

Chronology of military operations

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  • 1552 Crimean campaign of Tula
  • 1555 The defeat of 60,000 troops of the Crimean Khanate in Battle of Sudbischi
  • 1562, 1564, 1565 The Khan lead a large army into Muscovy.[22]: 17 )
  • 1559: Russians are ravaging the north of the Crimean Khanate and They are being released those who were taken into slavery[23]
  • 1556: Circassians captured two Turkish cities Temryuk and Taman[24]
  • 1556–1559: Russians and Zaporozhians raid the Black Sea coast four times.[22]: 56 
  • Circassians make a number of raids on the Crimean Khanate.[25]
  • 1564: The city of Ryazan posad was burned.[22]: 47 
  • 1567: The Crimean princes Magmed Gerai, Adil Gerai and Alp Gerai (sons of Khan Devlet Gerai) "with many troops""arrived in Kabarda. "The whole land of Cherkassy was fought and burned by wives and children, and animals and sheep were brought to them." "Polona" was taken by more than 20 thousand people. According to other sources, "the Circassians were not conquered by the princes," that is, the Crimeans were expelled[26].
  • 1569: The campaign of the 130-thousandth Turkish-Crimean army under the command of Kafsky Pasha Kasim Bey and Khan Devlet Gerai to Astrakhan. The complete defeat of the enemy by the Russian army near Astrakhan. During the retreat along the "Kabardian road", the Kabardians smashed the remnants of the Turkish-Crimean army[27][1][28][29][30]
  • 1570: Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)
  • Temryuk Idar and Cherkessia came to the aid of the Abaza who fought against the Crimeans.[31]
  • 1571: Russo-Crimean War (1571)
  • 1572: Battle of Molodi
  • Circassians made a military raid on the Ottoman coast: "Circassians, arriving on 24 ships, burned and destroyed all the settlements of the coast 300 miles away, ravaged Turkish vineyards and killed many people, and women were taken captive, taking all property and goods, as a result of which they are afraid that they would not come to this city".[32]
  • 1573: The Crimean Tsarevich Adil Gerai "with many soldiers" was returning from Dagestan through Kabarda. In the battle, the Kabardian princes and Russian detachments led by voivode L. Z. Novosiltsev defeated the enemy[26].
  • 1583: A significant Turkish-Tatar army led by Osman Pasha entered Kabarda. In the battles in the area of the crossing of the Sunzha River (Malaya Kabarda) and the Beshtau area (Bolshaya Kabarda), Kabardians and Terek Cossacks inflicted serious damage on the enemy[27].
  • 1591:The defeat of the Crimean troops near Moscow, this was the last campaign in which the Crimean troops reached Moscow[33]
  • 1593: The campaign of the Crimean army under the command of Tsarevich Mubarek Gerai on Tersk city. There were battles near the Tersk town and in Kabarda. The Crimeans were forced to retreat, burning and destroying everything in their path. But Mubarek Gerai did not fulfill his task, having been rebuffed by the Terek Cossacks and Kabardins[27].
  • 1598: Crimeans stopped by Bank Line,[clarification needed] withdraw and sue for peace.[22]: 46 
  • 1606: A large Crimean horde attacked Cherkessia and Kabarda. Heavy fighting took place. There is a lot of destruction, a large number of cattle were stolen (counting tens of thousands). Captured prisoners[34].
  • 1607-1608: The Crimean Tatars reappeared in Kabarda, where they had been staying for several months. The Crimeans were engaged in collecting a large tribute, accompanied by the devastation of Kabardian settlements[34].
  • 1614: The Crimean prince Yaman-Giray ravaged seven villages in Temirgo. A Russian source says about this: ""the Crimean tsar Eman-Giray-saltan with his men-at-arms came to war on Kumirginsky Cherkassy and fought 7 pubs, and destroyed those pubs with Oman."
  • 1614: Nogai raids within sight of Moscow. During the Time of Troubles so many captives were taken that the price of a slave at Kaffa dropped to fifteen or twenty gold pieces.[22]: 66 
  • 1615: The Nogai Murzas, allies of the Crimean Khan, attacked Bolshaya Kabarda. A big ruin. Several Kabardian princes died[34].
  • 1616:The 12 thousandth Crimean army led by Khan Janibek Geraya invaded Kabarda. The devastation, the destruction of crops, the death of many people. A hundred prisoners were captured, thousands of cattle were stolen[34].
  • 1618: Nogais release 15,000 captives in peace treaty with Moscow.[35]
  • 1619, 1629, 1631, 1635: The Crimean Tatars and their allied Nogais raided the Circassian and Kabardian lands. The campaigns were accompanied by looting, violence, and the theft of a huge number of cattle. Many prisoners were captured, but they are leaving the territories of Kabarda with defeat[34].
  • 1632: Force from Livny ambushed by Tatars and Janissaries (sic). 300 killed and the rest enslaved.[22]: 67 
  • 1632: 20,000 Tatars raid the south, as troops were shifted north for the Smolensk War.[22]: 76 
  • 1633: 30,000 Tatars cross Abatis and Bank lines. Thousands were captured from Oka region.[22]: 76  This was the last deep raid into Russia.[36] : 26 
  • 1635: Many small war parties invaded Russia south of Ryazan.[22]: 79 
  • 1637, 1641–1643: Several raids were led by Nogais and Crimean nobles without permission of Khan.[22]: 90 
  • 1640: The invasion of the 14 thousandth Crimean army in Cherkessia and Kabarda. The Crimeans were defeated by the Adygs and retreated to Azovat [34].
  • 1643: 600 Tatars and 200 Zaporozhian Cossacks (sic) raid Kozlov. 19 were killed, and 262 were captured.[22]: 23 
  • 1644: 20,000 The Tatars raid southern Russia, 10,000 captives.[22]: 91 
  • 1645: A raid captures 6,000 captives. It is claimed that the Turks encouraged these raids to obtain galley slaves for a war with Venice.[22]: 91 [who?]
  • 1646: Russians invade Crimean peninsula.
  • 1650: The Belgorod Line pushes Russian forts 300 km south of the Abatis Line.
  • 1653: A detachment of Crimean Tatars arrived in Kabarda. The Crimeans took away 130 boys and girls. A large number of horses, shells, sabers, thousands of cattle were captured[34].
  • 1671: The Crimean Tatars invaded Bolshaya Kabarda. The Crimeans were engaged in robbery and stole thousands of cattle. 50 hostages were taken[34].
  • 1674: A detachment of Crimean Tatars arrived in Kabarda. Kabardians defeated the enemy[34].
  • 1680: Izium line [uk]: Russian forts were built within 150 kilometers of the Black Sea.

Outcome and Legacy

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The Circassian-led resistance against the Crimean Khanate, supported by Russian forces, fundamentally shifted the balance of power in the North Caucasus. This period reinforced Circassian autonomy and limited Ottoman-Crimean expansion, setting the stage for Russia’s further involvement in the Caucasus.[37] The alliance with Russia allowed Circassians to preserve their lands and cultural identity against foreign encroachment, marking a significant chapter in the history of Circassian independence.[38]

References

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  1. ^ a b Мальбахов Б. К. "Кабарда на этапах политической истории (середина XVI — первая четверть XIX века), Москва, из-во «Поматур», 2002 г. ISBN 5-86208-106-2, ст. 212
  2. ^ Martin 1996, p. 356-357.
  3. ^ Курбский А. (1914). Г.З. Кунцевич (ed.). Сочинения князя Курбского. Т. 1. Сочинения оригинальные. Русская историческая библиотека. Vol. 31. Санкт-Петербург.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  4. ^ А.М. Некрасов (1990). Международные отношения и народы Западного Кавказа (последняя четверть XV-первая половина XVI в.). Москва. p. 124.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  5. ^ В.Б. Вилинбахов (1977). Из истории русско-кабардинского боевого содружества. Нальчик. p. 34.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  6. ^ К.Ф. Дзамихов (2001). Адыги в политике России на Кавказе (1550-е – начало 1770-х гг.). Нальчик: Эль-Фа.
  7. ^ Наука (1988). История народов Северного Кавказа с древнейших времен до конца XVIII в. Москва. p. 554.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  8. ^ В.К. Гарданов (1974). Адыги, балкарцы и карачаевцы в известиях европейских авторов XIII–XIX вв. Нальчик. p. 34.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  9. ^ Полное собрание русских летописей (1904). Т. 13. Ч. 1. Санкт-Петербург.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  10. ^ В.А. Потто (1912). Два века терского казачества. Vol. 1. Владикавказ. p. 18.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  11. ^ Р.М. Магомедов (1957). Общественно-экономический и политический строй Дагестана в XVIII-начале XIX в. Махачкала. p. 65.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  12. ^ Ахмадов Я.З. (1988). "Очерки политической истории народов Северного Кавказа в XVI-XVII вв". Грозный: 50. ISBN 5-7666-0006-2. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  13. ^ Белокуров С.А. (1889). Сношения России с Кавказом. 1578-1613. Москва. p. 138.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  14. ^ М.Н. Тихомиров (1962). Россия в XVI столетии. Москва. p. 583.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ^ С.Х. Хотко (1993). Черкесские мамлюки. Майкоп. p. 179.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  16. ^ История народов Северного Кавказа (1988). с древнейших времен до конца XVIII в. Москва. p. 554.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  17. ^ Дзамихов К.Ф. (2001). Адыги в политике России на Кавказе (1550-е – начало 1770-х гг.). Нальчик. p. 516.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  18. ^ Вилинбахов В.Б. (1977). "Из истории русско-кабардинского боевого содружества". истоки русско-кабардинских связей и их дальнейшее развитие. Нальчик: 70.
  19. ^ В.Д. Смирнов (1887). Крымское ханство под верховенством Оттоманской Порты до начала XVIII в. Санкт-Петербург. p. 824.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  20. ^ Тихомиров М.Н. (1962). Россия в XVI столетии. Москва. p. 276.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  21. ^ Хотко С.Х. (1993). "Черкесские мамлюки". Майкоп. p. 150.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Davies, Brian (2007). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe,1500-1700.
  23. ^ Филиппов, В. В. 100 главных битв Древней Руси и Московского царства / В. В. Филиппов, М. Елисеев. — М. : Яуза : Издательство «Э», 2016
  24. ^ Кабардино-русские отношения в XVI-XVIII вв. Документы и материалы в 2-х томах. - М., 1957. - T.I.
  25. ^ Мальбахов Б. К. ,"Кабарда на этапах политической истории (середина XVI — первая четверть XIX века)]
  26. ^ a b Мальбахов Б. К. "Кабарда на этапах политической истории (середина XVI — первая четверть XIX века), Москва, из-во «Поматур», 2002 г. ISBN 5-86208-106-2, ст. 246
  27. ^ a b c Malbakhov B. K. "Kabarda at the stages of political history (mid-XVI — first quarter of the XIX century), Moscow, from "Pomatur", 2002 ISBN 5-86208-106-2, v. 247
  28. ^ Тарановский, А. История о приходе турецкаго и татарскаго воинства под Астрахань (in Russian). p. 485.
  29. ^ Семена, Елизарьева. "Речи" (in Russian). p. 157.
  30. ^ মধ্যযুগের মুসলিম ইতিহাস (আশরাফউদ্দিন আহমেদ), অটোমান তুর্কি সাম্রাজ্য, পৃ. ২৭৫
  31. ^ Пилипчук Я.В. Политика Крымского ханства на Северном Кавказе
  32. ^ Зевакин Е. С., Пенчко Н. А. Очерки по истории генуэзских колоний на Западном Кавказе в XIII и XV веках // Исторические записки. 1938. Т. 3. С. 97
  33. ^ Карамзин Н. М. Глава III // История государства Российского. — СПб.: Тип. Н. Греча, 1816—1829. — Т. 10.
  34. ^ a b c d e f g h i Мальбахов Б. К. "Кабарда на этапах политической истории (середина XVI — первая четверть XIX века), Москва, из-во «Поматур», 2002 г. ISBN 5-86208-106-2, ст. 248
  35. ^ Khodarkovsky, Michael (2002). Russia's Steppe Frontier. p. 22.
  36. ^ Sunderland, Willard (2004). Taming the Wild Field. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801442094.
  37. ^ Н.А. Смирнов (1948). Кабардинский вопрос в русско-турецких отношениях XVI-XVIII вв. Нальчик. p. 57.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  38. ^ Магомедов Р.М. (1957). "Общественно-экономический и политический строй Дагестана в XVIII-начале XIX в.". общественно-экономический и политический строй пяти возрождённых Советской властью народов Дагестана: аваров, даргин, кумыков, лаков, кайтагов, как этот строй сложился в XVIII — начале XIX веков. Махачкала: 65.

Further Reading

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  • Gardanov, V.K. The Adyghs, Balkars and Karachays in the bulletins of the European authors of XIII–XIX centuries. Nalchik, 1974.
  • Akhmadov, Y.Z. Sketches of the political history of the peoples of the North Caucasus in the XVI-XVII centuries. Grozny, 1988.
  • Belokurov, S.A. The intercourses of Russia with the Caucasus. 1578-1613. Moscow, 1889.
  • Dzamikhov, K.F. The Adyghs in the Russian policy in the Caucasus (1550s – beg. of the 1770s). Nalchik: El-Fa, 2001.
  • Magomedov, R.M. Social, economic and political system of Dagestan in the 18th–early 19th centuries. Makhachkala, 1957.
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