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  • Comment: Could be notable, however needs more refs, thank you Ozzie10aaaa (talk) 17:34, 27 November 2024 (UTC)
  • Comment: The article needs to be made more concise and encyclopedic in nature. Some sections are hard to follow or see the relevancy to the article's topic such as the introduction. The reference section also needs to be fixed to conform to citation standards. KeepItGoingForward (talk) 21:49, 5 November 2024 (UTC)

Astroclimatology is the application of climate (the emergent property of weather statistics) to the practice of astronomy (study of the universe, here, observation by Earth telescopes). While chiefly using standard climatology, some specifics of astroclimatology led to new applications and data products. In a few cases, observing sites run their own field centers, with numerical prediction operations and climate databases. Different areas of astronomy have different interactions with Earth's atmosphere, and different needs.

Climate is not weather.[1][2] Telescopes, in glass and metal, are durable goods, lasting centuries in some cases.[3][4] Weather, the study of the state of the atmosphere, becomes trivial per se with enough states. This span is often given as, at minimum, five years.[5][6] Larger and larger telescopes grew in upfront cost to millions (now billions) of dollars/euros; site choice is then vital in justifying investments.[7][8][9] After building such projects, current and recurrent weather states are used to maximize processes and results, as observing time is a scarce resource and recurring cost.

Astronomy from the ground is 'like bird-watching from the bottom of a pool.'[10][11] Clear air is not completely clear. Even with the naked eye, unclear air is apparent in the form of haze, fog, etc. Scintillation ("twinkling") was pondered by ancient philosophers but no real obstacle to their other questions. As the telescope was invented, then grew in aperture, twinkles gave way to astronomical seeing—image distortions caused by turbulent air. On a practical, immediate level, aerial telescopes were mounted outdoors and vulnerable to the wind. Astronomy continued to expand, such as to other bands in the electromagnetic spectrum. Some bands are less affected by scintillation and seeing; others are strongly affected or even interrupted by what one perceives as "clear" air.

Atmospheric optics and early efforts

[edit]

Galileo Galilei, an early telescope pioneer, also invented an early thermometer. One of his students, Evangelista Torricelli, would invent the barometer, which resembled the Galilean thermometer. Blaise Pascal and others, at Torricelli's suggestion, climbed towers and mountains with barometers. They concluded we live under "an ocean of air."[12]

Isaac Newton, himself an optical pioneer, would later surmise "to take away that confusion of the Rays which arises from the Tremors of the Atmosphere. The only remedy is a most serene and quiet Air, such as may perhaps be found on the tops of the highest Mountains above the grosser clouds."[13]

Few heeded Newton's advice.[14] Telescopes were still small by today's standards, many observers were "gentlemen scientists" consuming their own resources,[15] and travel was rare and expensive. Astronomy was chiefly performed from Europe, at times the U. S. East Coast.[16][17] The early Harvard Observatory, at Cambridge, is basically at sea level, next to Boston. John Quincy Adams, then Secretary of State, in urging various groups to found U. S. observatories,[18] recommended that 'the site nearest the College should be selected, ...proximity to the College being, in his judgement, important to the health and comfort to the Professor and the students, as the night and winter are the time and season specifically adapted to astronomical observations.'[19]

The Cape Observatory, (officially, Royal Observatory at Cape town) was nominally established in 1820. Ostensibly, choosing such a remote site gave access to Southern skies, not possible from Greenwich or similar European observatories. Note, however, that the Cape location was approved by the Board of Longitude, and Admiralty funded. They built it within site of Cape Town Harbour so it could signal time to ships, and further the British Empire; no Observatory telescope was mounted until 1828.[20]

Lassell had a 2-foot-aperture reflecting telescope in 1852. Using speculum mirrors, they had some issues, but larger apertures than refractors. He took this reflector, seeking better conditions, to Malta—still near sea level.[citation needed]

Well over a century after Newton, Charles Piazzi Smyth, Royal Astronomer of Scotland, examined Tenerife in 1856. His crew scaled Tenerife's Pico del Teide with a "portable" telescope and instruments.[21] His account (Teneriffe, an Astronomer's Experiment[22]) circulated among astronomers. Yet it would be about a century more before the peak would be developed into the Observatorio del Teide.[23]

An example of willful telescope siting is the 1893 U. S. Naval Observatory relocation from Foggy Bottom, to its current Georgetown Heights spot, both within Washington, D. C. This gain was from ~92 feet above sea level, to ~279' or not even 190' more altitude. At the Foggy Bottom site, the USNO, like Cape Town, displayed time to ships in the Potomac River, with the new time ball.[24] Eventually, a system of telegraphs allowed the relay of time signals without direct line of sight. The move was more a matter of contention for the downtown Washington property.[25]

Lick Observatory was the first observatory as we understand today—a permanent, mountaintop site, on Mount Hamilton, California. (A Mount Etna observatory only bore a telescope a few months out of the year.[14]) At 4200 feet, Mt. Hamilton has prominence—no similar mountain is anywhere near. James Lick commissioned a 36-inch Clark refractor, to be the world's largest. Lick had discussed exceptional altitudes for it before his death,[26] signing the choice of Mt. Hamilton himself.[27]

At the time, Harvard Observatory also looked for a better site than its own campus. Uriah A. Boyden willed money to Harvard for "observations at some station of great elevation above the level of the sea." Initial work used "Mount Harvard" near Lima, Peru, then another Peruvian site, Arequipa. This Boyden Station (8,000 ft, 2,400 m), like Cape Town, did Southern observations. Harvard staff also tried more-convenient peaks in Colorado and Utah;[28] they identified Mount Wilson in Southern California as "so excellent", but bought no land.[29][30][31] W. H. Pickering, Harvard astronomer and Arequipa director, stated "the selection of a proper site for an observatory is by no means merely a question of elevation."[32][33]

Three pending volumes of the Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College—volumes XIX,[34][35] XX,[36] and XXI[37][38][39]—would deal with weather, climate, and other atmospheric topics, as well as parts of volume XXIX.[40]

Percival Lowell, also from Boston, founded his observatory at Flagstaff, Arizona, which was rail-accessible.[7] The Lowell Observatory is on a mesa ~350 feet above Flagstaff proper, ~3000' above the desert floor, and ~7250' above sea level. Lowell had Harvard astronomer A. E. Douglass test it in March, 1894. Lowell did no astroclimatology at all, proceeding with the side despite having only eleven nights of Douglass' data; observing began by June. Defying W. H. Pickering's experience, Lowell felt "the higher we can get the better".[41] The U. S. Naval Observatory would also open a Flagstaff station ("NOFS"). As with Cape Town, nautical requirements differ somewhat from astronomical ones. Much of the USNO concern is data needed by field units, who navigate with sextants or similar (often from an altitude of zero) using bright stars. Many USNO star catalogs are thus compiled via telescopes of just 6-9 inch aperture[42][43][44] and a bit tolerant of the "disappointing" seeing.[15]

Lowell, preparing for the next Mars opposition, sought a different site to the south, to lower the airmass. A Tacubaya observatory was built, over Mexico City at ~7600' altitude.[7] "Considered astronomically," claimed Lowell, "the Mexican seasons are the reverse of ours. Their winters are clear and fine, and their summers extremely stormy. So by a timely removal back to Arizona we had the advantage of the successive best seasons in the two places."[45]

Eclipses/occultations aside (constrained to shadow paths[46]), most other modern observational astronomy programs have taken the Lick choice.[47][48] Astroclimatology, then, is the initial exploration and continuing optimization of observatory sites and their observations, including Newton's "may perhaps" and Pickering's "by no means merely",[14] and far more than Lowell's eleven nights.[49][50][51][52]

Site requirements

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To early astronomers, laymen, and even many amateurs, observing time is simply an issue of clouds or not[53]—a 'cloud cover' metric,[54][55] or in aviation meteorology, visibility. Even radio waves have finite penetrations of thick clouds—radio astronomy is mature, and very sensitive.[56] Altitude per se may put a site over low cloud, fog, hazes, etc.[57][58][59]

The rise of spectrometry and photomotry/radiometry, and general astronomical progress, drove further demands—transparency and scattering/sky brightness.[5][60][61] A given night/hour may look cloud free, yet not be a "photometric night"[62] or "spectroscopic night."[21][63][23] Daytime (solar) work is even stricter: overwhelming light levels mean scattering that would be fine at night is now visible.[64] Such astronomers seek "coronagraphic" times.[citation needed]

Cloudiness is measured as a time fraction, and is not random. On wide scales, the Hadley cell makes tropical air rise, then fall.[65] It rises past altitudes where water is lost to condensation/frost– the cold trap. The falling air is now dry and clear. Many telescopes have converged on the north and south latitudes of descending Hadley circulation, marked by Earth's "desert belts."[7][66]

Higher mountains in the Hadley latitudes are obvious candidates. Locally, an isolated peak may actually create descending air. At night, radiative cooling (solids viewing to cold space, not warm ground) may result in a downdraft, blowing away low cloud. This down current is also stable, being undisturbed by ground, trees, or other obstructions, unlike horizontal winds.[citation needed]

High winds cause telescope shake, ending observations outright[67][68][23] or by lofting dust.[5] Very low or no winds[69] now affect sensitive infrared work—the "low wind effect".[70][71][72]

On a practical level, sites also contend with accessibility, power and communications, access to supplies and spare parts, etc.[60][73][54] Unfortunately, such human activities include light pollution, dusts,[5][74] and smog, and in radio astronomy, EMI.[62][75][66] Telecommunications/remote observing helps one of these, not all.[citation needed]

Seeing

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Main article: Astronomical seeing

Turbulent air takes the form of eddies or cells. The smallest cells are a few centimeters ("inner scale," or l0), limited by the viscosity of air. Different cells can maintain slight temperature differences, and different temperatures result in different indices of refraction.[76] Differing refractions bend light rays, distorting the view.[7][65] Apertures of early telescopes took a few decades to exceed l0; Huygens was the first to publish on this phenomenon.[citation needed]

Imperfect seeing, as one might assume, results in blurred images. Point targets, like stars, are also affected. Seeing causes points to turn into disks for nontrivial exposure times, as the target's light spreads to more halide grains/detector pixels. Spreading of light hurts sensitivity compared to one, sharp point;[77] noise is also introduced when formerly background pixels (both the cosmic background, and intervening air) are now included in the disk.[60]

The viscosity limit is a lower limit; at a given time and place, effective cell size may be larger, given as the metric r0, or "Fried parameter"[78] (Various light wavelengths, with different penetrating powers, also take different r0 values at the same time.) Astroclimatology seeks maximal r0, in turn minimizing the number of air cells in the telescope beam and their distortions of the target.

The introduction of adaptive optics did not stop astroclimate issues.[9] AO correction is imperfect, leaving residual speckles.[79][80] Times of bad seeing can exceed the bandwidth of the AO system.[81] At minimum, local conditions are used to tune AO system parameters.[50][77]

Astroclimate metrics and site selection

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Basic meteorology parameters—temperature, wind, humidity—are considered, as well as other measurements and derived products.[49][82][2] Unfortunately, standard meteorological grids have spacings of kilometers, too coarse for e. g., one mountaintop.[66] The met grid is still used as context and cross-comparison, for an ad hoc weather station placed on a candidate site.[83][84][85]

A precipitable water vapor (PWV) dataset is a general weather statistic, and a specific requirement for work in certain bands. However, PWV is not by itself sufficient,[50][86] as other chemicals absorb light.[87] Water vapor is local, highly anti-correlated with altitude.[88][89][90][66]

Upwind mountain ranges can also clear the skies via a rain shadow—a local water trap.[5][88][89] Unfortunately, the downwind air is disturbed: lee/gravity waves and at times roll cloud.[21][69][83][85][91][92][93] To an extent this includes mountains with no distinct peak.[5][94]

Wind is impeded by terrain, trees, etc.[95] A telescope mount is of a nontrivial size, and puts its telescope at some height. Site testing uses wind sensors on masts, to better replicate actual telescope conditions.[5][96] Since ground winds may be disturbed, some telescopes (e. g., Mayall, Bok) are mounted as towers,[94][97][98] implying the wind sensors should also be higher.[49][92][99]

All these vary with weather. An astroclimatology samples multiple weather systems (air masses and their fronts), passing on timescales of days. Seasonal effects are gauged versus each other (~months to semesters), and as seasons recur (>14 months). This still leaves secular effects.[100] As this schedule may be infeasible for a construction project,[101] general and regional meteorology data supplement astro-specific, on-site tests.[64][16] The three ELTs—TMT, GMT, and E-ELT—in particular chose sites of prior observatories.[100][102]

Seeing was commonly measured, in a sense, by observers logging the conditions as part of their observation[51][103][104]—similar to PIREP. This lasted into the 1980s.[67][101] Manual reports are subjective—varying with training/experience—and subject to e. g., operator fatigue.[5][60]

Reports are now indirect: temperature-gradient and wind data,[5][64][50][93][66] and direct, via small telescopes.[105][106][107] In particular, wind at 200 millibar height (often, 12-14 km) is a good proxy for wind shear, thus rough air, for both aircraft and astronomy.[92][108][109][110] Other layers exist and may be gauged.[111][112] As in aviation, the Richardson number is a metric for laminar-to-turbulent tripping.[113][114][93][91]

At night, Fried's parameter r0 for much of the Earth is casually given as 12 to 15 cm (in visible light) on a good night. There are bad nights, with a lower r0, and moments of still air, with r0 higher.[115] Alternately, this equates to a telescope with ~1 arcsecond of angular resolution (defining the parameter ε). Such a telescope would have few seeing effects on such nights.[108][23][77]

At world-class observing sites, r0 ~12-15 cm (or, 1 arcsec seeing) on a regular basis.[79][116] Their good nights may allow ε ~0.7 arcsec resolutions, for longer than moments. Daytime (solar) views are worse, with a heat source and agitated air. Day r0 is worse and more varying, <4 cm, to at times 9 cm. r0 at top sites may approach nighttime values.[50][115][117][118]

Other seeing metrics include coherence time, t0 (or inversely, "Greenwood frequency"), a measure of the effective cell lifetime, related to wind speed.[119][52] Good sites have longer t0: several milliseconds instead of a few ms.[76] The isoplanatic angle, θ, is the angular field of view over which the image distortion is one state, and can be corrected as such.[78] It is tied to ground turbulence at the site, versus turbulence at altitudes, which is more regional and smaller in angular size.[81][95]

Specific sites

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Southern California peaks

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At Mount Wilson Observatory's 1904 founding, Los Angeles was a small city in the distance. George Ellery Hale's first telescopes were solar anyway.[120] Hale, then at Yerkes Observatory, declined Lick Observatory, preferring Southern California to host new telescopes. Lick's W. J. Hussey, testing many sites, profferred Mt. Wilson.[121][120][16] A nearby ocean—nearer than at Mt. Hamilton[50]—means stable sea air.[122][101][65] Santa Ana winds begin in Fall;[5][69] Winter is worse and rainier.[120][16] Even with encroachment, CHARA (Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy)[123] is productive at Mt. Wilson.[101] Stellar interferometry's very narrow fields admit little background and allow little light pollution, but accept the good seeing.[31][124]

It grew apparent that Los Angeles harmed sky quality. Palomar Mountain was then chosen, with many similar features but more remote,[125][126] yet not too far for Mt. Wilson/Caltech staff.[15][16] It would host the Hale Telescope, the world's largest. At 1706m, it is now a bit low.

It is from the Mt. Wilson/Palomar observatories that Caltech's Horace W. Babcock published the seminal adaptive optics paper, to make the seeing even better.[127][128]

Maunakea (and similar)

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Main article: Mauna Kea

Maunakea is a dormant volcano on the big island of Hawaii. Having the lowest latitude of its peers, it can view over the equator. Maunakea, Haleakala, and Mauna Loa were identified in the 1950s for the (International Geophysical Year). Even prior, A. E. Douglass had noted the peaks to P. Lowell.[15] All benefit from low populations and industry;[53][129] all have high altitudes, Maunakea ~4200 meters asl, the others slightly less. These are among the highest observatories in the world, and above an inversion layer (often ~2500 m).[130][63][131][89] Much of the time, the peaks "jut through it and into the drier air above".[53]

Many factors besides simple height combine to make Maunakea 'best in the world'[67][94][132] or "best category",[66] "one of the best".[31][63][75][133] Oceanic winds have long damped out any turbulence from prior topography,[63][21][50] while these shield volcanos (with gentle, smooth slopes) add little new turbulence.[134] Radiative cooling at night, aided by the dark, volcanic soil, can add a downdraft.[53][134][130][67] The world-class seeing is almost that of the free atmosphere, dominated instead by a ground layer.[85][135]

Prior to permanent telescopes, meteorology was taken by Mauna Loa weather stations, at conditions close to Maunakea.[136][134] A Hilo record also exists, though near sea level. To verify and complement remote sensing data, radiosondes (weather balloons) were launched,[113][137] aside from standard (twice daily[114]) balloons from Hilo.[67][138] The array of telescopes has led the University of Hawaii to pool meteorology efforts into the MKWC (MaunaKea Weather Center).[139] This includes seeing forecasts, not attempted in general meteorology.[85][92]

With a climatology in hand, Summer is a better observing season.[85][92][113] Winters bring poorer weather,[57] at times the jet stream and its turbulence.[85][130] Less often, the area sees a cyclone or volcano eruption.

Northern caucasus

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The Caucasus range's Mt. Pastukhova hosts the Special Astrophysical Observatory and BTA (Bolshoi Teleskop Azimutalnyi) at 2070m. At 6 meters aperture, BTA is the largest Soviet/Russian optical telescope. The poor BTA reputation conflates its flawed mirror, dome design, and the local conditions. Pastukhova air is affected by nearby mountains, but this flaw is not crippling.[140][96][141] The primary mirror was replaced;[142][16] the dome is now cooled to help reduce its local effect ("dome seeing").[142][96][141]

The telescope's large dome, of traditional (heavy) construction, has trouble acclimating to ambient temperature, while the rather unstable local weather makes pre-cooling difficult. The resulting thermal effects cause poor local seeing much of the time.[142]

Canary islands

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Main article: Canary Islands
Further information: Teide_Observatory § Astroclimate_and_seeing

Jean Mascart followed (in 1910, that is) Piazzi Smythe up Tenerife. This was organized by a tuberculosis group, but it coincided with a pass of Halley's Comet. Mascart's reports were also positive: Impressions et observations dans un voyage a Tenerife,[143] and more. Others used the site for a 1959 eclipse. Francisco Sánchez Martinez of Spain continued pursuing the Canaries as a site.[144][145][23] The Spanish Government founded a solar observatory first, the Observatorio del Teide (under the rectorship of the Universidad de La Laguna).[citation needed]

The first external body to use a Canarias peak was the University of Bordeaux, placing a polarimetry telescope there.[146] Around 1968, JOSO (Joint Organization for Solar Observations) was formed. Its role was to find site(s) to relocate national, solar telescopes, build similar new ones, and for one Large European Solar Telescope.[108][64][122] JOSO and others tested sites extensively; they are broadly similar to Hawaiian peaks, though lower. Both Pico del Teide and the later Roque de los Muchachos are often above a ~1,500m inversion layer.[108][147] As stratovolcanos, both islands are steeper and cause some turbulence. Roque de los Muchachos is a simple peak (unlike the caldera of Pico del Teide); it presents a simpler, convex shape to the prevailing northerly winds.[23][148]

The signing of international treaties began the move of the Isaac Newton Telescope from Sussex, and construction of the William Herschel Telescope. Italy likewise chose the Canarias (for the Telescopio Nazionale Galileo),[149] as did other signatories with Spain.[150][151][152] Of the sites, La Palma tends to host stellar telescopes, while Tenerife hosts daytime observing, but both have exceptions.

The Canarias see Calima (dust blown from the Sahara), often in July/August.[64][23] Before a climatology was taken, some astronomers dismissed the Canarias as being under Calima much of the time.[145] Canarias volcanos, like Hawaiian ones, are still somewhat active.[23]

Northern Chile

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Research groups had made Chilean expeditions for e. g., eclipses.[120][15] Harvard's group, before settling on Arequipa, had also toured Chile.[29] "Perhaps no spot in all America offers a clearer sky than the Desert of Atacama."[153] At the behest of Federico Rutlant (director, Chile's Observatorio Nacional),[154][155] northern countries again considered joint astronomy sites. Jürgen Stock went to examine some; his positive results drew both US and European interest. The Andes, not merely tall, act as a rain barrier, forming the Amazon basin and in turn the Atacama Desert. Also, the south Pacific current is counterclockwise and cold, adding little moisture.[156]

Cerro Tololo was first chosen. This peak is not in the Atacama, but in Coquimbo; its mountains run closer to the sea.[157] Peaks off the main range have stiller, marine air. Later sites to the north enjoy both Atacama dryness and Pacific calmness. Similarly, the new European Southern Observatory (ESO) declined South African sites,[158] picking La Silla instead.[159][160]

The later Cerro Paranal is 2635m high, and a mere 12 km from the sea—far and high enough to avoid salt, yet often in sea air.[161]

The Chajnantor area—yet further north, and inland in the main Andes—is now a hub of radio/submillimeter astronomy, and declared a Chilean science preserve. Radio waves, much longer, can tolerate turbulence per se, but still see absorption/reradiation. Atacama dryness plus extreme elevation gives extremely thin, clear air.[162][163] Cerro Chajnantor at 5640m asl holds the world record for highest observatory.[164]

The austral Summer (January-February) sees the wryly named "altiplanic winter."[161][56] Humid airmasses cross from Bolivia; at these heights, the water may fall as snow. ALMA does not observe in Jan-Feb.[56]

ESO has founded a numerical weather initiative, MOSE (MOdeling Sites ESO). It is operational.[165][166]

Mount Graham

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Main article: Mount Graham

Mount Graham, Arizona was identified as a good site in the 1980s,[49] in the National New Technology Telescope effort. While no NNTT was built, the Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope and Heinrich Hertz Telescope (a (sub/)millimeter dish) were. The later LBT (Large Binocular Telescope) resembles an NNTT concept.[citation needed]

The Pinaleo Mountains are inland, not coastal, in the Rocky Mountains. Still, the Pinaleos are isolated from other high mountains, giving lee air some time to dampen its eddies. Mt. Graham, the tallest (~3200 m) of few Pinaleos, is thus in calmer air than one may expect. Mt. Graham seeing is typical of the best sites.[49] Exactly because the Pinaleos are continental, not maritime, they get hot summers and cold winters.[88] Colder air than other sites—combined with altitude—means lower humidity.[167] Summers, including the Southwest Monsoon, are worse. The LBT shuts down for July-August, instead using the time for heavy maintenance and any upgrades.[citation needed]

The Mt. Graham weather center is named ALTA (Advanced LBT Turbulence and Atmosphere).[2][82][168]

Antarctica

[edit]

Antarctic air is at 100% relative humidity.[169][170] But, due to extreme cold, this is less water than elsewhere—the 'relative' in relative humidity.[171] Antarctica as a whole is the coldest, driest, and highest continent; ice sheets may add a kilometer or more to the underlying topography. The continent is a good fit for millimeter/submillimeter astronomy.[172][173] In shorter wavelengths, lack of solar forcing and jet streams (implying stable air), low pollution, and the long polar night, would imply good viewing sites. It is, usually, not good.[174]

Katabatic winds form when coldness causes downdrafts; with few terrain/trees, these winds gain speed and force. Such winds cause turbulence and bad seeing at most Antarctic sites.[65][175][54] High spots, though, have only begun katabatic flow, and the issue is low.[65][171] Dome A (4090m) and Dome C (3233m) are so high as to be candidates at any latitude. Weak katabatic winds put these sites in mostly free, calm skies. Platform-/tower-mounted telescopes help evade what wind exists (as colder air, it hugs the ground).[176][177] The Domes have begun optical/infrared work needing clarity and transparency,[178][179] and/or uninterrupted nights/days.[116][180][181]

The aurora is a polar issue.[170] Some observing bands see no aurorae; other bands may have margin to filter such emission lines. Dome C is near the center of the auroral oval—the magnetic latitudes (not 90°) with most activity.[182][183][184]

Other Sites

[edit]
Tibet
[edit]

Many Chinese telescopes were at university-convenient sites—i. e., coastal. Elevations are moderate. Then Tibet was seen as favorable for, e. g., LOT (Large Optical/infrared Telescope) or similar.[185] The plateau is high, at fairly low latitude, and in the Himalayan rain shadow. These sites considered include Ali, Lenghu,[59] and Muztagh-ata.[185]

Solar
[edit]

Faced with insolation, heating, and thus turbulence on sunny days, the field of solar astronomy has found and exploited an answer: mountain lakes.[50][107] Bodies of water—even small lakes—have high thermal inertia and mixing, but no topography to trip airflow. Air is then calmer and smoother, for high resolutions. As winds do shift, placing telescopes on an islet or jetty helps the odds of good observing runs. Such sites include Locarno on Lake Maggiore, Italy,[186] Big Bear Lake, California at ~2070m,[69][187] BAO at Lake Baikal, Russia,[188] Fuxian in China (1720m),[110] and Udaipur (at Fateh Sagar Lake) in India.[189]

See also

[edit]

References

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  2. ^ a b c Turchi, A.; Masciadri, E.; Veillet, C. (29 Aug 2022). "Characterization of LBT atmospheric and turbulence conditions in the context of ALTA project". In Marshall, Heather K.; Spyromilio, Jason; Usuda, Tomonori (eds.). Proceedings, Ground-based and Airborne Telescopes IX. SPIE Astronomical Telescopes + Instrumentation; 17-23 July 2022; Montréal, Québec, Canada. Vol. 12182. p. 111. arXiv:2210.11247. Bibcode:2022SPIE12182E..4OT. doi:10.1117/12.2629813. ISBN 978-1-5106-5345-0. 121824O.
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Sources

[edit]
  • Sheehan, William (1988). Planets and Perception: telescopic views and interpretations, 1609-1909. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-1059-7.

Further reading

[edit]
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