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Comparisons between Israel and Nazi Germany

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22 October 2023: Pro-Palestinian demonstrators in Columbus, Ohio, displaying a poster that reads "Isreal [sic] are the new Nazis" amidst Israel–Hamas war protests in the United States.

Comparisons between Israel and Nazi Germany occur frequently in the political discourse of anti-Zionism.[1][2] Given the legacy of the Holocaust, the legitimacy of and intent behind these accusations are a matter of debate, particularly with regard to their potential nature as a manifestation of antisemitism. Historically, figures like British historian Arnold J. Toynbee have drawn parallels or alleged a relationship between Zionism and Nazism; British professor David Feldman suggests that these comparisons are often rhetorical tools without specific antisemitic intent. French philosopher Bernard-Henri Lévy argues that such comparisons not only lack historical and moral equivalence, but also risk inciting anti-Jewish sentiment.[3]

According to American political scientist Ian Lustick, comparing the two countries is "a natural if unintended consequence of the immersion of Israeli Jews in Holocaust imagery."[4] Israeli-American historian Omer Bartov has drawn an analogy between the indoctrinated dehumanization of the adversary in the Germany army under Nazism and the attitudes displayed by young Israeli troops in the Israeli war in Gaza (2024).[5] A wide variety of political figures and governments, especially those on the left, have often invoked these comparisons, with the most prominent and influential example being that of Soviet anti-Zionism, which took root in response to Israel's integration with the First World in the aftermath of the 1967 Arab–Israeli War.[6] In the 21st century, politicians who have done so at least once include Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan,[7] Brazilian president Lula da Silva,[8] Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez,[9] Colombian President Gustavo Petro,[10] and British parliamentarian David Ward.[11]

Just after the October 7, 2023 Hamas-led attacks on Israel, many instances of Holocaust inversion were reported on social media, "with the memory of the Holocaust weaponized".[12]

History

Comparisons between Zionism and Nazism predate the foundation of Israel in 1948. British Army officer and politician Edward Spears, who "best highlighted the Gentile use of the Zionist-Nazi analogy",[13] wrote that:

Political Zionism as it is manifested in Palestine today preaches very much the same doctrines as Hitler... Zionist policy in Palestine has many features similar to Nazi philosophy... the politics of Herrenvolk... the Nazi idea of Lebensraum, is also very in evidence in the Zionist philosophy... the training of youth is very similar under both organizations that have designed this one and the Nazi one.[14]

German-Jewish linguist and anti-fascist Victor Klemperer, who survived the Holocaust and chose not to move to Israel but stay in Germany after 1945, wrote in his LTI - Lingua Tertii Imperii (The Language of the Third Reich) that both Zionism and Nazism are essentially neo-Romantic nationalist ideologies. The components of this Romantic nationalism, according to Klemperer, are "the dethronement of reason, the animalization of man, the glorification of the idea of power, of the predator, of the blond beast ... and, most importantly, a strong biologization of the concept of a people, the belief in a "sacred mission" of a certain tribe or nation."[15][better source needed] Klemperer asserts that in the writings of both Adolf Hitler and Zionism's founder Theodor Herzl this Romantic nationalism is apparent:

The problem is that Hitler and Herzl feed to a very large extent on the same heritage. I have already identified the German root of Nazism, it is that partial, bigoted and perverted form of Romanticism. If I add Romanticism made kitschy, then I have defined exactly the intellectual and stylistic common ground between the two Führers. Herzl’s model, who is referred to lovingly on a number of occasions, is Wilhelm II.[16]

In 1948, Hannah Arendt, Albert Einstein and a number of other Jewish public figures signed an open letter which compared a Jewish political party to Nazism, writing that, "Among the most disturbing political phenomena of our times is the emergence in the newly created state of Israel of the 'Freedom Party' (Tnuat Haherut), a political party closely akin in its organization, methods, political philosophy, and social appeal to the Nazi and Fascist parties."[17][18]

English historian Arnold J. Toynbee believed that sinking back into the barbarity of Nazism was something that threatened not only Israel but the Western world generally. He described the contemporary Israeli "a Janus-figure, part American farmer technicians, part Nazi sicarius".[14] Comparing what Israel did to the Arabs, he considered that it was, morally but not statistically, worse than what Nazis did to Jews.[19][20] This formed part of his critique of Zionism. In the final volume of his A Study of History, Toynbee reconsidered his view that Zionism was like Nazism. He wrote that:

I think that, in the Zionist movement, Western Jews have assimilated gentile Western Civilization in the most unfortunate possible form. They have assimilated the West's nationalism and colonization. The seizure of the houses, lands, and property of the 900,000 Palestinian Arabs who are now refugees is on a moral level with the worst crimes and injustices committed, during the last four or five centuries, by gentile Western European conquerors and colonists overseas.'[21]

Toynbee sustained this viewpoint in the face of several critical responses, notably by Jacob Talmon and Eliezer Berkovits. Talmon argued that Toynbee's conclusion reflected his contempt for Western civilization's subjugation of so many peoples, about which Toynbee felt guilty and which he traced back to the idea of a Chosen people absorbed via Christianity from Judaism. Berkovitz argued Toynbee's loathing of Nazism as a caricature of the West betrays a tacit self-contempt, which carries over into his attitude to Zionism. Toynbee responded that there was some truth in both these observations, and while reaffirming his belief in the cogency of the analogy, admitted that, on reflection, his condemnation of Zionism's guilt in this regard was disproportionate.[22]

The Israeli philosopher Yeshayahu Leibowitz introduced the term "Judeo-Nazis". He argued that continued military occupation of the Palestinian territories would lead to the moral degradation of Israeli Defense Force (IDF), with individuals committing atrocities for state security interests.[23][24] In 1988, Holocaust survivor Yehuda Elkana warned that the tendency in Israel to see all potential threats as existential and all opponents as Nazis would lead to Nazi-like behavior by Jews.[25] During the First Intifada, Israeli-American historian Omer Bartov was enraged by Yitzhak Rabin's call to "break the bones" of Palestinians and wrote him a letter arguing that, based on Bartov's research, the IDF could be similarly brutalized as the German Army was during World War II.[26] One Israeli nationalist in a moshav told Amos Oz that he did not care if Israel was called a Judeo-Nazi state, it was "better [to be] a living Judeo-Nazi than a dead saint."[dubious – discuss][27] In 2018, Noam Chomsky cited Leibowitz, arguing that he was right in his prediction that the occupation was producing Judeo-Nazis.[dubious – discuss][28]

According to political scientist Ian Lustick, a professor at the University of Pennsylvania, such comparisons are "a natural if unintended consequence of the immersion of Israeli Jews in Holocaust imagery", and the term "Holocaust inversion" for Nazi comparisons is used by those who see the Holocaust as a template for Jewish life.[4][vague]

In the context of the Six-Day War, the administration of the Soviet Union compared Israeli tactics to those of Nazi Germany during the Second World War in official commentary.[6] After the victory of Likud in the 1977 Israeli legislative election, Holocaust metaphors began to be used by the Israeli right-wing to describe their left-wing opponents.[29] During the Israeli disengagement from Gaza, some settlers donned yellow stars to compare themselves to Holocaust victims, protesting the government's measures.[24] In 2016, Yair Golan, the Israeli general and deputy chief of staff of the IDF, sparked a controversy during a speech at Yom HaShoah. Golan stated:

If there is something that frightens me about the memory of the Holocaust, it is seeing the abhorrent processes that took place in Europe, and Germany in particular, some 70, 80 or 90 years ago, and finding manifestations of these processes here among us in 2016.[30]

These remarks were condemned by the prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu.[30] Later, Golan retracted and said that he did not intend to compare Israel to Nazi Germany, releasing a statement in which he said "It is an absurd and baseless comparison and I had no intention whatsoever to draw any sort of parallel or to criticize the national leadership. The IDF is a moral army that respects the rules of engagement and protects human dignity."[31] He later again compared right wing Israeli politicians to Nazis, drawing criticism from the right in Israel.[32]

Debate on potentially antisemitic nature

The subject of comparisons between Israel and Nazi Germany and whether or not such comparisons are antisemitic has received much commentary by academics worldwide who have studied history and politics,[33] including those who have deemed it to be a form of Holocaust trivialization called "Holocaust inversion" due to the potential implication it minimizes the scope of Nazi crimes.[34]

Deborah Lipstadt, the U.S. Special Envoy for Combating Antisemitism, has referred to comparisons between Nazi Germany and Israel as "soft-core" Holocaust denial, as contrasted with "hard-core" denial as practiced by David Irving, who sued Lipstadt in a celebrated legal case. She defines "soft-core denial" as "not denying the facts, but either inverting it so the victims become the perpetrators". She said in a 2009 interview that soft-core denial makes "a false comparison, and that dilutes what the Holocaust was. It’s a much more slippery kind of manifestation" than hard-core denial, she stated.[3]

According to Kenneth L. Marcus, the aim of those who employ Holocaust inversion is to "shock, silence, threaten, insulate, and legitimize. ... No one tells Holocaust survivors – or a nation of Holocaust survivors and their children – that they are Nazis without expecting to shock." Even when it is frequently used, the use of Holocaust inversion is still shocking, which facilitates its repeated use. He asserts that the tying together of Nazi motifs with Jewish conspiracy stereotypes has a chilling effect on Jewish supporters of Israel. He also says that by implying guilt, this discourse is threatening because it implies a required punishment. As this discourse is performed in the context of political criticism of Israel, it insulates those who use it from the resistance that most forms of racism face in post-World War II society. Finally, he states that inversion not only legitimizes anti-Israel activities but also legitimizes anti-Jewish activities that would otherwise be hard to conduct.[clarification needed] According to Bernard-Henri Lévy, this erodes societal safeguards,[35]

[...] a mass movement demanding the deaths of Jews will be unlikely to yell "Money Jews" or "They Killed Christ." [...] for such a movement to emerge, for people to feel once again [...] the right to burn all the synagogues they want, to attack boys wearing yarmulkes, to harass large number of rabbis [...] an entirely new discourse way of justifying it must emerge.

According to historian Bernard Lewis, the belief that the Nazis were no worse than Israel is has "brought welcome relief to many who had long borne a burden of guilt for the role which they, their families, their nations, or their churches had played in Hitler's crimes against the Jews, whether by participation or complicity, acquiescence or indifference."[34] In Austria, while overt antisemitism has been limited following the Holocaust, the Freedom Party of Austria is associated with using comparisons between Nazi Germany and Israel to delegitimize political opponents.[36]

According to Lustick, many Israelis are "already repelled by actions against Palestinians they cannot help but associate with Nazi persecution of Jews."[30] British scholar David Feldman argued that comparisons in relation to the 2014 Gaza War have not been motivated by a broader anti-Jewish subjectivity but by targeted criticism of Israeli policy in military actions.[37] The Working Definition of Antisemitism, which was adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, the U.S. Department of State, and other organizations, has offered several examples in which criticism of Israel may be antisemitic, including "drawing comparison of contemporary Israeli policy to that of the Nazis."[38] This definition is controversial because of concerns that it could be seen as defining legitimate criticisms of Israel as antisemitic and has been used to censor pro-Palestinian activism. Alternative definitions such as the Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism have been proposed.[39]

Critics of such comparisons like Lesley Klaff and Bernard-Henri Lévy argue that such comparisons not only lack historical and moral equivalence but also risk inciting anti-Jewish sentiment.[34][11] Klaff also see equating Israel with Nazis as a form of incitement and racial aggravation against Jews.[11] According to genocide researcher Eyal Levin, Holocaust Inversion is becoming part of the iconography of a new antisemitism. This phenomenon, according to Levin, has spread globally, particularly in the Arab and Muslim world and also become prevalent in Western Europe and America, often appearing in what he considers anti-Israel demonstrations and media portrayals.[40]

Yossi Klein Halevi, the author of The New York Times bestseller Letters to My Palestinian Neighbor, deemed the comparison a transmutation of an archaic dehumanizing trope:[41]

The deepest source of anti-Israel animus is the symbolization of the Jew as embodiment of evil. The satanic Jew has been replaced by the satanic Jewish state [...] The end of the post-Holocaust era is expressed most starkly in the inversion of the Holocaust [...] The Jew-as-Nazi is the endpoint of political supersessionism:[42] Not only have we forfeited our identity as "Israel," but we've assumed the identity of our worst enemy.

In the first three weeks after October 7, 2023, the Indiana University Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism reported many instances of Holocaust inversion on social media "with the memory of the Holocaust weaponized".[12] On the November 2024 anniversary of Kristallnacht, the only glatt kosher restaurant in the U.S capital, Washington D.C., was vandalized by breaking glass. Kristallnacht, the Nazi-ordered night of antisemitic attacks on Jewish homes, synagogues and businesses, was known as the ‘night of the broken glass”.[43] In November 2024, a keffiyeh-clad woman performed a Hitler salute at a Montreal pro-Palestine protest; afterward, the coffee franchise she ran condemned her "hateful remarks and gestures."[44]

In the 21st century

"Israeli soldiers are just following orders" by Carlos Latuff.

Israel

In 2024, Israeli-American Holocaust historian Omer Bartov spoke with Israelis who had fought in Gaza and compared their attitudes to those he had found in his research on German soldiers during World War II:

Having internalised certain views of the enemy – the Bolsheviks as Untermenschen; Hamas as human animals – and of the wider population as less than human and undeserving of rights, soldiers observing or perpetrating atrocities tend to ascribe them not to their own military, or to themselves, but to the enemy.[45]

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, erstwhile Member of Parliament for Bradford East, the Liberal Democrat politician David Ward, created controversy after signing the ceremonial Book of Remembrance in the Houses of Parliament on Holocaust Memorial Day, with him writing: "I am saddened that the Jews, who suffered unbelievable levels of persecution during the Holocaust, could within a few years of liberation from the death camps be inflicting atrocities on Palestinians in the new state of Israel and continue to do so on a daily basis in the West Bank and Gaza." He later said that "a huge operation out there" had distorted what he meant.[11] As a result of the scrutiny over the January 2013 controversy, the Liberal Democrats' leadership threatened Ward with formal disciplinary action over his arguments.[46]

Roger Waters of the British rock band Pink Floyd has repeatedly compared Israel to Nazi Germany. In a 2013 interview with Counter Punch, he accused "the Jewish lobby" of being very powerful in the United States and said, "There were many people that pretended that the oppression of the Jews was not going on. From 1933 until 1946. So this is not a new scenario. Except that this time it’s the Palestinian People being murdered."[47] American rabbi and writer Shmuley Boteach regarded this comparison as antisemitic, writing in The Observer, "Mr. Waters, the Nazis were a genocidal regime that murdered 6 million Jews. That you would have the audacity to compare Jews to monsters who murdered them shows you have no decency, you have no heart, you have no soul."[48] In a 2017 hour-long video live chat on Facebook, Waters again compared Israel to Nazi Germany.[49]

Turkey

In July 2018, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, while addressing Grand National Assembly MPs in Ankara, said that the "spirit of Hitler" lives on in Israel, commenting specifically that he believes "no difference [exists] between Hitler's obsession with a pure race and the understanding that these ancient lands are just for the Jews." He also called Israel "the world's most Zionist, fascist, racist state." The statements were condemned by Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who described Erdoğan's rule as "a dark dictatorship" and stated that Erdoğan "is massacring Syrians and Kurds and has jailed tens of thousands of his own citizens."[7][50] The spat between the two leaders took place following the Israeli government's adoption of Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People.

Palestine

In 2014, Palestinian Al-Quds University political science professor Mohammed Dajani led a trip for 30 students to Auschwitz to learn about the Holocaust.  He was accused of teaching a Zionist narrative, received threats, and was forced to resign from his teaching position at Al-Quds University. Dajani later commented that in Palestinian society, “there is a social ban on researching any issue related to the Holocaust from the Jewish perspective.”[51]

In August 2022, the President of the State of Palestine, Mahmoud Abbas, accused Israel of having committed "50 Holocausts" during a visit to Berlin, Germany. Abbas had responded to a reporter's question about the upcoming 50th anniversary of the 1972 Munich massacre committed by the internationally active Palestinian militant group Black September, who were at that time affiliated with Abbas' Fatah Party. When asked if he intended to apologize for the attack, Abbas responded by listing allegations of atrocities committed by Israel. Olaf Scholz, the Chancellor of Germany, grimaced at the use of the word "Holocausts" but said nothing. Scholz condemned the remarks later. He asserted, "Especially for us Germans, any relativization of the Holocaust is unbearable and unacceptable". The German publication Bild labeled the incident as antisemitic.[52][53] In response, Abbas said that his answer was not intended to deny the singularity of the Holocaust, which he stated that he condemned in the strongest terms, but that he had intended to discuss the "crimes and massacres committed against the Palestinian people since the Nakba at the hands of the Israeli forces" in his view.[54]

In 2023, President Mahmoud Abbas, speaking at a Fatah gathering, claimed that Hitler persecuted the Jews because of their “social role,” which “had to do with usury, money and so on and so forth.” He falsely[55] denied that Ashkenazi Jews are descended from ancient Israelites.[56] This echoed his 1982 Moscow doctoral thesis, which blamed Zionists for allowing the Holocaust to occur, and reduced the number of Jewish victims from six million to below one million.[51]

Tunisia

In 2023, Tunisian President Kais Saed said, "While Tunisians protected Jews during the Holocaust, today elderly women and children are being bombed in Gaza."[57][58] Rabbi Pinchas Goldschmidt, president of the Conference of European Rabbis, said such remarks incited hate against Tunisian Jews.[59]

Brazil

On 18 February 2024, the President of Brazil Lula da Silva stirred up controversy due to his statement comparing the actions of Israel in the Israel–Hamas war to the Holocaust.[8]

United States

In fall 2024, George Washington University's Program on Extremism began an Arabic-language program, as part of its Antisemitism Research Initiative, with a seminar on bringing Holocaust education to Arabic-speaking audiences. The initiative was led by Professor Omar Mohammed, and featured Faisal Saeed Al Mutar, founder of Ideas Beyond Borders.[60]

Mina Abdelmalak, manager of a program for outreach to Arabic-speaking audiences at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, discussed how to address the Holocaust knowledge gap on Professor Mohammed’s podcast, 36 Minutes on Antisemitism, in an episode entitled “Interfaith Dialogues and Addressing Antisemitism”.[61]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Klaff, Lesley. "Holocaust Inversion and contemporary antisemitism". Fathom. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
  2. ^ Gerstenfeld, Manfred (2008-01-28). "Holocaust Inversion". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2021-06-11.
  3. ^ a b Klein, Amy (2009-04-19). "Denying the deniers: Q & A with Deborah Lipstadt". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 2024-01-20.
  4. ^ a b Lustick 2019, p. 52.
  5. ^ Omer Bartov, As a former IDF soldier and historian of genocide, I was deeply disturbed by my recent visit to Israel The Guardian 23 August 2024
  6. ^ a b Druks, Herbert (2001). The Uncertain Alliance: The U.S. and Israel from Kennedy to the Peace Process. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 50–51. ISBN 9780313314247.
  7. ^ a b "Turkish president calls Israel fascist and racist over nation state law". ITV.com. 24 July 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
  8. ^ a b "Israel livid as Brazil's Lula says Israel like 'Hitler,' committing genocide in Gaza". The Times of Israel. 18 February 2024. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
  9. ^ Dow Jones Newswires reported that, on August 10, while giving a speech in eastern Venezuela, Chávez said Venezuelans are "making a call to world leaders, for the love of God, let's halt this crazy fascist aggression against innocent people. Are we human or what are we?... I feel indignation for Israel's assault on the Palestinian people and the Lebanese people. They dropped bombs on shelters. ... It's a Holocaust that is occurring there." - Venezuela President Asks International Leaders To Halt Israeli Offensive.[permanent dead link‍] Dow Jones Newswire, Morning Star, August 10, 2006.
  10. ^ "How have Latin American countries responded to the Israel-Hamas war?". Al Jazeera. 20 October 2023. Archived from the original on 3 July 2024. Retrieved 9 September 2024.
  11. ^ a b c d Klaff, Lesley. "Holocaust Inversion and contemporary antisemitism". Fathom. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
  12. ^ a b Finkelstein, Norman H. (2024). Saying No to Hate. U of Nebraska Press. p. 234. ISBN 978-0-8276-1523-6.
  13. ^ Rory Miller, Divided Against Zion: Anti-Zionist Opposition to the Creation of a Jewish State in Palestine, 1945-1948, Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-1-315-03843-8 p.147. See also pp.16-18,23ff.
  14. ^ a b Martin Kramer, The War on Error: Israel, Islam and the Middle East, Routledge 2017 ISBN 978-1-351-29532-1
  15. ^ "Reactionary German Romanticism". Anasintaxi Newspaper, issue 385. 2013.
  16. ^ "(Bloomsbury Revelations) Victor Klemperer-Language of the Third Reich_ LTI_ Lingua Tertii Imperii-Bloomsbury Academic (2013)".
  17. ^ Masha Gessen, 'In the Shadow of the Holocaust:How the politics of memory in Europe obscures what we see in Israel and Gaza today.' New Yorker 9 December 2023.
  18. ^ "Einstein and the ghost of Herut 70 years on". Arab News. 2018-04-23. Retrieved 2024-09-23.
  19. ^ Hedva Ben-Israel, Debates with Toynbee: Herzog, Talmon, Friedman Israel Studies, Spring, 2006, Vol. 11, No. 1 pp. 79-90 pp.81-82.
  20. ^ Yair Rosenberg, When an Israeli Ambassador Debated a British Historian on Israel’s Legitimacy—and Won. The Montreal face-off between Yaacov Herzog and Arnold Toynbee offers ways of discussing the Jewish state that still feel fresh Tablet 31 January 2014
  21. ^ A. J. Toynbee, A Study of History, OUP 1964 vol.12 p.627.
  22. ^ Toynbee ibid.p.627
  23. ^ Feldhay, Rivka (2013). "The Fragile Boundary between the Political and the Academic". Israel Studies Review. 28 (1): 1–7. doi:10.3167/isr.2013.280102.
  24. ^ a b Elkad-Lehman, Ilana (2020). "'Judeo-Nazis? Don't talk like this in my house' voicing traumas in a graphic novel – an intertextual analysis". Israel Affairs. 26 (1): 59–79. doi:10.1080/13537121.2020.1697072. S2CID 212958444.
  25. ^ Bartov 2018, p. 192.
  26. ^ Bartov 2018, p. 191.
  27. ^ Oz, Amos (1983). ""Better a Living Judeo-Nazi Than a Dead Saint"". Journal of Palestine Studies. 12 (3): 202–209. doi:10.2307/2536162. JSTOR 2536162. '"As far as I am concerned, you can give the State of Israel any name you wish. You can call it a Judeo-Nazi state, as did Leibowitz. Why not? As the saying goes - better a living Judeo-Nazi than a dead saint. I don't care if I am a Qadhafi. I am not after admiration from the Gentiles. I don't need their love. I don't need love from Jews like you, either. I have to live. And I intend that my children shall live as well- with or without the blessing of the Pope and the other religious leaders from the New York Times. I shall destroy anyone who raises a hand against my children - I shall destroy him and his children, with or without the famous purity of arms, and I don't care if he is Christian, Muslim, Jewish or pagan. History shows us that he who won't kill is killed by others. This is an iron law.'
  28. ^ Confino, Jotam (14 November 218). "Chomsky to i24NEWS: 'Judeo-Nazi tendencies in Israel a product of occupation'". i24NEWS. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
  29. ^ Steir-Livny 2019, p. 284.
  30. ^ a b c Lustick 2019, p. 143.
  31. ^ Beaumont, Peter (5 May 2016). "Israeli military chief backtracks from 1930s Germany comparison". The Guardian.
  32. ^ Ben-David, Ricky; Schneider, Tal; Magid, Jacob; Bachner, Michael; Sharon, Jeremy (October 3, 2019). "Incoming MK Yair Golan again compares right-wing to Nazis, drawing ire". The Times of Israel. Retrieved November 24, 2023.
  33. ^ Rosenfeld 2019, p. 175–178, 186.
  34. ^ a b c Marcus, Kenneth L. (2010). Jewish Identity and Civil Rights in America. Cambridge University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-139-49119-8.
  35. ^ Marcus, Kenneth L. (2010). Jewish Identity and Civil Rights in America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 63–64. ISBN 978-1-139-49119-8.
  36. ^ Stoegner, Karin (2016). "'We are the new Jews!' and 'The Jewish Lobby'–antisemitism and the construction of a national identity by the Austrian Freedom Party". Nations and Nationalism 22 (3): 484–504.
  37. ^ Rosenfeld 2019, p. 175-178, 186.
  38. ^ Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism: The Dynamics of Delegitimization, chapter by Alan Johnson, page 177
  39. ^ Neve Gordon and Mark LeVine (March 26, 2021). "The problems with an increasingly dominant definition of anti-Semitism (opinion)". Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
  40. ^ Lewin, Eyal (2017). Blaming the Jews for Acting like Nazis: The Rhetoric of Holocaust Inversion.
  41. ^ Yossi Klein Halevi (October 10, 2024). "The End of the Post-Holocaust Era". Jewish Journal. Retrieved October 14, 2024. Oct. 7 shattered Israelis' faith that the state would protect them and shook American Jewry's sense of full social acceptance – but there is a way forward.
  42. ^ "The Cruelty of Supersessionism: The Case of Dietrich Bonhoeffer". Religions. 13 (1). 2022. Retrieved October 14, 2024.
  43. ^ Silverman, Ellie (2024-11-10). "D.C. police investigating shattered windows at kosher restaurant". Washington Post. Retrieved 2024-11-17.
  44. ^ Heller, Mathilda (2024-11-24). "Montreal coffee chain terminates contract with woman videoed doing Hitler salute". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2024-11-24.
  45. ^ "As a former IDF soldier and historian of genocide, I was deeply disturbed by my recent visit to Israel". The Guardian. 13 August 2024. Retrieved 13 August 2024.
  46. ^ "Lib-Dem David Ward MP censured over Israel criticism". BBC News. 28 January 2013. Archived from the original on 7 May 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  47. ^ Barat, Frank (2013-12-06). "An Interview with Roger Waters". CounterPunch.org. Retrieved 2023-05-31.
  48. ^ Boteach, Shmuley (2013-12-12). "The Anti-Semitic Stench of Pink Floyd". Observer. Retrieved 2023-05-31.
  49. ^ Spiro, Amy (16 July 2017). "Roger Waters compares Israel to Nazi Germany in Facebook Q&A". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
  50. ^ "Erdogan calls Israel world's 'most fascist, racist' state". France 24. Agence France-Presse. 24 July 2018.
  51. ^ a b Pacchiani, Gianluca (2023-09-17). "Palestinian professor who took students to Auschwitz: Holocaust denial imperils peace". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 2024-11-24.
  52. ^ "Palestinian President Abbas skirts apology for Munich attack". The Independent. 16 August 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
  53. ^ "In Berlin, Abbas says Israel committed 'holocausts' against the Palestinians; Scholz grimaces silently, later condemns remarks". The Times of Israel. 16 August 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
  54. ^ "Statement by the President of Palestine regarding what was stated in the response in joint press conference with German Chancellor Olaf Scholz in Berlin". WAFA. 17 August 2022. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
  55. ^ Behar, Doron M.; Metspalu, Mait; Baran, Yael; Kopelman, Naama M. (2013). "No Evidence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for the Ashkenazi Jews". Human Biology. 85 (6): 859–900. doi:10.3378/027.085.0604. ISSN 0018-7143. Retrieved 2024-11-24.
  56. ^ Atzmon, Gil; Hao, Li; Pe'er, Itsik (2010). "Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 86 (6): 850–859. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015. PMC 3032072. PMID 20560205.
  57. ^ Friedman, Gabe (2023-05-16). "Days after synagogue attack, Tunisian president criticizes Israel and says his country saved Jews in WWII". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 2023-05-31.
  58. ^ Ben Bouazza, Bouazza (2023-05-11). "Deadly Tunisian synagogue attack was premeditated and targeted temple, interior minister says". AP NEWS. Retrieved 2023-05-31.
  59. ^ "Days After Two Jews Shot Dead, Tunisian President Compares Israel to Nazis". jewishlink.news. 18 May 2023. Retrieved 2023-05-31.
  60. ^ "Translating the Holocaust: Building Bridges of Understanding in the Arab World (Arabic Event)". Program on Extremism. Retrieved 2024-11-24.
  61. ^ "S3E1: Interfaith Dialogues and Addressing Antisemitism". Acast. 2024-11-04. Retrieved 2024-11-24.

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