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British rule in the Lushai Hills

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South Lushai Hills
(1889–1898)
North Lushai Hills
(1891–1898)
Lushai Hills
(1898–1947)
Mizoram[1]
Part of Bengal Presidency (1889–1898)
Integrated with Assam (1889–1912)
District of Assam Province (1912–1947)
1889–1947
Flag of Lushai Hills
Flag
Coat of arms of the United Kingdom

CapitalLungleh
(1889–1898)[a]
Aijal
(1889–1947)
DemonymBritish
Indian
Lushai
Population 
• 1901
82,434[1]
• 1941
152,786[1]
Government
Monarch 
• 1889–1901
Victoria
• 1901–1910
Edward VII
• 1910–1936
George V
• 1936
Edward VIII
• 1936–1947
George VI
Superintendent 
• 1891–1896 (first)[2]
John Shakespear
• 1943–1947 (last)[3]
Alexander Ronald Hume MacDonald
Historical eraColonial era
4 March 1889
1871–1872, 1883–1888
• Divided into North Lushai Hills and South Lushai Hills
1889
• North given to Assam
July 3, 1890
• South placed under Bengal Presidency
April 1, 1891
• North and South merged
April 1, 1898
• Independence declared
15 August 1947
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Lushai Chiefdoms
Lushai Hills District
Today part ofMizoram

British rule in the Lushai Hills, spanning from the late 1889 to the 1947, commenced with the Chin-Lushai Expedition of 1889-90 leading to the formal establishment of the two administrative districts (North Lushai Hills, South Lushai Hills) in 1889 and continued through the integration of the regions into the province of Assam with both districts being merged as the Lushai Hills[4] until India gained independence in 1947.

After the Chin-Lushai Expedition of 1889-90, South Lushai Hills was occupied in 1889, and the following year, it was formally annexed, becoming part of Bengal Presidency.[5] North Lushai Hills was also occupied in 1889, and became part of British Assam. On 1889, the two districts merged and continued to be part of British Assam. On 1912, it was put into British India's Assam Province.[6]

Etymology

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The Lushai hills are named after the Lushei clan. The name of the tribes became a colonial misnomer which applied to all of the Mizo tribes. The earliest recorded documentation was in 1862 which described Lhooshai Kukis living on the border of Cachar.[7] The spelling of Lushai became standardized with the Progressive Colloq. Exercises in Lushai Dial. 3 by Thomas Herbert Lewin. Lewin claimed that Lu denotes head and sha or shat denotes cutting, which would imply the tribe is named as decapitators, a title supportive of the fact that the tribes had a reputation for headhunting.[8] This view was rebuked by John Shakespeare who argued the name Lushai to be an eponym of a chief or ancestor of the Lushai clans.[9] It is also argued that the name is a purely Lushai language word, that Lu means head and shei means long, as a reference to how the hair knot makes the head appear elongated. Theories have also proposed that the name is Burmese derived and means people ten.[10] The name Lushai continued as the name of the district past Indian independence before becoming changed into the Mizo District with the political efforts of the Mizo Union in the Lushai Hills District (Change of Name) Act, 1954.[11]

British discovery of the Lushai Hills

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The Lushai people and the British colonial area started to engage in war in September 1826. About ten miles south of Tlawng river, traveled a Mizo village leader named Buangtheuva (known to the British as "Bungteya") and his troops, who then invaded the Sylhet forest's timber.[12] In addition to taking some slaves home, they slaughtered an unknown number of people. Thus, the British came to perceive the Lushais (then known as Looshais) as a vicious and barbaric tribe as a result of this event.[13]

Background

[edit]
Main article: Lushai Expedition
Main article: Chin-Lushai Expedition of 1889–90
See also: Mizo Chieftainship

After the annexation of Cachar in 1832, the British became close in proximity to several Kuki tribes and clans. Reports of the time show a friendly relationship between Lushai and Cacharis, who pursued trade and other exchanges. However, the individual choices of select chiefs, such as Lalsuthlaha, to raid villages deteriorated relations.[14] It was thought that the British invaded the Lushai Hills not because of any commercial desire but due to a series of Mizo invasions to the plains.[15]

The Lushai chiefs relentlessly and viciously invaded Chittagong, Cachar, Tripura, Sylhet, and Manipur between the end of 1870 and the beginning of 1871. Up to 20 invasions were said to have occurred during this time.[16]

The raid of Katlichhera and Alexandrapur by Sailam chief Bengkhuaia appeared to be the most important of all Lushai chief invasions, having a tremendous influence on the lives and future of the Lushai people. James Winchester, the tea owner of Alexandrapur, was killed, and the Mizos kidnapped his daughter Mary Winchester (Mizo: Zolûti). The British retaliated by organising an expedition to rescue the hostages. The expedition turned out a success and the hill tribes agreed to negotiate peace terms. The peace lasted until 1888, when tribes resumed raiding British enterprises and settlements, which saw the Chin-Lushai Expedition establish the territories under British sovereignty.

History

[edit]

The outcome of the Chin-Lushai Expedition saw the region subdivided into two sections. The North Lushai hills were administered by a political officer stationed at Fort Aijal under the Assam Government. The South Lushai Hills were under the administration of a political officer stationed at Fort Treager. This political officer reported to the commissioner of Chittagong who was under the Bengal Government.[17]

A public works bridge in Tuirial.

Paramilitary units were established to pacify the recently conquered tribes effectively in unfamiliar terrain. The North Lushai battalion was founded for this reason, and by 1898, the strength of civil and military police in North and South Lushai came to about 1106 personnel. The British also began to invest into local infrastructure to improve the army and police's ability to curb insurgency and raiding. Roads between Sairang-Silchar were constructed and another connecting Aijal to Serchhip. Bridges across rivers were also constructed to improve mobility during monsoons and rainy reasons. The total expenditure for public works amounted to Rs 80,000.[18]

Lushai mission school students learning arithmetic.
Lushai schoolgirls playing.

The British administration set up schools imparting literacy to both sepoys and young individuals of both genders from the Lushai tribes. By 1900, there were three government schools and one mission school. These schools operated with the Lushai language and taught arithmetic, Hindi and English. 45 villages out of 93 in Aizawl had the light of literacy with British support. Initial intentions for education was to instruct in Bengali but this proposal was deflected by Welsh missionaries who saw the parallels of Bengali imposition in Lushai Hills to English imposition in Wales.[19]

An early Lushai dispensary.

Medical infrastructure was also established to maintain the health of soldiers. This service extended to the civilian population with free medical provisions that affected the image of the Raj in the tribes. In 1896, the British constructed a big hospital in Aizawl and medicines were distributed freely to the chiefs. The conduct of the British in the Lushai hills functioned parallel to a welfare state.[18]

Chin-Lushai Conference

[edit]

The beginnings of British rule over the Lushai Hills had proposals of amalgamating the Zo-Kuki tribes into a single administrative unit rather than maintaining a division between Chin Hills and (North and South) Lushai Hills. The conference was held at Fort Williams, Calcutta on the 25–29 January 1892. It was under the presidency of Charles Alfred Elliott who was the governor of Bengal. Five resolutions were adopted as a result of the conference. The first resolution stated a majority opinion supported the idea of a single administrative unit of the Chin Hills and Lushai Hills preferably under the Chief Commissioner of Assam. The second resolution delayed the urgency of the creation of a single Chin-Lushai District on the opposition of the Chief Commissioner of Burma Alexander Mackenzie, stating it should not be taken immediately.[20][21]

The recommendation ultimately reached the Viceroy Landsdowne. While Landsdowne favoured the recommendation, the council was evenly split. The opposition of the former Chief Commissioner of Burma Charles Crosthwaite with knowledge of the Chin-Lushai tracts worded a strong argument against the district's creation. A decision was made on 2 August 1892 in a telegraph to the Chief Commissioner of Rangoon, stating that the Chin Hills would remain under Burma. The legacy of this decision was finalized in the 1937 split of Burma and India under the Government of India Act 1935, which established an international boundary between the two countries, splitting the Zo-Kuki tribes.[20]

Construction of Aizawl

[edit]
Fort Aijal, present-day Aizawl, in 1889.

Fort Aijal was founded in 1890 on an abandoned village site. It functioned as a barracks for two columns of the forces from the Chin Lushai Expeidition with fortifications improvised from locally harvested teak trees. The Fort grew with the relocation of the Silchar Police Battalion. Local resources such as quarried stone led to installing of bungalows and barracks.[22] Superintendent Captain Granville Henry Loch, with a Khasi contractor, expanded the settlement. Loch was a soldier but possessed experience as an engineer. Loch trained his own men in quarrying and shaping stone. He used sepoys in greater numbers and instructed them in masonry, carpentry and roadmaking. This initiative lent his battalion a reputation as a pioneer instead of an ordinary infantry unit. Within the span of a few years, Loch had removed the improvised structures and abandoned village remnants into a station of well-constructed stone houses with corrugated iron roofs, proper doors and windows.[23]

Merging of the Hills

[edit]

The North Lushai Hills and the South Lushai Hills were merged in 1898. The Northern administration absorbed the South Lushai Hills, and its South Lushai Battalion was amalgamated on 13 April 1989 and renamed the Lushai Hills Military Police Battalion. The merger also saw the political headquarters of the South Lushai Hills, Fort Treagor, decommissioned due to water scarcity. Lieutenant Colonial John Shakespear functioned as the first superintendent of the Lushai Hills district. By 1900, several forts were decommissioned, and military police unit numbers were reduced with a reduction of resistance among the tribes. This achievement was partly attributed to the efforts of missionaries.[24]

Mautam Famine

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Main article: Mautam

The mautam famine struck the Lushai Hills in 1911, which was approximately 30 years after the previous mautam famine in 1882. The harvests of 1909-1910 were exceptional due to well-distributed rainfall and benefitted Aizawl the most. However, in 1911, the Bamboo flowered, and rats began to proliferate in population as early as March. By June 1912, crops such as maize and millet were destroyed by rats shortly before ripening. The lack of infrastructure, such as a railway to transport rice aid, and the lack of markets in the Lushai Hills meant access to rice would take a journey of a few days, provided one could afford to do so.[25]

The British government in the Lushai Hills employed two policies to combat the onset of the Mautam famine. The first policy aimed at reducing the invasive rat population by announcing incentives for killing rats. Up to 179,015 rat tails were produced for the government as a result. The second policy was to distribute food relief. This was decided as the Lushai Hills lacked any local markets to purchase rice from. The government allocated 585,000 rupees and ordered rice from independent merchants and shopkeepers to transport them from Sairang to Aizawl and Demagiri to Lunglei.[26]

Food grains were issued to the needy on the condition of repayment with interest. This was difficult due to the lack of monetization of the economy at the time.[27] To deal with this phenomenon, the British resorted to forced labour. Labourers were pooled from several villages to work on expanding Aizawl as a city by building roads, bungalows, offices and water storage tanks to combat water scarcity.[28] Even if an individual had not taken a loan personally for food relief, they would become obligated to participate in forced labour to pay off another's debt. In retaliation, some villages and chiefs moved out of the Lushai Hills. Dokhuma Sailo moved his village to Tripura, and Hrangvunga Sailo also moved 200 families under him out of the territory to Tripura.[29]

Famine relief also saw missionaries and the early church volunteering to distribute aid and food relief from stockade depots. Missionaries would also help sign loan papers as guarantors so individuals could receive the rice aid. The fallout of the famine saw the church take on the role of medical relief for the cholera outbreaks, taking in orphans and the destitute. The operations were funded by the Lushai Famine Funds mission directors and other donors. The efforts of the missionaries also saw the growth of Chrisitanity. In 1912, up to 80 villages had churches and 1,800 converts in total.[30]

World War One

[edit]

The outbreak of World War One saw few Mizo men take the initiative to enlist, with numbers of enlistment increasing with the despisement of those who wouldn't volunteer by courtships and belles of the villages. In April 1917, 2100 Lushai Men marched out in the 27th Indian Labour Corps under four companies.[31] Other entitlements such as a lifetime exemption from an annual housing tax, coolie labour quotas and an ability to tour abroad also proved popular for Lushai manpower. Missionary and government publications also propagandized the opportunity to fight abroad.[32] Further recruitment initiatives were halted due to the Kuki Uprising in the bordering regions against continued recruitment. [33]

The Corps was deployed in Marseilles as La Valentine camp. The camp was built up with a canteen and a cinema over time. Labour Corps were also often accompanied by missionaries, for the Lushai Labour Corps, Reverend James Herbert Lorrain accompanied them.[34] The contracts to the Labour Corps personnel were made under one-year contracts, which timed out before the end of the war. Attempts to extend the term of contractual obligations were unsuccessful and led to many returning home.[32] In the end, 2029 men of the original 2,100 returned. Deaths were attributed to the novelty of a sea journey to mainland Europe, disease, casualties from bombings and grenades in the course of labour work and ammunition handling.[32][35] Lushai Labour Corps personnel were also active in Arras for demolition work, even deployed to regions such as Mesopotamia, Greece, Lucknow and the Ottoman vilayet of Basra.[36]

Lushai woman reading a magazine.

Returning from the war encouraged veterans to join the Assam Rifles, Assam Regiment and Indian Army Hospital Corps.[34] In Aizawl, a memorial was constructed shortly after the war to commemorate the deaths of 71 Labour Corps volunteers.[32] Exposure to foreign cultures in the course of the war redeployments also began to bring home new ideas of westernization and modernization. Some of these developments were the introduction of short hair and European dress. Articles such as those by Lalsailova in Mizo leh Vai suggested that rural readers consider moving to Aijal for the purpose of progress (hmasawnna). Mizo labourers also brought back crop seeds such as mustard, which changed traditional Mizo cuisine to French fusion in the post-war era.[37]

First political movements

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The first forms of organized politics in the Lushai Hills began with 1925 under the leadership of the Telela of the Ralte tribe. The group contacted the superintendent of the Lushai Hills, N.E Parry for representation in the Assam administration governing them. Parry was furious at the prospect. Telela was a romantic poet who continued to creatively express his ideals of freedom and the Christian millennium. Chawngbawia another prominent group member was a school teacher and church elder who believed in state participation like the Khasis. Rev. J.J.M. Nichola Roy, a khasi leader met with Telela and Chawngbawia in Shillong to discuss the lack of political representation. Nichols Roy stated that no political representation can be granted to the Lushai until they leave the excluded zone. He went on the advise steps in mobilising public support for administrative change and representation. The group under Telela began to deliver lectures at Aizawl upon their return. Parry issued an arrest for the group and placed them in Aizawl police station. They were released the next day but this had stifled political movements until post world war two.[38]

Excluded Areas and Inner Line Regulation

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In 1925, the Inner Line Regulation was amended to protect the Lushai Hills district. It was derived initially after the Lushai Expedition under section 2 of the Bengal Eastern Frontier Regulation 1873. It was an attempt to exercise political control over the Lushai Hills and chiefdoms. The rationale was to prevent traders, merchants, farmers and subjects from crossing into Lushai territory and deteriorating relations with the chiefdoms. This would also allow for the British to guarantee boundaries of their dominion and assure security of their subjects and possessions. As the border was too informal with the chiefdoms, the British declared a unilateral declaration with the inner line. One of the objectives of this regulation is to prevent the holding of land and assimilation of their culture and tradition beyond this inner line by 'strangers'. The Inner Line has, for this reason, protected the Lushai Hills from commercial exploitation of land and forest resources from merchants, traders and other tribes.[39][40]

McCall's Developments of the Lushai Hills

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Superintendent McCall was the administrator of the Lushai Hills district from 1933 to 1943. His administration saw four major innovations in the Lushai Hills. These were the Ten Point Code, the Welfare System under the aegis of the Red Cross, the Lushai Hills Cottage Industries and the inauguration of the Chief's Durbar. These innovations were introduced to unify the Lushai identity and to support Governor of Assam Robert Reid's vision of transforming the excluded tribal zones into a separate Crown Colony. Reid's plan received considerable political interest but was dropped at the onset of World War Two.[41]

The Ten Point Code was established and taught in schools to children. The purpose was to cultivate Lushai identity for potential nationhood and preservation of Mizo culture and customs. The code was also implemented into choirs, poetry and song. The welfare committees in villages also recite two points of the code every monthly meeting. The code was also intended to remedy traits of Lushai culture that were backward and incohesive for a national identity.[42]

Ten Point Code
Point Code
1 We desire to maintain a wholesome respect for all that is best in our indigenous culture, which bears the stamp of the hardly learned experience of our brave forefathers over time immemorial.[43]
2 We desire to inspire in our people an ambition to maintain a true sense of proportion as to what wants and desires are reasonable in relation to our own natural resources and industry.[44]
3 We desire to maintain strict loyalty to our Chief in all things lawful, and in all his efforts on behalf of his people, in return for which the Chief will serve the interests of his people so that he may continue to rule.[44]
4 We desire to inculcate into one and all that we should display the same sense of loyalty to our whole village community as we desire to practise towards our own families.[45]
5 We desire to do all in our power to foster the indigenous spirit of Tlawmngaihna in our midst.[44]
6 We desire to integrate into our daily lives, within the indigenous framework of our social systems, what modern science and knowledge have discovered, by strengthening and safeguarding our characters, health, home, crops, industry and possession.[46]
7 We desire to seek all useful channel for the greater use of our leisure time so they by industry we may bring advtange to our families and villages and relieve our womenfolk of harder work. [47]
8 We desire to unite all in contesting our common tendency to be Mi hlem hle while retaining pride in the sincere achievement of all manly and courageous feats, especially those undertaken for the protection of our community.[48]
9 Those of us who are Christians agree to recognise that we should bow to the authority of those who introduced us to it, and that we shall be disloyal if we do not submit to discipline.[48]
10 We desire to inculcate into our community the need for self-control and avoidance of excesses, to cultivate true spirit in willing service and discipline into young men who are the nation of the future. [49]
Lushai village welfare meeting.

The rationale for implementing the Village Welfare System was twofold. The first reason was that it was an egalitarian way of bringing people together socially on the subject of health. The second reason was to encourage the Chiefs to cooperate on an uncontroversial matter. The stipulation held legitimacy by allowing the villages to join the welfare system voluntarily but being obligated to follow the rules upon joining.[50]

Village welfare was introduced due to the fact that only 3% of the Lushai population had access to permanent contact to amenities. The civil surgeon was in charge of the village welfare system, who oversaw all matters of public health and living conditions for the benefit of the villagers. The village welfare committees function under the guidance of the Red Cross district committee in Aizawl. All committee decision-making was unanimous and implemented by the villagers in religious, social, and technical harmony.[51] All welfare committees have the village chief as president, leaders of the church and school, pensioners, and two village women and two village men in membership.[52]

The Lushai Hills Cotton Industry initiative was too risky for government funds and was privately financed by McCall and his wife, who formed as a joint organizer and managing director of the venture to cultivate craftsmanship and broader market opportunities to export loom products.[53]

The British policy of diminishing chieftain power by granting chieftain rights to collaborators and other individuals increased the number of chiefs from 60 to 400 in the 1890s to the 1930s. The large number of chiefs required a system of coordination and consultation. This led to the creation of the District Chief's Durbar. Each Chief will ascend to the durbar by signing a document affirming loyalty to the British Crown and the Lushai people. The durbar was designed for chiefs to become responsible for studying the conditions and lives of people under their jurisdiction and to unify the Chiefs in looking after the wellbeing of the Lushai people in general.[54] The Durbar was assigned to meet twice yearly at a convenient meeting place for all chief circles. It would last seven to ten days and, in an advisory capacity, make decisions offered to the superintendent.[55]

Young Lushai Association

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Main article: Young Mizo Association

The liberal and progressive nature of A.G McCall led to the development of Lushai community organizations. The increase in education and the influence of the Young Men's Buddhist Association in Burma led to the creation of the Young Lushai Organization on 4 June 1935. The YLA was not a political organization but a cultural one. It was originally consisting of the sons of chiefs before becoming populated with commoners. The organization developed a view against the institution of Lushai chieftainship which would influence its members who would go on to found the Mizo Union on the same policy and ideology such as Vanlawma.[56]

World War Two

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Lushai chiefs pledge allegiance to the Union Jack during World War II.

In April 1942, the Imperial Japanese Army had occupied much of Colony of Burma and pushed the British back into the Northeastern Regions of India. Superintendent of the Lushai Hills, Major Anthony Gilchrist McCall, brought 300 tribal chiefs and asked them to join in a voluntary bond with the British Crown and to sign a promise to join in a "Total Defence Scheme" (TDS) of the area.[57] McCall was recalled under protest by the Governor of Assam Andrew Clow in May 1943, his position being transferred to Shillong instead. However, in his absence, the Total Defence Scheme was held throughout the war.[50] McCall argued that without loyalty to the British, the TDS would collapse and that the Lushai Hills would not resist Japanese occupation if the British military were to retreat as they did in British Malaya, Singapore and Colony of Brunei.[58]

A Lushai reenactement of Winston Churchill's speech.
Superintendent's wife giving gifts to Lushai recruits in World War II.
Lushai recruits making a journey to enlist for World War II.

The Total Defence Scheme involved guerilla warfare, strategic abandonment of villages, scorched earth tactics with denial of food and water, booby traps, destruction of bridges and exclusive information supplied to British authorities. McCall explicitly states to Chiefs to arm the bravest with guns and rifles and not directly confront enemies but to rely on knowledge of the terrain for effective ambush tactics. The Total Defence Scheme functioned on an asymmetrical warfare doctrine as a result. McCall's scheme was made in mind that tribal people did not possess up-to-date arms, were not professionally trained in military affairs and lacked vital air support and reconnaissance in comparison with the Japanese.[59] The Lushai tribesmen were trained by Australian military personnel, such as Colonel Percival Augustus Parsons, in guerilla warfare. The scheme was successful as the Japanese retreated from the borderlands of India in late 1944.[60]

Political movements

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The growth of the Young Lushai Association saw a radical faction forming who wished to participate in politics. On 12 April 1946, the Lushai Commoner's Union inspired by the Burmese organization, the General Council of Buddhists Association was formed. During 1946, Vanlawma, Dahrawka and H.P Sailo organised a meeting of commoners with the permission of the superintendent A.R.H MacDonald in Aizawl. Vanlawma was a member of the Young Lushai Association and the first matriculate of the Lushai Hills. Another group led by an individual known as Saprawnga was not granted permission to do so in Lunglei. Saprawnga was not granted due to MacDonald's concerns over his strong following and the lack of political control outside of Aizawl. Saprawnga would subsequently become the chief executive member of the district council of the Mizo district.[61] Other prominent leaders would include C. Chhunga the first chief minister of the Union Territory of Mizoram, Khawtin Kuma and Bawichuaka.[62]

Vanlawma, Dahrawka and Sailo's meeting was held at Thankthing M.E School with a large attendance. Cartoon posters were prepared and one of the illustrations offended MacDonald who ended the meeting early. The meeting was subsequently continued in a nearby Zawlbuk. Public opinion on Lushai chieftainship had begun to sour, and tolerance decayed for chiefs using power and authority on behalf of the British, which appeared increasingly autocratic.[61]

The party operated under a democratic constitution and functioned through elected representatives. In every big village there were units and branches of the party established. Members would deposit payment and donations to the party fund. The Young Lushai Association on 8 February 1945, shortly before the formation of the Lushai Commoner Union sent a delegate to the superintendent A.R.H MacDonald demanding that village elders be elected rather than appointed by chieftain privilege. Accompanying demands included an end to forced labour, and outdated imperial levies. Superintendent MacDonald agreed to the terms and arranged a forum to address the political matters. On 14 January 1946 the Lushai Commoner's Union and the chiefs elected 24 representatives and convened a district conference.[62]

The general meeting of the party in 1946 convened and they formally changed the name of the Lushai commoner's party to the Mizo Commoner's party before shortening into the Mizo Union.[62] This decision had been credited with the popularisation of the term Mizo over the anglicised misnomer of Lushai.[63] The policy of opposing chieftainship alienated many chiefs who initially participated in the Mizo Union and led to Superintendent MacDonald pushing back on a perception of radicalisation and destablisation of the system of indirect rule.[64]

The initial activities of the Mizo Union were originally localised in Aizawl. The party spread their influence through hla (songs or poetry), consisting of slogans of their policies and aims. A draft constitution known as Rorel Khawl which was rejected by the Governor of Assam for being too ambitious.[63]

Mizo Union split

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A majority of the Mizo Union supported union with India.[65] However towards independence, a faction known as the right wing formed out of the party. They consisted of businessmen located in Aizawl with links to chiefs who preferred alternatives to rule under India. Polticial scientist, Prof Coupland's Crown Colony Scheme became the initial source of support for this minority of the Mizo Union. The scheme would oversaw Zo-Kuki-Chin areas placed under a unified colony under British rule. [63] Saprawnga and L.B Thanga formulated a scheme to carve out a new party known as the Mizo Union Council. This party would become the precursor to the United Mizo Freedom Organization who would be influenced by Burmese Mizos.[65] A Burmese ex-military officer Lalbiakthanga formed the UMFO on 5 July 1947. Lalmawia Khiangte a former King's Commission Emergency Officer during WW2 British government held the position of general secretary. However, the party was known as Zalen Pawl, which meant the party of the privileged. They failed to make serious political gains to offset assension to India.[66]

Christianity

[edit]
Main article: History of Christianity in Mizoram

On 11 January 1894, the first missionaries entered the Lushai Hills, known as James H. Lorrain and Frederick W. Savidge. It took both missionaries five years to baptise their first two converts. The meagre gain from their efforts convinced Robert Arthington, the patron of the Arthington Aborigines Mission, to move to the next hill tribe. Before the departure of Lorrain and Savidge, D. E Jones, a missionary under the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist mission, joined them. Jones struggled with obtaining results from his efforts, and many of his converts would be expelled shortly after being received into communion. His later converts would also leave on their own volition in 1904–1905. In seven years, the 1901 census recorded 45 Christians amid a population of 82,000, and only five were baptized church members.[19]

Economy

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Lushai Hills Cotton Industries

[edit]
Lushai workers in the Reid House storage building.

The traditional Mizo tribes possessed talent in Mizo handicraft in cotton weaving. While the Bengal Home Industries Association of Calcutta attempted to leverage this talent, no agreement was reached. The District Officer took the initiative in commercializing and educating Mizo labourers in cotton production skills as a safeguard against the failure of rice crops. A cottage industries Organisation was financed privately by the district officer and his wife, who was personally versed in textiles. The decision to privately finance the cotton industry in the Lushai Hills stemmed from the central government's reluctance to invest in a venture and a need to curb Christian revivalism growing in communities.[67]

A Cotton bazaar situated in Aizawl for the Lushai Cotton Industries.
The hand ginning of cotton by Lushai workers.

In the months of leisure in the jhumming cycle, labourers would spend time producing a rug made of unspun, white, tufted, local cotton.[68] The Lushai Hills Cotton Industries began to train and upskill Mizo labourers into looming craftmanship which as a domino effect led to craftsmen spreading these teachings to other villagers. Quality control of rug productions would see only 20% of rugs marketable and profitable. As a measure, rejections carried a guarantee of full market price if a second replacement rug of high quality could be submitted.[69]

Separation of cotton with rice water.

The Imperial Tobacco Company assisted with the enterprise of cotton industries under the resident manager in India, R.G Baker who offered to accept first grade rugs as gifts in the coupon system of the company. This eased the trouble of marketability and exportation in the hilly and rugged terrain of the Lushai Hills. The saleability of rugs increased from 20% and began to compete with substandard rugs in the broader market. The product was now considered higher quality under hand spun cotton, tightly stuffed and bound by the woof.[69]

Mrs McCall organizing the Lushai Hills Cotton Industries Program.
Lushai weaver with a tobacco pipe.

Lushai craftsmen in cotton industries were being sent to Calcutta to Dr. Boege, a general manager of a trading company, for training in synthetic saying. The growing industry prompted Governor of Assam Robert Reid and his spouse to become patrons with the construction of the Reid House to provide offices, workspace, stock rooms, packing and dyes.[70] This supplied dyes for free with a specially trained dyer. The interests and influence of the Reid house promoted second cash bows to villages, improved employability and social status of women, employed the disabled and crippled, revival of Lushai hand-looming culture, and encouragement of research into the usage of natural resources of the Lushai hills into fields such as medicine, metalworking etc.[71] Issues in the cotton industries were resolved with well off and influential individuals such as Chhuakhama, Pachhunga and Thanga who negotiated agreements with the Imperial Tobacco Company at their personal expense.[72]

Leaders of the Lushai Hills

[edit]
Number Name Term of Office Notes
Political Officers of the North Lushai Hills[73]
1 Captain H.R Browne 1890 1890 Captain Browne was assigned the first political officer of the North Lushai Hills. His headquarters were in Aizawl. Browne's chief responsibility as political officer was to disarm the Lushai tribes. Browne held a chief's conference on 13 June 1890 at Fort Aijal and declared the suspension of chieftainship for Zakapa and Lengpunga for the Chengri Valley raid. A fine for 15 guns was additionally imposed. Browne did not enact harsh measures on Lengpunga as he did not wish to antagonize a prestigious and influential chief. On his way from Aizawl to Changsil post, Browne was ambushed by a western chief, Thonsuma. Outnumbered with only 16 soldiers all sepoys were killed and one escaped to relay the news.[74] As a result, Brown was killed 6 September 1890.[75] Browne's weapons were looted and he was brought to Changsil post fifteen minutes later where he died. Ater his death, Khalkama was emboldened to raid Fort Aijal.[76]
2 R.B McCabe 1890 1892 R.B McCabe was the political officer to introduce taxes and the coolie system of quotas for Mizo youths at low wages. The coolie system and quotas would continue until abolishment in 1953. His administration saw Rev William Williams visit with the first influence of Christianity in the Lushai Hills.[77]
3 A.W Davis 1892 1894 A.W Davis renounced Aizawl as the capital and renamed it Fort Aijal and staffed it with 100 soldiers.[78]
4 Granville Henry Loch (Acting) 1893 1894 G.H Loch is responsible for the development of Aizawl into a city and the establishment of roads and infrastructure around the Lushai Hills. Loch was responsible for building the Lammual, a field for military drills. He is also known for giving a printing press to the Mizo Presbyterian Church, now known as the Loch Printing Press.[79]
5 A.W Davis 1893 1894
6 A. Porteous 1894 1897 A. Porteus built two outposts at Siallukawt and Serchhip villages. He is also known for presiding over the arrival of Frederick William Savidge and James Herbert Lorrain, who contributed to the creation of the Mizo alphabet and the official beginning of the Christianization of the Lushai Hills.[79]
7 Major John Shakespear 1897 1898 The North and South Lushai Hills were merged. Shakespear continued as Superintendent.
Superintendents of the South Lushai Hills[80]
1 C.S. Murray 1 April 1891 16 April 1891 Captian C.S Murray was a military officer in the Government of Bengal. He was assigned to the Lushai Hills on account of his achievements in subduing the Bhutias and Lepchas in Darjeeling and his participation in the Chin-Lushai Expedition. Murray held a chief's durbar on 3 April 1890 explaining the intentions of the British government[81] Murray was sacked from his position after a court case by Zakapa. Murray attempted to demand women for sex and insulted Zakapa by threatening to take his wife upon refusal. Zakapa attacked Murray and managed to decapitate two sepoys before Murray burned the village. He was replaced by Shakespear, who stood by Zakapa in court.[82]
2 Captain John Shakespear 1891 1896 Brokered a settlement with Chieftainess Darbilhi to allow the establishment of Fort Tregear.Became a foster brother to Darbilhi.[83] Led the expedition and capture of Ropuiliani and her son Lalthuama, the central resistance to British rule.[84]
3 R.H Sneyd Hutchinson 1896 1898 After Zakapa's rebellion on Murray's injudicious conduct, Hutchinson was assigned to quell the South Lushai rebellion of 1891 in February. Hutchinson failed to capture Zakapa but succeeded in capturing Zakapa's allies: Lalthuma, Dakopa, Kapchunga and Lemkam.[85] Hutchinson was further assigned to conciliate the tribes of Vantura (Howlong) and Tonglion (Lakher). He undertook a risk and met with Vantura who had been shot by Tonglion's men and died in Hutchinson's arms.[85][86] After torturing the women of Zakapa's clan, Hutchinson failed to attain his whereabouts and capture him.[87] Hutchinson was later reassigned to his original office of the Chittagong Hill Tracts.[88]
Superintendents of the Lushai Hills District[80]
1 Major John Shakespear 1898 1899
2 Captain H.W.G Cole 1899 1900 H.W.G Cole was responsible for abolishing the title of political officer and changing it to superintendent. Cole erected tombstones of Queen Victoria in every village in Mizoram and held a torch ceremony for the coronation of Edward VII. His rule saw harsh punishment on distrubances of the peace such as the hanging of three cutthroat robbers. He is also responsible for the circle system which limited and demarcated the jurisdiction of chiefs and their possible migrations for jhumming cycles. He embarked on a policy of limiting chief power by creating more chiefs and involving within the institution of Mizo chieftainship more deeply. He oversaw the first school in Mizoram opening in 1899.[89]
3 Major John Shakespear 1900 1903 Shakespeare further contributed to the administration by creating 11 blocks in Northern Mizoram subdivision and 7 blocks in the Southern Mizoram subdivision.[89]
4 L.O Clarke (Acting) 1903 1904
5 Major John Shakespear 1904 1905
6 Major John Campbell Arbuthnott 1905 1905
7 Major Granville Henry Loch 1905 1906
8 Major H.W.G Cole 1905 1911 H.W.G Cole is also credited with the encouragement of farming potatoes in Mizoram. He established a bazaar in Aizawl in 1909. Cole was also the superintdent during Peter Fraser's campaign against the Bawi system of the Lushai Hills. Cole deported Fraser, but Fraser managed to bring the issue to parliament with the help of Lloyd George and succeeded. Cole left the Lushai Hills as a result.[90]
9 Major W. Kennedy 1911 1912 Kennedy oversaw the mautam famine of 1911. Kennedy took initiative in addressing the issue with an application for a loan of Rs. 800,000 from the British Raj government. [90]
10 F.C Henniker 1912 1912 F.C Henniker worked with Mizo elders and scholars on researching the nature of the mautam famine. With assistance, he was the first administrator to map out the upcoming famines and realize their cyclical nature as an ecological phenomenon.[91]
11 Major Granville Henry Loch 1912 1913
12 J Hezlett 1913 1917 J Hezlett worked towards repaying the debts of responding to the mautam famine under Kennedy. He oversaw Lushai volunteers for World War One to fight against Germany.[92]
13 H.A.C Colguhoun 1917 1919 Colguhun oversaw the Spanish flu's influence in Mizoram. Lushai volunteers from World War One had developed immunity and were in charge of digging graves for the victims.[92]
14 W.L Scott 1919 1921 W.L Scott opened the Assam Rifles to Mizo volunteers. He is also credited with defending Tripura's claims to Mizo territory.[92]
15 S.N Mackenzie 1921 1922
16 W.L Scott 1922 1923
17 S.N Mackenzie 1923 1924
18 N.E Parry 1924 1928 Parry oversaw the development of changes in the Lushai Hills in his four-year administration, which concerned the preservation of indigenous culture and codification of customary law.[93]
19 G.G.G Heime 1928 1932 Presided over a period of intense rainfall which led to logistical issues and stoppage of services such as mail and food. This period is known as Minpui Kum. Helme tried to control the population of Aizawl and began a program of deporting excess dwellers into outlying villages. Exemptions were provided to government workers, missionaries and vulnerable individuals.[94]
20 Major Anthony Gilchrist McCall 1931 1943
21 A.R.H MacDonald 1943 1945
22 J. Dumbreck 1945 1945
23 A.I Bowman 1945 1946
24 Captain D.A Penn 1946 1947
25 Leonard Lamb Peters [b] 1947 1949

Notelist

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  1. ^ Lungleh was the capital only for the South Lushai Hills.
  2. ^ Peters remained as superintendent after Indian Independence.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c "Mizo Chanchin, Bu II – A History of Lushai Hills, Part II [1947]", British Library, EAP454/13/12, https://eap.bl.uk/archive-file/EAP454-13-12
  2. ^ Rao, C. Hayavadana (ed.). "Shakespeare, John" . The Indian Biographical Dictionary . Madras: Pillar & Co.
  3. ^ Vanlalhmangaihsanga, R. "Political History of Lushai Hills since the Pre-Colonial Era" (PDF). Mizoram University Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences. VI (1). ISSN 2395-7352.
  4. ^ Chaterjee, Suhas (1985). Mizoram under the British rule. Mittal Publication. p. 225.
  5. ^ Zorema, J (2021). The South Lushai Hills. Om Publications, https://www.ompublications.in/product/books/OM50888
  6. ^ https://dclunglei.mizoram.gov.in/page/about
  7. ^ Oxford English Dictionary. "Lushai Etymology". Oxford English Encyclopedia. Oxford. Retrieved 8 October 2024.
  8. ^ Lewin, Thomas Herbert (1874). Progressive Colloquial Exercises in the Lushai Dialect of the ʹDzoʹ Or Kúki Language: With Vocabularies and Popular Tales. Calcutta: Calcutta Central Press Company Limited. p. 3.
  9. ^ Shakespeare, John (1912). The Lushai Kuki Clans. London: Macmillan and Co, Limited. p. 43.
  10. ^ Tribal Research Institute Aizawl Mizoram (1994). The Tribes of Mizoram: A Dissertation. Aizawl: Zonun Industries. p. 1.
  11. ^ The Lushai Hills District (Change of Name) Act, 1954 (Act). Assam legislative assembly. 1954. Retrieved 1 October 2024.
  12. ^ https://misual.life/2011/05/15/sailo-thlahtu-bul-leh-an-taidarh-dan/
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  14. ^ Pau, Pum Khan (2007). "Administrative Rivalries on a Frontier: problem of the Chin-Lushai Hills" (PDF). Indian Historical Review. 34 (187): 187–209. doi:10.1177/037698360703400108. Retrieved 30 September 2024.
  15. ^ R. Vanlalhmangaihsanga. Political History of Lushai Hills since the Pre-Colonial Era. mzuhssjournal, http://mzuhssjournal.in/images/resources/v6n1/vanlalhmangaihsanga.pdf
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  23. ^ Shakespear, John (1929). History of the Assam Rifles. London: Macmillan and Co, Limited. p. 99,100.
  24. ^ Shakespear 1929, p. 107-109.
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  31. ^ McCall 1949, p. 290.
  32. ^ a b c d Thomas Thorpe. "The Indian Labour Corps in the First World War - Pratap Chhetri". Western Front Association (Podcast). WFA. Retrieved 8 October 2024.
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  36. ^ Jackson 2016, p. 67.
  37. ^ Jackson 2016, p. 68.
  38. ^ Goswami, B.B (1979). The Mizo Unrest: A study of politicisation of culture. Jaipur: Aalekh Publishers.
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  40. ^ Pachuau, Rintluanga (2009). Mizoram: A study in Comprehensive Geogrpahy. New Delhi: Northern Book Centre. p. 15. ISBN 978-81-7211-264-6.
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  48. ^ a b McCall 1949, p. 267.
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  72. ^ McCall 1949, p. 278.
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  82. ^ Nag, Sajal; Lalsangpuii, R. (February 2024). "Reversing of Gender: Anti-Colonial Resistance by Women Warriors in Northeast India". In Singh, Lata; Sinha, Shshank Shekhar (eds.). Gender in Modern India: History, Culture, Marginality. oxford: Oxford University press. p. 86. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198900788.001.0001. ISBN 9780198900818.
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  94. ^ Samuelson 1985, p. 24.

Sources

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