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Black women in the American music industry

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Introduction

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Before the Atlantic slave trade, people of African descent used music to express their emotions and communicate with others. It was also a crucial part of religious rituals and ceremonies. During the enslavement of Africans in the United States, music became vital for the enslaved population. Singing, in particular, was essential for African enslaved individuals in America. It allowed them to convey messages discreetly, avoiding unwanted attention from slave masters, while also lifting the spirits of those around them

Over time, Black people, especially Black women, became the backbone of music-making in early America and continue to have a significant impact on the music industry today. However, throughout history, Black women have often been denied the respect they deserve for their contributions to the music industry. Navigating the field with the layered identities of being both Black and female, Black women frequently experience misogynoir, which affects their experiences in the music world. This form of misogyny is rooted in stereotypes and prejudices about their demographic, influencing how Black women are treated and marketed in the industry. For example, Black women have often been labeled as difficult to get along with, which has positioned them in a constant state of comparison and competition, particularly in the eyes of the audience.[1]

Despite their significant contributions to American music and culture, the history of Black women in music is often forgotten or erased. In a male-dominated industry, many Black women have struggled to combat the belief that women cannot achieve the same level of success as men in the same field. In genres such as rap, jazz, blues, and R&B, Black women have had to work twice as hard as their male counterparts to achieve similar recognition, yet many still do not receive the acknowledgment they deserve. They are often overlooked or oversexualized to attract attention, regardless of their talent.

Early Music and the Harlem Renaissance

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In the United States, the introduction of new styles of music came during the Transatlantic Slave Trade era. The genres of music include, but are not limited to, blues, rock, gospel, jazz, bluegrass, and hip-hop. African-American women in the music industry have made significant contributions over the years. Stigmas surrounding African-American women during the 20th century may have made it difficult for them to have a strong presence in mainstream music. Despite this, women were still authoritative in genres of blues, jazz, and R&B.

Jazz

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African-American women have played a significant role in shaping jazz and hip-hop/rap genres, contributing as singers and instrumentalists.[2] Historically, these genres were predominantly male-dominated, but African-American women have emerged as influential figures, challenging traditional norms. Rap music is defined as a genre that includes a recurring beat pattern in the background accompanied by rhythmic speech. The piano helped female artists with their jazz performances and abilities which granted women a degree of acceptance in the music industry. This allowed for women to not only grow as artists but allowed their platforms to open as well. With good exposure, the hope was that they were able to connect with other artists and uplift one another through music.[3] Music can create a sense of identity within themselves and awareness for audiences.

Mary Lou Williams,[4] a popular pianist, is widely regarded as one of America's best-known and most revered jazz women.[5] Williams first gained recognition and support from within her hometown, where she developed into one of the most "sought after pianists in Kansas City".[5] Through her compositions, Williams is said to have influenced the evolution of the "big band"[6] sound. Based on her innovative writing techniques, Williams gained the opportunity to compose for many well known jazz innovators such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington.[4] Williams did not move to the New York area until the early 1940s. It was during this time that a new style of music was emerging known as "bebop." he adapted her compositions to this new style, which is recognized as a sub-genre of jazz. Later, Williams went on to lead various women’s music groups and founded one of the first women-owned recording companies. The male-dominated music industry created a negative stigma towards women, most could not make it in the industry as individual performers. Although all-women jazz bands and family-based jazz groups were popular during World War II, many male jazz musicians were drafted to fight in the war. All-women bands had the opportunity to gain popularity and build their platform because of this. Some of these bands included Darlings of Rhythm and the International Sweethearts of Rhythm.[7]

Years later multiple African-American women were able to succeed as individual singers as well as rappers in the industry. Some of the most successful names include Ella Fitzgerald, Dinah Washington, Lena Horne, Billie Holiday Lil Kim, Queen Latifah, MC Lyte, Missy Elliot, and Lauryn Hill.[8] Ella Fitzgerald, known as "The First Lady of Song", sold over 40 million records and won 13 Grammy Awards.[9]

Jill Scott, an accomplished African-American artist, is renowned not only for her remarkable vocal talent but also for her unique ability to blend various genres, including jazz and hip-hop. Growing up in Philadelphia, she drew inspiration from a diverse range of musical influences that helped shape her artistic identity. Despite facing significant challenges and criticism as a Black woman in the music industry, Scott has secured her place as a Grammy Award-winning artist.[10] At the Essence Music Festival, she candidly shared that her journey as an artist has not been easy. Throughout her career, she has encountered scrutiny regarding her appearance and artistic expression.[11] Nevertheless, Jill Scott has remained resolute in her pursuit of artistic integrity, overcoming obstacles and paving the way for emerging artists to confidently express their talents. Her perseverance not only exemplifies her dedication to music but also inspires others to share their personal narratives across any genre they choose.

Billie Holiday was a Philadelphia born singer who is well known in the Jazz industry. Emerging to stardom in the 1930’s after being discovered by John Hammond.[12] Although she had no formal musical training she formed a unique personal sound stemming from the life she lived.[13] Also known by the alias “Lady Day” which was given to her by close friend and colleague Lester Young, she collaborated with many people including Duke Ellington.[12] Holiday made history as the first African American women to work with an all white orchestra with Artie Shaw. Most Known for her song Strange Fruit which spoke to the tribulations of the African American experience, which has taken on a name of its own being sampled by multiple artists to this day. Holiday made history despite her personal battles with addiction which ultimately took a toll on her voice and led to her passing in 1959.[13]

Blues

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The 1920s blues, known as the classic blues, was a genre largely popularized by African-American women. Singers such as Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith, Alberta Hunter, and Ethel Waters were the most popular.[14] Ma Rainey, referred to as the "Mother of the Blues", became popular in the early 1900s. Rainey was the first popular black women stage entertainer to incorporate authentic blues into her song selection. She is known for the "Jump Blues"[5] which incorporated a racy and theatrical style. Bessie Smith, who was known as the "empress of the blues"[5] showcased the classic blues. Smith started her professional career as a dancer in the Moses Stokes Company which Rainey was the lead singer of at the time.

Male-dominated country blues grew in popularity and women fell out of the spotlight for a while because of this. During the 1960s blues revival, about 30 years later, Mamie Smith became the first black women vocalist to record a blues song.[15] While "Crazy Blues" is cited as the first blues recording and also represents the emergence of black women singers into popular music culture. Both black and white consumers purchased the record, and record company executives recognized it as a lucrative marketing segment.[16]

R&B and its descendants

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R&B

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Soul and R&B have their roots in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. While these genres have primarily focused on breaking down racial barriers between black and white Americans most of the singers within this genre had Southern roots. They used their music to voice opinions, concerns, and emotions about life. Artists in this genre include Sister Rosetta Tharpe, Bessie Smith, and Aretha Franklin. Aretha Franklin, gained prominence in the 1960s.[17][18] Franklin signed her record deal at the age of eighteen after singing at her church in Detroit.[19] Some of the most highlighted collaborations were with musicians having a background in gospel music. By reinventing herself musically, she achieved remarkable success, including five number-one hits and a Grammy.[20] In 1967 and 1968, Franklin reached commercial success, recording more than a dozen million-selling singles.[21] Mahalia Jackson was another woman artist known as the "Queen of Gospel" who had an impact on the civil rights movement with her songs.[22][23] Aretha Franklin covered one of her more popular songs, "How I Got Over". It was a more upbeat version with James Cleveland and The Southern California Community Choir.[24] Both Aretha Franklin and Mahalia Jackson had major songs during the civil rights movement: Franklin's version of Otis Redding's "Respect" and Jackson's "I've Been 'Buked and I've Been Scorned", which she performed at the march on Washington after being asked by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.[23][25] Despite their role in popularizing black music and culture, few black women are recognized in the emergence of rap and hip-hop culture in the 1970s-1980s.[26][27][28]

Rap

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A version of hip hop emerged in the 1990s that transformed the upbeat music of earlier decades into a thought provoking awareness of the world which seemed to romanticize poverty, drug use, drug dealing and gang violence.[29] Popular Female artists in this genre include Queen Latifah, Missy Elliot, Nicki Minaj, Cardi-B, and Salt-N-Pepa. MC Sha-Rock was named the "mother of the mic as she was the first Female emcee in hip hop. She then joined the hip hop group that were the first ever to receive a record deal called "The Funky 4+1." Sha-Rock helped push Rap into a mainstream spotlight for the rest of America and the world. This genre of music has been criticized for sexually objectifying not only women of color but all women.[30] Artists such as Monie Love and Queen Latifah made music that empowered women, and called for unity between female artists. Latifah and Love's hit single "Ladies First" celebrates women across the music industry. Artists such as Missy Elliott, Lauryn Hill, and Eve were applauded for their efforts as they changed the game for female artists with their innovation. Hill was a multi purpose artist, meaning she wrote, produced, and performed her music on her own. Hill was awarded 5 Grammies in 1999 for her efforts. In modern years of Rap, women's images have become as important as their musical skill. Modern Female artists such as Saweetie, Megan Thee Stallion, and the City Girls use their sex appeal as the focal point of their music. The language used in modern rap music has been criticized by critics for the prevalence of slang terms such as "bitch," "hoe," "slut," or "thot".[31] Social media has now become part of the music industry as a way for these women to promote music in many ways as these songs go viral and are backed by trends. Some of these women have become the top selling female artists of all time. Cardi B is the only female solo artist to win a Grammy for Best Rap Album. Women are back on top of the charts with the songs rapped by Megan Thee Stallion, Doja Cat, Lizzo, and many more.[32]

Female Rappers Point Of view

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Nicki Minaj's concerns and frustrations regarding the Grammy Awards and the broader music industry reflect a long-standing issue of systemic biases and challenges faced by artists, particularly those who are women and people of color. Her argument about being placed in the Pop category instead of the Hip Hop/Rap category highlights the complexities of genre classification and the impact it can have on an artist's recognition and success. The categorization of music genres is subjective and can sometimes reflect broader industry trends and biases. Nicki Minaj's comments on the industry's conservative efforts and the elevation of newer artists over longer standing ones resonate with broader discussions about representation and recognition in the entertainment business. The issue of diversity and inclusivity, both in terms of race and gender, has been a recurring theme in the music industry, with many artists advocating for more equitable treatment and opportunities. Nicki Minaj has called for artists to speak out against unfair practices and biases in the music industry which is a reflection of a growing trend where musicians are utilizing their platforms to address systemic issues. Advocacy for change, transparency, and fairness in the music industry is crucial for creating an environment where all artists, regardless of their background, can thrive and receive recognition. Discussions around these issues are ongoing, and the music industry continues to grapple with the need for systemic change to ensure a more equitable and inclusive space for all artists.[33]

Megan Thee Stallion has spoken on the misogynoir that exists in the music industry. After a shooting incident in 2020 involving Tory Lanez, a Canadian Rapper and Megans partner at the time, the internet avalanched with many racial and misogynistic comments towards Megan. To this day, rappers like Drake have mentioned the incident in a "playful" light, making a mockery out of Megans trauma and pain. These incidences of misogynoir do not exist in a vacuum, and is a part of the broader structure that is the compounding oppression Black women face in the world.

Hip-Hop Feminism

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Hip-Hop Feminism

Throughout history there has been a lack of respect given to black women and their contributions to the music industry, resulting in the rise of hip hop feminism. The movement tackles problems arising from deindustrialization, racial wealth disparities, and conservative backlash. It was molded by the social environment of the 1980s and 1990s. Meshell Ndegeocello, an American rapper, singer and bassist Angie Stone, a singer, are two artists that have shaped the conversation. Hip-hop feminism goes beyond gender issues to support the rights of women, African Americans, and LGBTQ+ people. Queen Latifah, a prominent figure in the genre, used "the politics of respectability" to promote women's rights and racial empowerment. Ndegeocello is one of the rising queer feminists of color who brings a nuanced viewpoint to problems like abortion and unjust beauty standards. Changes in perspectives are reflected in the transition from male-dominated hip hop music to women-centered hip hop soul, which allows for a diversity of narratives within black communities. The Grammy-winning song "U.N.I.T.Y." by Queen Latifah was a historic moment that validated the powerful voice of black women in a male-dominated field and sparked discussions about domestic abuse and the commodification of black women's sexuality.

This legacy starts in the 1870s with the Fisk Jubilee Singers, who performed many different genres of music including traditional spirituals, blues, classic jazz and rhythm and blues, also commonly referred to as R&B. The Fisk Jubilee Singers became popular throughout the world for singing traditional spirituals during their tours in both the United States and England.[34]

Main article: Hip hop feminism

Hip-Hop Feminism has its roots in attempts to reclaim the positive position of black women in the music industry. Female rapper Monie Love had once said "you could be as good as any man and you still wasn't getting the level of respect that you deserved as a woman on the mic." The conservative backlash of the 1980s and 1990s deindustrialization, as well as the slashing of the welfare state, the attendant gutting of social programs and affirmative action, along with the increasing racial wealth gap, have affected the lived worlds and world views of the hip-hop generation.[35] Hip-hop feminism also aims at reclaiming the sexualization of black women as pleasurable and consensual.[35]

Some notable artists include Me’Shell Ndegeocello and Angie Stone.

Hip-hop feminism has had a political impact with regards to the rights of women, African Americans, and the LGBTQ community. Hip-hop feminism has been largely shaped by a sociopolitical agenda because of this. This has created a second and third wave of black American women who are artists, both of whom share a different opinion through their songs. However, there are theoretical and practical linkages between the generations and their music.[36]

Queen Latifah is one of hip hop's most notable MCs. Her music is known for her pro-black & pro-feminist themes.

One aspect of hip-hop feminism is its use of "the politics of respectability",[37] a term coined by Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, which describes several strategies for progressive black women artists to more effectively promote a message of racial uplift and women's rights to a bigger audience. These methods largely regard notions of self-respect, honor, piety, and propriety. Respectability politics has been a useful way of improving conditions for African-Americans, by providing black women artists with a platform to talk about the de jure and de facto racist and misogynistic practices they experience.[38]

More recently there has been an emergence of queer feminists of color in hip-hop. One example of this is Me’Shell Ndegeocello, who made her debut in 1993. In her lyrics, Ndegeocello brings awareness to the realities that the black community faces, such as abortion, low-income housing, and unfair US beauty standards. Ndegeocello's lyrics further explore her queer identity in songs like "Mary Magdalene" and "Pocketbook".[39]

Through hip-hop soul women created an aesthetic that represented and engaged in politics of sexuality and gender in working-class black communities. By allowing women in hip-hop soul to offer narratives that highlighted their multidimensional nature, they offered experiences other black women could relate to.[40] The shift from male-dominated hip-hop to women-centered as well as women-told hip-hop soul highlights the shift in previous perceptions of women within hip-hop culture.

Rapper and actress Queen Latifah made history when she won a Grammy for her groundbreaking hit, "U.N.I.T.Y.," in 1995. The song spoke out against domestic violence and the objectification of black women's sexuality. "U.N.I.T.Y." began a conversation in the African American community over violence and assault against women. It also established that black women rappers had a powerful voice in a field unjustly dominated by men.

Contemporary Music Industry

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Beyoncé

Source:[41]

Today, women rappers are using rap lyrics to define an independent Black female identity. Examples include Queen Latifah, Salt 'N' Pepa, MC Lyte and Eve, who criticize men who abuse and manipulate women. Other women (Beyoncé, Lauryn Hill, Rihanna, Nicki Minaj, Alicia Keys, Kehlani, Mariah Carey, Missy Elliott, Janet Jackson and Zap Mama) use hip-hop as a platform to empower black women and other minorities around the world.[42]

Queen Latifah is classified as one of the biggest influences in the music industry.[43] She released her album, All Hail the Queen at the age of nineteen. The album has feminist themes that attracted a wide audience. Queen Latifah promoted women's importance, demanding equal treatment of women and the importance of women supporting each other.[44] She was the first woman[45] MC to ever go gold which paved the way for other women rappers. Black Reign was her most popular album and included her biggest single, U.N.I.T.Y, which won a Grammy for Best Solo Rap Performance.[46] Decades back, there was an ideology to have been a certain sample size image for an artist to acquire in order to succeed in the music industry, especially by black artist. Queen Latifah, as she was one of the earliest black musicians who did not conform to the expectations of changing her fashion appearances in the media. Latifah was very adamant on speaking publicly on body positivity and inclusivity for women's clothing.[47]

Beyoncé Knowles, is another example of a black woman in the music industry that has impacted the industry significantly. Beyoncé has won the most Grammys of all time with 32 Grammys (as of 2024), and is the only artist in history to have all of her eight studio albums reach the top of Billboard's album charts. Knowles most recent work(as of 2016), Lemonade, contends with the issues black women face while living in America. For example, the song "Freedom" which talks about blackness in America, includes amazing visuals of various fierce black women who proudly rock picked-out afros and other dynamic hairstyles in scenes that reflect and reaffirm black beauty".[48] The visual for "Freedom" contains powerful, moving images of black women who have lost black men in their lives, including Gwen Carr, Sybrina Fulton, and Lezley McSpadden, who are the mothers of Eric Garner, Trayvon Martin, and Michael Brown, respectively.[48] In the film "Black is King", she promotes beauty and power within the black community. Several songs on the soundtrack such as "MY POWER" and "BROWN SKIN GIRL" features themes of self-identity and self-worth.

Sylvia Rhone, who is now CEO of Epic Records, has been a pioneer in the music business for decades.[49][50][51] She began her career in the music industry with Buddah Records in 1974, and went on to spend time at ABC Records, Ariola Records, Elektra, Atlantic Records, and finally Epic Records.[49][50][51] Rhone has gone on to discover and mentor several renowned current artists including DJ Khaled, 21 Savage, Camila Cabello, Travis Scott, Future, Meghan Trainor, French Montana, and many more.[49][50][51]

Born in Portsmouth, Virginia, Missy Elliott emerged from humble beginnings to become a groundbreaking figure in music. Her journey began in a female R&B group, Swing Mob, but her talent soon transcended conventional roles. She forged her path, collaborating with artists like Aaliyah and Janet Jackson and was crafting hits like Get Ur Freak On and Work It that reshaped the sound of the late '90s and early 2000s. Her boundary-pushing visuals, alongside her confident and diverse artistry, not only challenged stereotypes but also became a catalyst for inclusivity and creativity for women in Black American music.[52]

Influence of Music Videos

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Studies have shown that Black women are diminished in hip-hop and rap music videos.[53] When black women are represented, it often is portrayed in a way that reinforces stereotypes regarding gender roles; specifically, women are more likely to be shown in submissive positions to men.[54][55]

Black women are often sexualized in hip hop and rap music videos. They are often referred to as video "thots", "hoes", or "vixens".[56][57] They can often be seen wearing revealing clothing, like lingerie, short-cut shorts or swimsuit. However, in recent years Black women have become more dominant and the gender role can often be switched. Many scholars have argued that women are sexualized in these videos to enhance the hyper-masculinity of the featured male rappers.[58][59][60]

When Black women perform in music videos, they are sometimes seen in the Eurocentric form of beauty: lighter skinned and thin but not always.[61] In 2004, women at Spelman College protested a bone-marrow drive sponsored by Nelly over the visuals in his latest music video Tip Drill.[62] The video featured dozens of women dancing in thong bikinis dancing around a swimming pool and on men. The scene that has caused the most uproar is a visual of Nelly swiping a credit card through a woman's buttocks.[63] Even 15 years later, the producer of the video, Kareem Johnson, defends the video and the credit card scene specifically stating "If the girls weren't in the video, this wouldn't be a conversation. They were willing participants. That's the part that was missed. The model never requested the scene to be edited. If Nelly has to be held accountable, so does the model. Responsibility needs to be shared."[64][65]

Although black women are usually over sexualized in music videos created by male artist, there are some musicians, such as Missy Elliott, Erykah Badu, Mary J. Blige, and more that try to change that narrative. As black female performers began to flood once-male dominated positions, such as producers, directors, and cinematographers, they used their new status in the industry to their advantage and attempted to paint a new portrayal of black women in music videos and interviews. Videos, such as Destiny's Child's Independent Women Pt. 1 and Lauryn Hill's Doo-Wop (That Thing) gave a new perspective on black women, showing them in a more independent, strong, and sophisticated light.[66]

Celebrating the Contributions of Black Women in Modern Music

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In recent years, Black women have continued to shape the American music industry, breaking barriers and redefining genres. The rise of social media has provided Black women artists with new platforms to connect with audiences, allowing them to share their personal stories and experiences. For example, platforms like TikTok have helped emerging artists gain recognition, such as Doja Cat, Summer Walker, and Olivia Rodrigo, the latter of whom, while not Black, has cited Black artists as significant influences in her work. The rise of Lil Nas X also exemplifies how social media has played a crucial role in promoting new talent and creating new avenues for expression.[67]

Despite these advancements, Black women in the music industry still face significant challenges, such as unequal pay, underrepresentation in leadership roles, and industry bias. Studies continue to show that women of color are particularly disadvantaged in areas like pay equity and visibility in decision-making positions.[68] Initiatives such as the "Black Women in Music" program by the Recording Academy aim to address these disparities, providing resources and support for Black female artists.[69]

Overall, the contributions of Black women to the American music landscape remain vital, showcasing their resilience, creativity, and influence in shaping contemporary culture.[70]

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