Jump to content

Hinduism in Bangladesh

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Bangladeshi Hindu)
For Hinduism in West Bengal, India, see Hinduism in West Bengal. For ethnic and main group, see Bengali Hindus.

Bangladeshi Hindus
baṅladeśi hindura
বাংলাদেশী হিন্দুরা
Dhakeshwari National Temple
Total population
13,130,109 (2022 Census)Increase
(7.95% of the country's population) Decrease [1]
Regions with significant populations
All over Bangladesh
Dhaka Division2,766,874 (6.26%)
Rangpur Division2,290,450 (12.98%)
Chittagong Division2,196,947 (6.61%)
Khulna Division2,007,502 (11.54%)
Sylhet Division1,491,315 (13.51%)
Rajshahi Division1,159,197 (5.70%)
Barisal Division750,177 (8.24%)
Mymensingh Division481,742 (3.92%)
Religions
Hinduism (majority)[2]
Tribal religions identified as Hindus (minority)[3]
Languages
Sanskrit (Sacred)
Bangla and other tribal languages
Hinduism by country
Africa
Asia
Europe
North America
Caribbean
Oceania
South America
Full list

Hinduism is the second largest religion in Bangladesh, as according to the 2022 Census of Bangladesh, approximately 13.1 million people responded that they were Hindus, constituting 7.95% out of the total population of 165.15 million people.[4][5] In terms of population, Bangladesh is the third-largest Hindu populated country of the world, after the neighboring countries of India and Nepal. Hinduism is the second-largest religion in 61 out of 64 districts of Bangladesh, but there is no Hindu majority district in Bangladesh.

In October 2022, the Government of Bangladesh proclaimed that it is dedicated to ensuring the safety and security of the Hindu minority community, after attacks on Hindu temples during religious pujas, Hindu communities, temples, mandirs, and pandals.[6][7][8][9]

Culture

[edit]

In nature, Bangladeshi Hinduism closely resembles the forms and customs of Hinduism practiced in the neighboring Indian state of West Bengal, with which Bangladesh (at one time known as East Bengal) was united until the partition of India in 1947.[10] The vast majority of Hindus in Bangladesh are Bengali Hindus.[11]

Goddess (Devi) – usually venerated as Durga or Kali – is widely revered, often alongside her consort Shiva.[12] The worship of Shiva has generally found adherents among the higher castes in Bangladesh.[13][14] Worship of Vishnu (typically in the form of his Avatars or incarnation Rama or Krishna[citation needed]) more explicitly cuts across caste lines by teaching the fundamental oneness of humankind in spirit.[14] Vishnu worship in Bengal expresses the union of the male and female principles in a tradition of love and devotion.[15][14] This form of Hindu belief and the Sufi tradition of Islam have influenced and interacted with each other in Bengal.[14] Both were popular mystical movements emphasizing the personal relationship of religious leaders and disciples instead of the dry stereotypes of the Brahmins or the Ulama.[14][16] As in Bengali Hindu practice, worship of Vishnu frequently occurs in a small devotional society (shomaj).[14] Both use the language of earthly love to express communion with the divine.[14][17] In both traditions, the Bengali language is the vehicle of a large corpus of mystical literature of great beauty and emotional impact.[14]

In Bangladeshi Hinduism, ritual bathing, vows, and pilgrimages to sacred rivers, mountains, and shrines are common practices.[14] An ordinary Hindu will worship at the shrines of Muslim pirs, without being concerned with the religion to which that place is supposed to be affiliated.[14][18] Hindus revere many holy men and ascetics conspicuous for their bodily mortifications.[14] Durga Puja, held in September–October, is the most important festival of Bangladeshi Hindus and it is widely celebrated amongst Bangladeshi Hindus. Thousands of pandals (mandaps) are set up in various cities, towns, and villages to mark the festival. Other festivals are Kali Puja, Janmashtami, Holi, Saraswati Puja, Shivratri and Rathayatra, the most popular being the century-old Dhamrai Rathayatra.

The principle of ahimsa is expressed in almost universally observed rules against eating beef.[14] By no means are all Bangladeshi Hindus vegetarians, but abstinence from all kinds of meat is regarded as a "higher" virtue.[14] The Priestly Caste Brahmin (pronounced Brahmon in Bengali) Bangladeshi Hindus, unlike their counterparts elsewhere in South Asia, eat fish and chicken.[14] This is similar to the Indian state of West Bengal, where Hindus also consume fish, eggs, chicken, and mutton. There are also some vegetarians as well. There are also non-Bengali Hindus in Bangladesh, majority of the Hajong, Rajbongshi people and Tripuris in Bangladesh are Hindus.[19]

Demographics

[edit]
Percentage and population of Hinduism in Bangladesh
Year Percentage (%) Hindu Population Total population Notes
1901
33.00%
 9,546,240 28,927,626 Eastern Bengal region
1911
31.50%
 9,939,825 31,555,363 Before partition
1921
30.60%
 10,176,030 33,254,607
1931
29.40%
 10,466,988 35,604,189
1941
28.00%
 11,759,160 41,999,221
1951
22.05%
 9,239,603 42,062,462 During Pakistani rule
1961
18.50%
 9,379,669 50,804,914
1974
13.50%
 9,673,048 71,478,543 After independence of Bangladesh
1981
12.13%
 10,570,245 87,120,487
1991
10.51%
 11,178,866 106,315,583
2001
9.60%
 11,822,581 123,151,871
2011
8.54%
 12,299,940 144,043,697
2022
7.95%
 13,130,109 165,158,616
Source: Census of India 1901–1941, Census of East Pakistan 1951–1961, Bangladesh Government Census 1974-2022[20][21][22][23]
Map of percentage of Bangladeshi Hindus by Upazila or Sub-district (2011 Census)
Statue of Hindu Goddess Saraswati, Dhaka University

According to the 2001 Bangladesh census, there were around 11.82 million Hindus in Bangladesh constituting 9.6% of the population, which at the time was 123.15 million.[24] The Bangladesh 2011 census states, that approximately 12.73 million people responded that they were Hindus, constituting 8.54% of the total 149.77 million.[25] While 2022 Census of Bangladesh, put the number of Hindus in Bangladesh at 13.1 million out of total 165.1 million population, thus constituting 7.95% of the population.[1] According to a report published by a local daily newspaper of Bangladesh, the Hindu population in the country has reduced by nearly one million between 2001 and 2011 period.[26] The reduction mainly happened in nine districts – Bhola, Barisal, Jhalokati, Pirojpur, Bagerhat, Narail, Gopalganj, Rajbari and Manikganj.[27] The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom have said that Hindus constitute merely 7% of the population in Bangladesh as per as the latest 2016 figures.[28] Hindus in Bangladesh in the late 2000s were almost evenly distributed in all regions, with large concentrations in Gopalganj, Dinajpur, Sylhet, Sunamganj, Mymensingh, Khulna, Jessore, Chittagong and parts of Chittagong Hill Tracts. In the capital city of Dhaka, Hindus are the second-largest religious community after the Muslims and the largest concentration of Hindus can be found in and around Shankhari Bazaar of the old city.

In 2013, Amnesty International reported that the rise of more explicitly Islamist political formations in Bangladesh during the 1990s had resulted in many Hindus being intimidated or attacked, and that fairly substantial numbers were leaving the country for India.[29]

In 1901, Hindus constituted 33% of the population of what is now Bangladesh.[30] In 1941, about 28% of the population were Hindus. Their proportion declined to 22% in 1951 after the Partition of India in 1947, as Hindus migrated from East Bengal to India. Wealthy Hindus who migrated lost their land and assets through the East Bengal Evacuees Act. Poor and middle-class Hindus who were left behind were targets of discriminatory new laws. At the outbreak of the 1965 India-Pakistan war, the Defense of Pakistan Ordinance, and later the Enemy (Custody and Registration) Order II, labeled Hindus as the "enemy" and expropriated their property.[31][32] The 1974 census of Bangladesh showed that the population of Hindus had fallen to 13.5%. Even after independence, the Hindus were branded "Indian stooges" and untrustworthy citizens.[31]

Since 1971, the Hindu percentage has continued to decline, forming 8.5% of the population as of 2011. The fall in the share of total population has been attributed to outward migration, and the fertility rate for Hindus remaining consistently lower than Muslims (2.1 versus 2.3 as of 2014).[30] The Bangladesh genocide of 1971 also disproportionately targeted Hindus.[33]

Hindu population by administrative divisions

[edit]
Hindu Population across divisions of Bangladesh (2022)
Division Hindu Population Total population Percentage (%)
Barisal 750,177 9,100,104
8.24%
Chittagong 2,196,947 33,202,357
6.61%
Dhaka 2,766,874 44,215,759
6.26%
Khulna 2,007,502 17,415,924
11.53%
Mymensingh 481,742 12,225,449
3.94%
Rajshahi 1,159,197 20,353,116
5.70%
Rangpur 2,290,450 17,610,955
13.01%
Sylhet 1,491,315 11,034,952
13.51%

According to the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics report, Khulna division has the highest decline in Hindu population of (1.33%) from 2011 to 2022 period. In 2011, 12.85% of the population of the division were Hindus. This rate has come down to 11.52% in 2022. Among the eight divisions, Khulna has the fourth highest Hindu population. According to the 2022 census, Sylhet division has the highest Hindu population of 13.5%, but the ratio was 14.05% in 2011. In Rangpur division, the Hindu population has decreased from 13.21% in 2011 to 12.98% in 2022. Mymensingh division has the lowest percentage of people belonging to the Hindu community at (3.92%) as of 2022.[34]

Hinduism by Districts

[edit]
Hindu Population across districts of Bangladesh (2022)[35]
District Hindu population Total population Percentage (%)
Barguna 69,492 1,010,531
6.88%
Barisal 275,263 2,570,446
10.71%
Bhola 55,535 1,932,518
2.87%
Jhalokati 61,352 661,160
9.28%
Patuakhali 107,553 1,727,254
6.23%
Pirojpur 180,982 1,198,195
15.10%
Bandarban 16,501 481,106
3.43%
Brahmanbaria 220,960 3,306,563
6.68%
Chandpur 146,524 2,635,748
5.56%
Chattogram 982,604 9,169,465
10.72%
Cumilla 269,214 6,212,216
4.33%
Cox's Bazar 108,166 2,823,268
3.83%
Feni 91,160 1,648,896
5.53%
Khagrachhari 119,706 714,119
16.76%
Lakshmipur 61,846 1,937,948
3.19%
Noakhali 147,154 3,625,442
4.06%
Rangamati 33,112 647,586
5.11%
Dhaka 672,269 14,734,701
4.56%
Faridpur 182,561 2,162,879
8.44%
Gazipur 263,490 5,263,450
5.01%
Gopalganj 348,974 1,295,057
26.95%
Kishoreganj 158,778 3,267,626
4.86%
Madaripur 144,904 1,293,027
11.21%
Manikganj 138,875 1,558,025
8.91%
Munshiganj 122,238 1,625,416
7.52%
Narayanganj 144,105 3,909,138
4.89%
Narsingdi 184,309 2,224,944
4.71%
Rajbari 110,569 1,189,818
9.29%
Shariatpur 42,724 1,294,562
3.30%
Tangail 257,351 4,037,608
6.37%
Bagerhat 264,229 1,613,076
16.38%
Chuadanga 27,804 1,234,054
2.25%
Jessore 313,592 3,076,144
10.19%
Jhenaidah 168,444 2,005,849
8.40%
Khulna 542,417 2,613,385
20.76%
Kushtia 58,771 2,149,692
2.73%
Magura 162,138 1,033,115
15.69%
Meherpur 8,497 705,356
1.20%
Narail 124,465 788,671
15.78%
Satkhira 337,145 2,196,582
15.35%
Jamalpur 39,827 2,499,738
1.59%
Mymensingh 202,440 5,899,005
3.43%
Netrokona 202,648 2,324,853
8.72%
Sherpur 36,827 1,501,853
2.45%
Bogra 216,657 3,734,297
5.80%
Chapai Nawabganj 72,178 1,835,528
3.93%
Joypurhat 87,595 956,431
9.16%
Naogaon 321,341 2,784,599
11.54%
Natore 107,124 1,859,922
5.76%
Pabna 74,265 2,909,624
2.55%
Rajshahi 133,514 2,915,009
4.58%
Sirajganj 146,523 3,357,706
4.37%
Dinajpur 648,326 3,315,236
19.56%
Gaibandha 177,593 2,562,233
6.93%
Kurigram 143,381 2,329,160
6.16%
Lalmonirhat 185,322 1,428,406
12.97%
Nilphamari 327,333 2,092,568
15.64%
Panchagarh 184,951 1,179,843
15.68%
Rangpur 283,964 3,169,614
8.96%
Thakurgaon 339,580 1,533,895
22.14%
Habiganj 374,104 2,358,886
15.86%
Maulvibazar 519,263 2,123,447
24.45%
Sunamganj 315,044 2,695,496
11.69%
Sylhet 282,904 3,857,123
7.33%

Hinduism by Upazila's

[edit]

According to 2022 census, there are 43 Upazila's with Hindu percentage above 20%. They are listed below according to percentage.

Dacope Upazila is the only Hindu majority Upazila in Bangladesh.

Upazila District Percentage of Hinduism[36]
Dacope Upazila Khulna District 54.44%
Kotalipara Upazila Gopalganj District 47.10%
Shalla Upazila Sunamganj District 44.19%
Kaharole Upazila Dinajpur District 43.59%
Agailjhara Upazila Barishal District 40.47%
Sreemangal Upazila Moulvibazar District 39.49%
Bochaganj Upazila Dinajpur District 38.07%
Dumuria Upazila Khulna District 34.72%
Khaliajuri Upazila Netrokona District 33.69%
Juri Upazila Moulvibazar District 33.40%
Rajoir Upazila Madaripur District 30.85%
Chitalmari Upazila Bagerhat District 30.23%
Kamalganj Upazila Moulvibazar District 30.22%
Paikgachha Upazila Khulna District 28.99%
Nazirpur Upazila Pirojpur District 28.43%
Pirganj Upazila Thakurgaon District 28.31%
Batiaghata Upazila Khulna District 27.56%
Birganj Upazila Dinajpur District 27.47%
Khansama Upazila Dinajpur District 27.12%
Tungipara Upazila Gopalganj District 26.26%
Derai Upazila Sunamganj District 25.44%
Birol Upazila Dinajpur District 25.20%
Khagrachhari Sadar Upazila Khagrachhari District 24.76%
Atwari Upazila Panchagarh District 24.72%
Thakurgaon Sadar Upazila Thakurgaon District 24.38%
Dasar Upazila Madaripur District 24.24%
Debiganj Upazila Panchagarh District 24.17%
Shalikha Upazila Magura District 23.99%
Ajmiriganj Upazila Habiganj District 23.98%
Ujirpur Upazila Barishal District 23.46%
Narail Sadar Upazila Narail District 23.37%
Gopalganj Sadar Upazila Gopalganj District 23.41%
Tala Upazila Satkhira District 23.36%
Ashashuni Upazila Satkhira District 23.36%
Muksudpur Upazila Gopalganj District 23.07%
Chirirbandar Upazila Dinajpur District 22.92%
Guimara Upazila Khagrachhari District 22.51%
Boda Upazila Panchagarh District 22.52%
Madhyanagar Upazila Sunamganj District 22.07%
Rajnagar Upazila Moulvibazar District 21.95%
Panchhari Upazila Khagrachhari District 21.46%
Fakirhat Upazila Bagerhat District 20.83%
Ranishankail Upazila Thakurgaon District 20.58%
Hinduism in Bangladesh by decades[4]
Year Percent Increase
1901
33%
 -
1911
31.5%
 Decrease -1.5%
1921
30.6%
 Decrease -0.9%
1931
29.4%
 Decrease -1.2%
1941
28%
 Decrease -1.4%
1951
22%
 Decrease -6%
1961
18.5%
 Decrease -3.5
1974
13.5%
 Decrease -5
1981
12.1%
 Decrease -1.4
1991
10.5%
 Decrease -1.6
2001
9.6%
 Decrease -0.9%
2011
8.54%
 Decrease -1.06%
2022
7.95%
 Decrease -0.59%

The Hindu population in what is now Bangladesh has consistently decreased as a percentage of the population, from 28% in 1941 to 13.5% at the time of Bangladesh's founding in 1974, and reducing further to 7.9% in 2022.[23][37][38] Bangladesh Census authority have found that since from the last 50 years, about 7.5 million (75 lakhs) Hindus have left the country due to religious persecution and discrimination.[39] As per as 2016 official figures, it is estimated that Hindu population have came down to a mere 7%.[40]

Persecution

[edit]
See also: Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh, Persecution of Non-Muslims in Bangladesh, List of massacres in Bangladesh, Bangladesh Genocide, and Malaun
Part of a series on
Violence against Hindus
in East Pakistan
and Bangladesh
Issues
Incidents after 1947 - East Pakistan
Incidents in 1971
Incidents after 1971 - Bangladesh

Malaun (from Arabic ملعون, meaning "accursed") is a pejorative term for Bengali Hindus, most commonly used in Bangladesh by Bengali Muslims.[41][42][43][44] Hindus and others have been regularly and systematically persecuted, such as during the Bangladesh genocide, Bangladesh Liberation War and numerous recurring massacres of civilians[45][46][47][48][49][50][51] where rapes were also used as weapon.[52][53] Active perpetrators of genocide, ethnic cleansing and rapes of Hindus in Bangladesh include the Pakistani Military,[49] Al Badr,[54][55] Al Sham,[56] East Pakistan Central Peace Committee,[57] Razakars,[58] Muslim League,[59] Jamaat-e-Islami,[59] and the Urdu-speaking Biharis.[59] According to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), Hindus are among those persecuted in Bangladesh, with hundreds of cases of "killings, attempted killings, death threats, assaults, rapes, kidnappings, and attacks on homes, businesses, and places of worship" on religious minorities in 2017.[60] Hindu temples in Bangladesh have also been vandalised.[61] The Pakistani census has found that the Hindu population in East Pakistan declined drastically from 28% in 1941 to 22% in 1951. The 1946 Noakhali massacre, occurring before the partition, and the 1950 East Pakistan riots, which took place after the Partition of Bengal, were among the most severe anti-Hindu riots in the region's history.[62]

1971 genocide

[edit]

Between the 1961 and 1974 censuses, the Hindu population increased by only 300,000, from 9.3 million to 9.6 million, while the Hindu percentage declined from 18.5% to 13.5%.[63] The Hindu population was significantly impacted by the 1964 East Pakistan riots and 1971 East Pakistan genocide, which primarily targeted Bengali Hindus.[64] An estimated 10 million East Pakistanis sought refuge in India, with 80% being Hindus. Approximately 8 million Hindus fled to various parts of India during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War to escape persecution by Pakistani armies and Islamic militias. After Independence, it was discovered that 1.5 million Hindus remained in India, while the remaining 6.5 million returned to Bangladesh.[65] Additionally, an estimated 3.1 million Hindus who were already residing in Bangladesh chose to remain during the turmoil and survived the atrocities. It is estimated that between 300,000 and 3 million people were killed during the Bangladesh Liberation War, with 300,000 to 400,000 Bengali women being raped, with the many of the victims being Hindus.[66][67][68][69][70]

Projections

[edit]

Future population

[edit]
Historical Hindu Population
YearPop.±%
1901 9,546,240—    
1911 9,939,825+4.1%
1921 10,176,030+2.4%
1931 10,466,988+2.9%
1941 11,759,160+12.3%
1951 9,239,603−21.4%
1961 9,379,669+1.5%
1974 9,673,048+3.1%
1981 10,570,245+9.3%
1991 11,178,866+5.8%
2001 11,822,581+5.8%
2011 12,730,651+7.7%
2022 13,130,109+3.1%
Source: God Willing: The Politics of Islamism in Bangladesh by Ali Riaz, p. 63[1]

From 1964 to 2013, around 11.3 million Hindus left Bangladesh due to religious persecution and discrimination, as stated by Dhaka university economist Abul Barkat. On average 632 Hindus left the country each day and 230,612 annually as reported by him.[71]

From his 30-year-long research, Barkat found that the exodus mostly took place during military governments after independence.[72] Barkat also state's: that there should have been 28.7 million Hindus in the year 2013 instead of 12.2 million", Or, to put it another way, Hindus should have accounted for 16-18% of Bangladesh's population, not 9.7% as they do currently.[73] According to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, Hindus constitute merely 7% of the population in Bangladesh as per as the latest 2016 figures.[74]

According to the Pew Research Center, Bangladesh will have 14.47 million Hindus by 2050 who will comprise 7.3% of the country's population.[75] Another theory suggest that Bangladesh will have at least 180-200 million population by 2050,[76] out of which there will be around 8.51-9.25 million Hindus living in this nation, thus constituting only 4% after the beginning of half-century.[77] On average, annually 230,612 Hindus were leaving Bangladesh for India permanently. So between (2024–2050), It is estimated that 5,995,912 Hindus will leave the country if current immigration rates continue further.[78]

Future Hindu population of Bangladesh
Year Total Population Hindu population Percentage
2020 168,180,000 13,790,000
8.2%
2030 183,430,000 14,490,000
7.9%
2040 193,550,000 14,710,000
7.6%
2050 198,219,000 14,470,000
7.3%
Source:[75][79][80]

Missing population

[edit]
See also: East Bengali refugees, Hinduism in West Bengal, States of India by Bengali speakers, Bengali Hindus, Bengali Hindu diaspora, and Bengali Hindus in Assam

With migration into West Bengal, the 1947 partition of Bengal significantly altered religious demographics in the eastern segment of the province, which later became Bangladesh. Violence also saw an uptick in the 1950s and 1960s in what had then become East Pakistan (present-day-Bangladesh), leading to large numbers of upper caste Bengali Hindus migrating to West Bengal, Assam and Tripura with official Indian government records indicating 2,519,557 (Hindu) refugees crossed into India from East Bengal between 1941 and 1951.[81]

Utilizing demography studies and other methods over a 55-year period from 1947 to 2001, professor Sachi Dastidar of the State University of New York calculates that well over 49 million Hindus are missing today from Bangladesh.[82][83][84] According to a report published by a local daily newspaper of Bangladesh, the Hindu population in the country has reduced by 1 million between 2001 and 2011 period.[85][86] Ergo in the absence of partition in 1947 and other events that followed, It is estimated the present-day Bangladeshi hindu population would be approximately 63.13 million or 28%, well above the current population of 12.73 million or 8.5%, as reported in the Bangladesh 2011 census.[82][83][87][85][86]

After the 1960s, most of the migration was lower caste – a trend that has continued to till this day. As per a BJP estimate, Bangladeshi Hindu immigrants are a significant presence in 75 Assembly constituencies – making up approximately a fourth of the state's seats.[88]

Starting from the 2014 Lok Sabha elections, the BJP has made the issue of Hindu Bangladeshi immigrants a core part of its strategy in West Bengal.[89] An estimation shows that around 30 million Bangladeshi origin low-caste Hindu refugees live in different parts of West Bengal specially in southern districts namely North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Nadia and other smaller pockets of North and South Bengal, they are having an influence in over 70 assembly constituencies and are eagerly waiting to acquire Indian citizenship through CAA which was passed by Indian parliament in 2019 year for the purpose of granting them citizenship (if their religion is Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism) as a promise criteria made by BJP in the election campaign of West Bengal earlier before the passage of that bill.[90][91][92] An estimation shows that Assam has around 2 million Bangladeshi Hindus living in different parts of the state and are struggling to acquire Indian citizenship just like their counterparts in neighbouring West Bengal.[93] The BJP hopes to wean away a large chunk of Bengali settlers who took refuge in Tripura from Bangladesh (former East Pakistan). The influx of the Bengali Hindus increased during the Bangladesh Liberation War and around at that time of (1971), India have received 10 million refugees from East Pakistan- mostly 80% being Hindus, and after Bangladesh become independent, nearly 1.5 million of Bengali Hindu refugees decided to stay back in India particularly in West Bengal and other North Eastern states majorly in Assam and Tripura.[94][95][96][97] Census data show the population of Tripura's 19 Scheduled Tribes dropped from 63.77% in 1881 to 31.78% in 2011. This is attributed to the migration of 6.10 lakh Bengalis – the figure almost equal to the State's total population in 1951 – from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) between 1947 and 1971.[98] At present, there are around 2.2 million Bengali Hindus in Tripura (moslty having Eastern Bangladeshi origin), making them the largest ethnic group in the State, constituting around 60 per cent of the state population.[99][100]

Population controversies

[edit]

The official number of Hindus living in Bangladesh is about 13.1 million or say 7.9% as per as 2022 census conducted by Bangladesh government authority.[1] However, at certain times different leaders as well as Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics have given different estimates. Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) have found that 4.67 million people, which is about 2.75% of country's total population, were have not been counted by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) for 2022 census. Moreover, around 2.75% of undercount was reported in the case of Muslims against 2.68% of followers of other religions.[101] At the same time, Indigenous activists of Bangladesh have claimed that Ethnic minorities have been undercounted in Bangladesh's latest census.[102]

Number of Hindus residing in Bangladesh (1998-2022 est.)
Source/claimed by Population (%) Year of claimed Reference
Claimed by State Government of Bangladesh 20,160,000
16%
 1998 [103]
Claimed by Rabindranath Trivedi, President of Human Rights Congress for Bangladesh Minorities (HRCBM) 22,260,000
15%
 2010 [104]
Claimed Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics 15,500,000
10.3%
 2014 [105]
Claimed Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics 17,000,000
10.7%
 2016 [105]
Claimed by Ravindra Ghosh, Chairman of Bangladesh Hindu Janajagruti Samiti 18,000,000
11.04%
 2019 [106]
Claimed Bangladesh Government Official Website (Introduction) 18,150,000
12.1%
 (Unknown) [107]
Claimed by KMSS leader Akhil Gogoi 19,000,000
11.65%
 2019 [108]
2019 report on International religious freedom: Bangladesh (US State Dept) 15,280,000
10%
 2019 [109]
Claimed by Bangladesh grand Hindu alliance leader Govindo Pramanik 25,000,000
15.7%
 2019 [110]
Claimed by The Statesman Newspaper 19,560,000
12%
 2021 [111]
Claimed by Bangladesh Information Minister Muhammad Hasan Mahmud 20,000,000
12.1%
 2022 [112]

Hindu temples

[edit]
Main article: List of Hindu temples in Bangladesh

Hindu temples and shrines are more or less distributed all across the country. The Kantaji Temple is an elegant example of an 18th-century temple. The most important temple in terms of prominence is the Dhakeshwari National Temple, located in Dhaka. This temple along with other Hindu organizations arranges Durga Puja and Krishna Janmaashtami very prominently.[citation needed] The other main temples of Dhaka are the Ramakrishna Mission, Ramna Kali Temple, Joy Kali Temple, Laxmi Narayan Mandir, Swami Bagh Temple and Siddheswari Kalimandir.[113]

Many Hindu temples have suffered from the implementation of the Vested Property Act through which land and moveable property has been confiscated by agents acting on behalf of successive governments.[114][better source needed]

Hindu marriage law

[edit]
Further information: Bengali Hindu wedding
A typical Bangladeshi Hindu wedding.

Hindu family law governs the personal life of Hindus in Bangladesh. There is no known limit for the number of wives a Hindu man can take in Bangladesh so polygamy for Hindu man is legal in Bangladesh.[115]

"Under Bangladesh Hindu (civil) law, men may have multiple wives, but there are officially no options for divorce", the United States Department of State 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Bangladesh reported. Women are also prohibited from inheriting property under the civil laws for Hindus, the report said. A survey conducted during the year by Research Initiatives in Bangladesh and MJF showed that 26.7% of Hindu men and 29.2% of Hindu women would like to obtain a divorce but did not do so because of existing laws.[116]

Community issues

[edit]

The Hindu community has many similar issues as the predominantly Muslim community of Bangladesh. These include women's rights, dowry, poverty, unemployment, and others. Issues unique to the Hindu community include maintenance of Hindu culture and temples in Bangladesh. Small sects of Islamists constantly try to politically and socially isolate the Hindus of Bangladesh.[117] Because Hindus of Bangladesh are scattered across all areas (except in Narayanganj), they cannot unite politically. However, Hindus became sway voters in various elections. Hindus have usually voted in large mass for Bangladesh Awami League and communist parties, as these are the only parties which have a nominal commitment to secularism.[118]

Part of a series on
Violence against Hindus
in East Pakistan
and Bangladesh
Issues
Incidents after 1947 - East Pakistan
Incidents in 1971
Incidents after 1971 - Bangladesh

Bangladesh Liberation War atrocities (1971)

[edit]
Main articles: Bangladesh Liberation War, 1971 Bangladesh atrocities, and Operation Searchlight

The Bangladesh Liberation War resulted in one of the largest genocides of the 20th century. While estimates of the number of casualties were 200,000–3,000,000, it is reasonably certain that Hindus bore a disproportionate brunt of the Pakistan Army's onslaught against the Bengali population of what was East Pakistan.[120] The Pakistani Army killed many Bengali Hindus during the Liberation War, and most of the Bengali Hindu-owned businesses were permanently destroyed. The historic Ramna Kali Temple in Dhaka and the century-old Rath at Dhamrai were demolished and burned down by the Pakistani Army.[122]

Early post-independence period (1972–75)

[edit]

In the first constitution of the newly independent country, secularism and equality of all citizens irrespective of religious identity were enshrined.[123] On his return to liberated Bangladesh, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in his first speech to the nation, specifically recognized the disproportionate suffering of the Hindu population during the Bangladesh Liberation War. On a visit to Kolkata, India in February 1972, Mujib visited the refugee camps that were still hosting several million Bangladeshi Hindus and appealed to them to return to Bangladesh and to help to rebuild the country.[124]

Despite the public commitment of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and his government to re-establishing secularism and the rights of non-Muslim religious groups, two significant aspects of his rule remain controversial as relates to the conditions of Hindus in Bangladesh.[125] The first was his refusal to return the premises of the Ramna Kali Mandir, historically the most important temple in Dhaka, to the religious body that owned the property. This centuries-old Hindu temple was demolished by the Pakistan army during the Bangladesh Liberation War, and around one hundred devotees were murdered. Under the provisions of the Enemy Property Act, it was determined that ownership of the property could not be established as there were no surviving members to claim inherited rights, and the land was handed over to the Dhaka Club.[126][127]

Secondly, state-authorized confiscation of Hindu owned property under the provisions of the Enemy Property Act was rampant during Mujib's rule, and as per the research conducted by Abul Barkat of Dhaka University, the Awami League party of Sheikh Mujib was the largest beneficiary of Hindu property transfer in the past 35 years of Bangladeshi independence.[128] This was enabled considerably because of the particular turmoil and displacement suffered by Bangladeshi Hindus, who bore the disproportionate burnt of the Pakistan army's genocide, as well documented by international publications such as Time magazine and the New York Times, and by the declassified Hamoodur Rahman Commission report. This caused much bitterness among Bangladeshi Hindus, particularly given the public stance of the regime's commitment to secularism and communal harmony.[129][130]

Zia and Ershad regimes (1975–1990)

[edit]

President Ziaur Rahman abandoned the constitutional provision for secularism and began to introduce Islamic symbolism in all spheres of national life (such as official seals and the constitutional preamble). Zia brought back the multi-party system thus allowing organizations such as Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh (an offshoot of the Islamist Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan) to regroup and contest elections. In 1988, President Hussein Mohammed Ershad declared Islam to be the State Religion of Bangladesh. Although the move was protested by students and left-leaning political parties and minority groups, to this date neither the regimes of the BNP or Awami League has challenged this change and it remains in place.[131]

In 1990, the Ershad regime was widely blamed for negligence (and some human rights analysis allege active participation) in the anti-Hindu riots following the Babri Mosque incident in India, the largest communal disturbances since Bangladesh independence, as a means of diverting attention from the rapidly increasing opposition to his rule.[132][133] Many Hindu temples, Hindu neighbourhoods and shops were attacked and damaged including, for the first time since 1971, the Dhakeshwari temple. The atrocities were brought to the West's attention by many Bangladeshis, including Taslima Nasrin and her book Lajja which translated into English means "shame".[134]

Return to democracy (1991–2008)

[edit]
Hindu festival in Bangladesh.

Immediately after the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and its Islamic fundamentalist allies came to power in the October 2001 elections, ruling coalition activists attacked Hindus on a large scale in retribution for their perceived support of the opposition Awami League. Hundreds were killed, many were raped, and thousands fled to India.[135] The events were widely seen as a repercussion against the razing of the Babri Mosque in India.[136]

Prominent political leaders frequently fall back on "Hindu bashing" in an attempt to appeal to extremist sentiment and to stir up communal passions. In one of the most notorious utterances of a mainstream Bangladeshi figure, the immediate past Prime Minister Khaleda Zia, while the leader of the opposition in 1996, declared that the country was at risk of hearing "uludhhwani" (a Hindu custom involving women's ululation) from mosques, replacing the azan (Muslim call to prayer) (e.g., see Agence-France Press report of 18 November 1996, "Bangladesh opposition leader accused of hurting religious sentiment").[137]

After the election of 2001, when a right-wing coalition including two Islamist parties (Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh and Islami Oikya Jote) led by the pro-Islamic right wing Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) came to power, many minority Hindus and liberal secularist Muslims were attacked by a section of the governing regime. Thousands of Bangladeshi Hindus were believed to have fled to neighbouring India[138] to escape the violence unleashed by activists sympathetic to the new government. Many Bangladeshi Muslims played an active role in documenting atrocities against Hindus during this period.[137][139]

The new government also clamped down on attempts by the media to document alleged atrocities against non-Muslim minorities following the election. Severe pressure was put on newspapers and other media outside of government control through threats of violence and other intimidation. Most prominently, the Muslim journalist and human rights activist Shahriyar Kabir was arrested on charges of treason on his return from India where he had been interviewing Hindu refugees from Bangladesh; this was by the Bangladesh High Court and he was subsequently freed.[140]

The fundamentalists and right-wing parties such as the BNP and Jatiya Party often portray Hindus as being sympathetic to India, and transferring economic resources to India, contributing to a widespread perception that Bangladeshi Hindus are disloyal to the state. Also, the right-wing parties claim the Hindus to be backing the Awami League.[29] As widely documented in international media, Bangladesh authorities have had to increase security to enable Bangladeshi Hindus to worship freely following widespread attacks on places of worship and devotees.[141]

After bombings in Bangladesh by the Islamic fundamentalists, the government has taken steps to strengthen the security during various minority celebrations, especially during Durga Puja and Rathayatra.[citation needed]

In October 2006, the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom published a report titled 'Policy Focus on Bangladesh,' which said that since its last election, 'Bangladesh has experienced growing violence by religious extremists, intensifying concerns expressed by the country's religious minorities'. The report further stated that Hindus are particularly vulnerable in a period of rising violence and extremism, whether motivated by religious, political or criminal factors, or some combination. The report noted that Hindus had multiple disadvantages against them in Bangladesh, such as perceptions of dual loyalty concerning India and religious beliefs that are not tolerated by the politically dominant Islamic Fundamentalists of the BNP. Violence against Hindus has taken place "in order to encourage them to flee in order to seize their property". The previous reports of the Hindu American Foundation were acknowledged and confirmed by this non-partisan report.[142][143]

On 2 November 2006, USCIRF criticized Bangladesh for violence against minority Hindus. It also urged the Bush administration to get Dhaka to ensure the protection of religious freedom and minority rights before Bangladesh's next national elections in January 2007.[142][143]

Sheikh Hasina era (2008–2024)

[edit]

In 2013, the International Crimes Tribunal indicted several Jamaat members for war crimes against Hindus during the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities. In retaliation, violence against Hindu minorities in Bangladesh was instigated by the Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami.[144]

BJHM (Bangladesh Jatiya Hindu Mahajote) claimed in its report that in 2017, at least 107 people of the Hindu community were killed and 31 fell victims to enforced disappearance 782 Hindus were either forced to leave the country or threatened to leave, and besides this, 23 were forced to get converted into other religions and at least 25 Hindu women and children were raped, while 235 temples and statues were vandalized during the year. The total number of atrocities happened with the Hindu community in 2017 is 6474.[145]

During the 2019 Bangladesh elections, eight houses belonging to Hindu families on fire in Thakurgaon alone.[146] In April 2019, two idols of Hindu goddesses, Lakshmi and Saraswati, have been vandalized by unidentified miscreants at a newly constructed temple in Kazipara of Brahmanbaria.[147] In the same month, several idols of Hindu gods in two temples in Madaripur Sadar Upazila which were under construction were desecrated by miscreants.[148]

In 2021, many temples and houses of Hindus were broken and vandalized after an attack on them on Narendra Modi visit to Bangladesh by Hefazat-e-Islam and other radical groups as anti-Modi protests.[149][150][151] Similarly, there were attacks on Hindus in 2020, after some of them supported France after the Murder of Samuel Paty.[152] In the October of the same year there had been a severe communal violence in Bangladesh against the Bengali Hindus, after the video of Quran desecration at the Durga Puja pandals was spread in which more than 120 Hindu temples were vandalized and nearly 7 Hindus were killed.[153][154] It was described by The New York Times as "worst communal violence in years".[155]

According to Dr. Abul Barkat, no Hindus will be left in Bangladesh 30 years from now if the current rate of "exodus" continues as on an average 632 people from the minority community leave the Muslim-majority country each day. From 1964 to 2013, around 11.3 million Hindus left Bangladesh due to religious persecution and discrimination which means on an average 632 Hindus left the country each day and 230,612 annually, he said at the book launch ceremony at the Dhaka University (DU).[156]

During the 2024 Bangladesh quota reform movement, Hindu temples, businesses and homes were attacked by mobs upset with how many Hindus in the country were seen as supporting the deposed Hasina's Awami League party, something that was alleged to have upset more conservative Islamist political groups. As of August 8, 2024, a school teacher was reported dead and 45 injured, with 45 out of the country's 64 districts having at least one attack on Hindu individuals or property. Protesters protected Hindu temples and communities from extremists.[157][158]

Political representation

[edit]

Even after the decline of the Hindu population in Bangladesh from 13.5% in 1974, just after the independence, Hindus were at around 11.2% of the population in 2001 according to government estimates following the census. However, Hindus accounted for only thirty two members of the 300 member parliament following the 2001 elections through direct election; this went up to thirty five following a by-election victory in 2004. Of the 50 seats reserved for women that are directly nominated by the Prime Minister, only four were allotted to a Hindu. The political representation is not at all satisfactory and several Hindu advocacy groups in Bangladesh have demanded a return to a communal electorate system as existed during the Pakistan period, to enable a more equitable and proportionate representation in parliament, or a reserved quota since the persecution of Hindus has continued since 1946.[159]

Despite their dwindling population in terms of overall percentage, Hindus still yield considerable influence because of their geographical concentration in certain regions. They form a majority of the electorate in at least two parliamentary constituencies (Khulna-1 and Gopalganj-3) and account for more than 25% in at least another thirty. For this reason, they are often the deciding factor in parliamentary elections where victory margins can be extremely narrow. It is also frequently alleged that this is a prime reason for many Hindus being prevented from voting in elections, either through intimidating actual voters or through exclusion in voter list revisions.[160]

Prominent Bangladeshi Hindus

[edit]
Main article: List of Bangladeshi Hindus

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d "Census 2022: Bangladesh population now 165 million". Dhaka Tribune. 27 July 2022. Archived from the original on 27 July 2022. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
  2. ^ a b Lorea 2016, p. 89
  3. ^ Schulte-Droesch, Lea (2018). Making place through ritual : land, environment and region among the Santal of Central India. De Gruyter. p. 187. ISBN 978-3-11-053973-8. OCLC 1054397811.
  4. ^ a b "Population & Housing Census-2011: Union Statistics" (PDF). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. March 2014. p. xiii. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
  5. ^ "Bangladesh Population (2021) – Worldometer". worldometers.info. Archived from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  6. ^ "Bangladesh Govt committed to safety and security of Hindu minorities: Information Minister Hasan Mahmud". The Hindu. 29 October 2022. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
  7. ^ Ray, Shantanu Guha (1 April 2023). "World silent on efforts by zealots to ethnically cleanse Hindus in Bangladesh". The Sunday Guardian Live. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
  8. ^ "An Unholy Omen Is Looming Over Bangladesh". The Wire. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
  9. ^ "Bangladesh: Protection of Hindus and others must be ensured amid ongoing violence". Amnesty International. 18 October 2021. Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
  10. ^ Rummel 1998, p. 877.
  11. ^ Nasrin 2014, pp. 67–90.
  12. ^ "Kali Puja on Saturday". Dhaka Tribune. 13 November 2020. Archived from the original on 13 November 2020. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  13. ^ "The Subaltern Deities of Bengal Are up Against Aggressive Hindutva Now". The Wire. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Rahim, Enayetur (1989). Heitzman, James; Worden, Robert L (eds.). Hinduism. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 78–82. OCLC 49223313. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 24 August 2021.Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  15. ^ Mark W. Muesse (2011). The Hindu traditions. Internet Archive. Fortress Press. pp. 6670. ISBN 978-0-8006-9790-7.
  16. ^ Chari, S. M. Srinivasa (1994). Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-81-208-1098-3.
  17. ^ "International Journal of Hindu Studies | Volumes and issues". SpringerLink. Archived from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  18. ^ Aquil, Raziuddin. "History of a distinct culture". Frontline. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  19. ^ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld – World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Bangladesh : Adivasis". Refworld. Archived from the original on 2 December 2018. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
  20. ^ "Latest News @". Newkerala.com. Archived from the original on 8 October 2007. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  21. ^ "Bangladesh". State.gov. Archived from the original on 27 October 2019. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  22. ^ "Bangladesh – Population Census 1991". catalog.ihsn.org. Archived from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2017.
  23. ^ a b Network, T. D. G. (27 July 2022). "Bangladesh's Hindu Population Decreased by 0.59% in a decade". Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  24. ^ Nagarajan, Rema (22 May 2010). "Door out of Dhaka". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
  25. ^ "Official Census Results 2011 page xiii" (PDF). Bangladesh Government. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
  26. ^ "Bangladeshi Hindus seeking safety in India". Deutsche Welle.
  27. ^ Alaldulal (12 April 2014). "Is this the Bangladesh we wanted? Analyzing the Hindu Population Gap (2001-2011)". আলাল ও দুলাল | ALAL O DULAL. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  28. ^ "As per as Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, The country's Hindu population have declined from 8.5% in 2011 to 7% in 2016". The New Indian Express. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  29. ^ a b "Bangladesh: Wave of violent attacks against Hindu minority". Amnesty International. 6 March 2013. Archived from the original on 5 November 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  30. ^ a b Moinuddin Haider, M.; Rahman, Mizanur; Kamal, Nahid (2019). "Hindu Population Growth in Bangladesh: A Demographic Puzzle". Journal of Religion and Demography. 6 (1): 123–148. doi:10.1163/2589742X-00601003. S2CID 189978272.
  31. ^ a b Lintner, Bertil (2015), Great Game East: India, China, and the Struggle for Asia's Most Volatile Frontier, Yale University Press, pp. 152–153, ISBN 978-0-300-21332-4
  32. ^ D'Costa, Bina (2011), Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia, Routledge, p. 100, ISBN 978-0-415-56566-0
  33. ^ MacDermot, Niall (June 1972). "The Review" (PDF). International Commission of Jurists. p. 34. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2023. As far as the other three groups are concerned, namely members of the Awami League, students and Hindus, only Hindus would seem to fall within the definition of ' a national, ethnical, racial or religious group '. There is overwhelming evidence that Hindus were slaughtered and their houses and villages destroyed simply because they were Hindus. The oft repeated phrase ' Hindus are enemies of the state ' as a justification for the killing does not gainsay the intent to commit genocide; rather does it confirm the intention. The Nazis regarded the Jews as enemies of the state and killed them as such. In our view there is a strong prima facie case that the crime of genocide was committed against the group comprising the Hindu population of East Bengal.
  34. ^ "Population of minority religions decrease further in Bangladesh". The Business News. 27 July 2022. Archived from the original on 5 May 2023. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  35. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 7 October 2024. Retrieved 29 October 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  36. ^ "বাংলাদেশ পরিসংখ্যান ব্যুরো".
  37. ^ Ashraf, Ajaz. "Interview: Hindus in Bangladesh have faced ethnic cleansing since 1947". Scroll.in. Archived from the original on 26 June 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  38. ^ Mithun, Mahanam Bhattacharjee (14 May 2019). "Reasons Behind the Forced Migration of Bangladeshi Hindu Religious Minorities to India". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 26 (3): 461–483. doi:10.1163/15718115-02603002. ISSN 1385-4879. S2CID 150499523. Archived from the original on 26 June 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
  39. ^ "Hindus in Bangladesh decrease by 7.5 million over 50 years: Census". 15 November 2021. Archived from the original on 28 January 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  40. ^ "At a mere 7 per cent, Bangladesh Hindus under threat, says US rights activist". The New Indian Express. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  41. ^ Roy, Tathagata (2002). My People, Uprooted. Kolkata: Ratna Prakashan. p. 18. ISBN 81-85709-67-X.
  42. ^ Dastidar, Sachi (12 April 2008). "Bangladesh: The Upcoming National Elections, Pluralism, Tolerance and the Plight of Hindu and Non-Muslim Minority - Need a New Direction". Bangladesh: Religious Freedom, Extremism, Security, and the Upcoming National Elections. United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. Archived from the original on 28 August 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
  43. ^ "Minorities Fear for Life and Security" (PDF). HRCBM. 12 September 2002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 April 2012. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
  44. ^ Chatterjee, Garga (4 March 2015). "The unholy killings of Avijit Roy and Govind Pansare". Daily News and Analysis. Archived from the original on 7 March 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
  45. ^ "Forkan Razakar's verdict any day". Dhaka Tribune. 14 June 2015. Archived from the original on 12 November 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
  46. ^ "Why is the mass sexualized violence of Bangladesh's Liberation War being ignored?". Women In The World. 25 March 2016.
  47. ^ "Discovery of numerous Mass Graves, Various types of torture on Women" and "People's Attitude" (PDF). kean.edu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
  48. ^ "Crimes Against Humanity in Bangladesh". scholar.smu.edu. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
  49. ^ a b "Bangladesh war: The article that changed history". BBC News. 25 March 2010. Archived from the original on 16 June 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
  50. ^ White, Matthew, Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century Archived 9 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  51. ^ "First Razakar camp in Khulna turns into ghost house after Liberation War". The Daily Observer. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
  52. ^ Sharlach, Lisa (2000). "Rape as Genocide: Bangladesh, the Former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda". New Political Science. 22 (1): 92–93. doi:10.1080/713687893. S2CID 144966485.
  53. ^ Sajjad, Tazreena (2012) [First published 2009]. "The Post-Genocidal Period and its Impact on Women". In Totten, Samuel (ed.). Plight and Fate of Women During and Following Genocide. Transaction Publishers. p. 225. ISBN 978-1-4128-4759-9.
  54. ^ Mamoon, Muntassir. "Al-Badr". Banglapedia. Bangladesh Asiatic Society. Archived from the original on 12 September 2018. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
  55. ^ Sisson, Richard; Rose, Leo E. (1991). War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh. University of California Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-520-07665-5.
  56. ^ "Pakistan's first two militant Islamist groups, Al-Badar and Al-Shams – by Nadeem F. Paracha". LUBP. Archived from the original on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
  57. ^ Karlekar, Hiranmay (2005). Bangladesh: The Next Afghanistan?. SAGE. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-7619-3401-1.
  58. ^ "Govt publishes list of Razakars". The Daily Star. 16 December 2019. Archived from the original on 16 June 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
  59. ^ a b c Kann, Peter R. (27 July 1971). "East Pakistan Is Seen Gaining Independence, But It Will Take Years". The Wall Street Journal.
  60. ^ "Bangladesh 2018 International Religious Freedom Report" (PDF) (Press release). US State Department. 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2023.
  61. ^ 2004 Congressional Record, Vol. 150, Page H3057 (17 May 2004)
  62. ^ "Interview: Hindus in Bangladesh have faced ethnic cleansing since 1947". Scroll.in. 17 September 2017. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
  63. ^ "There may be no Hindus left in Bangladesh in 30 years". The Sunday Guardian (Opinion). 8 February 2020. Archived from the original on 8 June 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
  64. ^ MacDermot, Niall (June 1972). "The Review" (PDF). International Commission of Jurists. p. 34. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2023. As far as the other three groups are concerned, namely members of the Awami League, students and Hindus, only Hindus would seem to fall within the definition of ' a national, ethnical, racial or religious group '. There is overwhelming evidence that Hindus were slaughtered and their houses and villages destroyed simply because they were Hindus. The oft repeated phrase ' Hindus are enemies of the state ' as a justification for the killing does not gainsay the intent to commit genocide; rather does it confirm the intention. The Nazis regarded the Jews as enemies of the state and killed them as such. In our view there is a strong prima facie case that the crime of genocide was committed against the group comprising the Hindu population of East Bengal.
  65. ^ Sarkar, Dr Subhradipta. "Treatment of the 1971 East Bengali refugees: A forgotten experience". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 12 June 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
  66. ^ Dummett, Mark (15 December 2011). "Bangladesh war: The article that changed history". BBC News. Archived from the original on 16 June 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2024.
  67. ^ Magazine, Smithsonian; Boissoneault, Lorraine (16 December 2016). "The Genocide the U.S. Can't Remember, But Bangladesh Can't Forget". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 17 December 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2024.
  68. ^ Bergman, David (5 April 2016). "The Politics of Bangladesh's Genocide Debate". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 25 October 2024.
  69. ^ Mookherjee, Nayanika (2012). "Mass rape and the inscription of gendered and racial domination during the Bangladesh War of 1971". In Raphaelle Branche; Fabrice Virgili (eds.). Rape in Wartime. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-36399-1.
  70. ^ Bartrop, Paul R.; Jacobs, Steven Leonard, eds. (2014). Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection. ABC-CLIO. p. 1866. ISBN 978-1-61069-364-6.
  71. ^ "'No Hindus will be left after 30 years'". Dhaka Tribune. 20 November 2016. Archived from the original on 8 April 2024. Retrieved 13 April 2024.
  72. ^ "No Hindus will be left after 30 years". Dhaka Tribune. 20 November 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  73. ^ "Bangladeshis Say Amit Shah Playing Jinnah's Game". NewsClick. 8 October 2019. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  74. ^ "At a mere 7 per cent, Bangladesh Hindus under threat, says US rights activist". The New Indian Express. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  75. ^ a b "Projected Changes in the Global Hindu Population". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  76. ^ "What will Bangladesh look like in 2050?". The Daily Star. 14 April 2018. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
  77. ^ "Violence Against Minority Hindus in Bangladesh: An Analysis". vifindia.org. Archived from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
  78. ^ "No Hindus will be left in Bangladesh after 30 years: professor". The Hindu. PTI. 22 November 2016. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  79. ^ Alam, Nurul; Barkat-e-Khuda (2011). "Demographics of Muslims and Non-Muslims in Bangladesh". Demography India. 40 (1): 163–174 – via ResearchGate.
  80. ^ "Religions in Bangladesh | PEW-GRF". globalreligiousfutures.org. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  81. ^ "Homepage". home.iitk.ac.in. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  82. ^ a b "Ethnic cleansing of Hindus on rise in Bangladesh". The New Indian Express. Archived from the original on 3 April 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  83. ^ a b "OHCHR | Home". Archived from the original on 12 December 2008. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
  84. ^ https://www.ipf.org.in Archived 28 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine › EncycPDF Bangladesh Book final english – India Policy Foundation
  85. ^ a b "Bangladeshi Hindus seeking safety in India". Deutsche Welle. 7 June 2016. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  86. ^ a b Alaldulal (12 April 2014). "Is this the Bangladesh we wanted? Analyzing the Hindu Population Gap (2001-2011)". alalodulal.org. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  87. ^ https://www.ipf.org.in › EncycPDF Bangladesh Book final english – India Policy Foundation
  88. ^ "Why Hindu immigrants from Bangladesh are a key component of the BJP's West Bengal expansion strategy". Scroll.in. 10 August 2017. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
  89. ^ Daniyal, Shoaib. "Why Hindu immigrants from Bangladesh are a key component of the BJP's West Bengal expansion strategy". Scroll.in. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  90. ^ Lahiri, Ishadrita (22 February 2021). "Explained: Why The Matua Vote Is Crucial For Bengal Elections". TheQuint. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  91. ^ "Bengal polls: Matua MP says his community wants CAA to be implemented, waiting to hear from Shah". The New Indian Express. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  92. ^ "TMC, BJP jostle for SC, ST, refugee vote banks in Bengal ahead of Assembly polls in 2021". Deccan Herald. 7 November 2020. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  93. ^ "20 lakh Bangladeshi Hindus to become Indians if Citizenship Bill is passed: KMSS". The Free Press Journal. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  94. ^ IIT Kanpur https://home.iitk.ac.in Archived 16 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine › ArticlePDF Hindu Genocide in East Pakistan
  95. ^ "When Indira Gandhi said: Refugees of all religions must go back – Watch video". Times Now. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  96. ^ "A home ... far from home?". The Hindu. 30 July 2000. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
  97. ^ Ayoob, Mohammed (15 March 2018). "Explaining 1971". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  98. ^ Karmakar, Rahul (27 October 2018). "Tripura, where demand for Assam-like NRC widens gap between indigenous people and non-tribal settlers". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  99. ^ "BJP eyes 2.2 m Bengali Hindus in Tripura quest". The Pioneer. Archived from the original on 14 September 2022. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  100. ^ "Tripura election 2018: What prompted Bengali-majority Tripura to forgive BJP | India News". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
  101. ^ "46.7 lakh people undercounted in latest census: BIDS". The Business Standard. 6 February 2023. Archived from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  102. ^ "Ethnic Minorities Missing From Census, Say Bangladesh Activists". Barrons. Agence France Presse. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  103. ^ Background Notes: Bangladesh, November 1997 Archived 1 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 11 March 2023
  104. ^ "Door out of Dhaka". The Times of India. 22 May 2010. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  105. ^ a b "Bangladesh's Hindus number 1.7 crore, up by 1 p.c. in a year: report". The Hindu. PTI. 23 June 2016. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
  106. ^ "Atrocities on Hindus in Bangladesh: Now, 1.8 crore Hindu Bengali citizens of Bangladesh are ready to go to India, said Ravindra Ghosh, Chairman of Bangladesh Hindu Janajagruti Samiti". 25 December 2019. Archived from the original on 22 May 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
  107. ^ "Bangladesh – An Introduction". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 18 July 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  108. ^ "Protests across Assam over Citizenship (Amendment) Bill". The Hindu. PTI. 6 December 2019. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
  109. ^ https://www.state.gov Archived 30 December 1996 at the Wayback Machine › reports › ba... Web results 2019 Report on International Religious Freedom: Bangladesh
  110. ^ "As per as Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, there are around 2.5 crore Hindus living in the country, constituting 15.7 per cent of the population as of 2019 year". Apn news. 6 April 2019.
  111. ^ "Migration Muddle". The Statesman (Opinion). 27 November 2021. Archived from the original on 1 March 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  112. ^ "As per Bangladesh Information Minister, "There are about two crore Hindus living in Bangladesh and in 2022, about 33,000 Durga Puja pandals have been organized throughout the nation". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
  113. ^ "Top 10 Hindu Temple in Bangladesh (Oldest And Biggest)". Travel Mate. 11 September 2019. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  114. ^ Feldman, Shelley (22 April 2016). "The Hindu as Other: State, Law, and Land Relations in Contemporary Bangladesh". South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal (13). doi:10.4000/samaj.4111. ISSN 1960-6060. Archived from the original on 21 August 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  115. ^ "Bangladesh: Family code". Archived from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 10 June 2009.
  116. ^ "Hindus can practice polygamy in Bangladesh; forbidden to divorce, remarry". Business Standard. IANS. 16 August 2017. Archived from the original on 8 January 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  117. ^ बांग्लादेश में ¨हदू परिवारों के हमलावरों पर हो कार्रवाई : सुशील. Dainik Jagran. Archived from the original on 11 November 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2019.
  118. ^ বাংলাদেশ আওয়ামী লীগ এর গঠনতন্ত্র [Constitution of Bangladesh Awami League] (in Bengali). Archived from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
  119. ^ Murshid 2018, p. 21
  120. ^ [119][2]
  121. ^ "Pakistan: The Ravaging of Golden Bengal". Time. Vol. 98, no. 5. 2 August 1971. Archived from the original on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  122. ^ An article in Time magazine dated 2 August 1971, stated "The Hindus, who account for three-fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Moslem military's hatred."[121] Senator Edward Kennedy wrote in a report that was part of United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations testimony dated 1 November 1971, "Hardest hit have been members of the Hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops, systematically slaughtered, and in some places, painted with yellow patches marked "H". All of this has been officially sanctioned, ordered and implemented under martial law from Islamabad". In the same report, Senator Kennedy reported that 60% of the refugees in India were Hindus and according to numerous international relief agencies such as UNESCO and World Health Organization, the number of East Pakistani refugees at its peak in India was close to 10 million. The Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Sydney Schanberg covered the start of the war and wrote extensively on the suffering of the East Bengalis, including the Hindus both during and after the conflict. In a syndicated column "The Pakistani Slaughter That Nixon Ignored", he wrote about his return to liberated Bangladesh in 1972. "Other reminders were the yellow "H"s the Pakistanis had painted on the homes of Hindus, particular targets of the Pakistani army, (Newsday, 29 April 1994).
  123. ^ Nasrin 2014, pp. 78–79.
  124. ^ Nasrin 2014, pp. 91–92; Benkin 2014, pp. 879–881; Rummel 1998, pp. 67–74.
  125. ^ Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Sakkottai (1921). South India and her Muhammadan invaders. London: H. Milford, Oxford University Press. OCLC 5212194.
  126. ^ "Bangladesh slammed for persecution of Hindus". rediff.com. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  127. ^ Gupta, Jyoti Bhusan Das (2007). Science, Technology, Imperialism, and War. Pearson Education India. p. 733. ISBN 978-81-317-0851-4.
  128. ^ "Discrimination against Bangladeshi Hindus: Report". rediff.com. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 22 February 2021.
  129. ^ Mujtaba, Syed Ali (2005). Soundings on South Asia. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-932705-40-9.
  130. ^ Bandyopadhyay 2004, pp. 89–90.
  131. ^ "Bangladesh Parliament Votes To Make Islam State Religion". The New York Times. 8 June 1988. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  132. ^ "Primary Report". Hrcbm.org. 31 October 1990. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  133. ^ "South Asia: Afghanistan" (PDF). United States House Committee on International Relations. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 December 2006.
  134. ^ Nasrin 2014.
  135. ^ Ramananda Sengupta (22 March 2006). "The truth about Bangladesh's Hindus". Rediff.com. Archived from the original on 15 June 2006. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  136. ^ "Analysis: Fears of Bangladeshi Hindus". BBC News. 19 October 2001. Archived from the original on 22 December 2006. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  137. ^ a b "Bangladesh". State.gov. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  138. ^ "India state warns of Bangladesh refugees". BBC News. 15 November 2001. Archived from the original on 3 October 2010. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  139. ^ "Bangladesh Hindu atrocities 'documented'". BBC News. 8 November 2001. Archived from the original on 16 January 2007. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  140. ^ "Bangladesh scribe arrest 'illegal'". BBC News. 12 January 2002. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  141. ^ "Security fears for Hindu festival". BBC News. 8 October 2002. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  142. ^ a b "Bangladesh slammed for persecution of Hindus". Rediff.com. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  143. ^ a b "Original USCIRF Report, United States Commission on International Religious Freedom" (PDF). Uscirf.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  144. ^ "Bangladesh: Wave of violent attacks against Hindu minority". Press releases. Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 9 March 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2013.
  145. ^ "BJHM: 107 Hindus killed, 31 forcibly disappeared in 2017". Dhaka Tribune. 6 January 2018. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019.
  146. ^ "Hindu houses under 'arson' attack ahead of Bangladesh elections". The Statesman. 28 December 2018. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019.
  147. ^ "Hindu idols vandalized in Brahmanbaria". Dhaka Tribune. 8 April 2019. Archived from the original on 9 April 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019.
  148. ^ "Hindu idols desecrated in Madaripur". Dhaka Tribune. 26 April 2019. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019.
  149. ^ "Extremist Islamist group's supporters attack 70-80 Hindu houses in Bangladesh: Police". India Today. 20 March 2021. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  150. ^ "Bangladesh violence spreads after PM Modi's visit, attacks on Hindu temples, train – Times of India". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  151. ^ "Hardline Hefazat-e-Islam supporters attack Hindu village in Bangladesh: Report". Hindustan Times. 18 March 2021. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  152. ^ "Hindu homes attacked in Bangladesh over rumours about alleged Facebook post slandering Islam". The Hindu. PTI. 2 November 2020. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 14 March 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
  153. ^ "Seven dead after violence erupts during Hindu festival in Bangladesh". The Guardian. 16 October 2021. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
  154. ^ "Police: Comilla resident Iqbal placed the Quran on a Puja idol". Dhaka Tribune. 20 October 2021. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
  155. ^ Hasnat, Saif; Mashal, Mujib (15 October 2021). "Bangladesh Strengthens Security as Violence Targets Hindu Festival". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 15 October 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
  156. ^ "In 30 years, there would be no Hindus in Bangladesh". 21 November 2016.
  157. ^ "Bangladesh students' movement forms committees to protect Hindu temples, households amidst unrest". The Week. Archived from the original on 6 August 2024. Retrieved 6 August 2024.
  158. ^ "Hindus in Bangladesh try to flee to India amid violence". Reuters.
  159. ^ "Home – Noakhali Noakhali". Noakhalinoakhali.webs.com. Archived from the original on 11 April 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  160. ^ "Hindu areas in Ctg still out of listing". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 16 August 2016.

Bibliography

[edit]
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hinduism in Bangladesh.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Hinduism in Bangladesh.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=Hinduism_in_Bangladesh&oldid=1257191324"