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Autism in popular culture

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) or autism spectrum conditions (ASCs) describe a range of conditions classified as neurodevelopmental disorders in the DSM-5, used by the American Psychiatric Association.[1] As with many neurodivergent people and conditions, the popular image of autistic people and autism itself is often based on inaccurate media representations.[2] Additionally, media about autism may promote pseudoscience such as vaccine denial or facilitated communication.

Since the 1970s, fictional portrayals of people with autism, Asperger syndrome, and other ASCs have become more frequent.[3] Public perception of autism is often based on these fictional portrayals in novels, biographies, movies, and television series. These depictions of autism in media today are often made in a way that brings pity to the public and their concern of the topic, because their viewpoint is never actually shown, leaving the public without knowledge of autism and its diagnosis.[4][5] Portrayals in the media of characters with atypical abilities (for example, the ability to multiply large numbers without a calculator) may be misinterpreted by viewers as accurate portrayals of all autistic people and of autism itself.[6] James McGrath writes that the stereotype of autistic individuals as successful in math and science, along with disliking fiction, is widely overrepresented in literature.[7]

Fiction

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Further information: List of autistic fictional characters

Since the 1960s, characters have appeared in film, television, and print that could be qualified as "on the autism spectrum".[3] Characters have been presented as being described as openly autistic in canon, or have been designed with one of many ASCs in mind.[8]

Non-fiction

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See also: List of films about autism and List of autistic fictional characters
  • Children of the Stars (2007) is a documentary about autistic children in China. The film examines hardships experienced by parents of children with autism and the lack of international resources for these families.[9]
  • Autism: The Musical (2007) is a documentary about the lives of autistic children and their families, while the children write and rehearse a stage production. The film won several awards, including two Emmy Awards.[10][11] The film centers around The Miracle Project, a nonprofit organization focusing on providing a creative outlet for autistic children.[12]
  • The Horse Boy (2009) is a book and documentary (both released the same year), which follows the Isaacson family on their journey to Mongolia to help their autistic son.
  • Temple Grandin (2010) is a biographical dramatization of the well-known autism advocate Temple Grandin.
  • X+Y (2014) is a film whose protagonist, Nathan Ellis, is based on mathematical genius Daniel Lightwing who has Asperger syndrome.
  • The Big Short (2015) is a film about the 2008 recession which focuses heavily on the hedge fund manager, Michael Burry, who is played by English actor Christian Bale in a leading role. Burry believes himself to be on the autism spectrum with Asperger's syndrome. During the course of the film, this is never revealed but rather it is strongly implied.[13] However, a scene was filmed that showed the diagnosis process of Burry and his young son, but the scene never made it in the final cut of movie. It is possible to see the deleted scene since it is published.[14] Some promotional material of the movie also has shots from the deleted scene.
  • Chicos de otro planeta (2013) is a documentary about young adults with Aspergers in Chile. The film is narrated by Chilean actor Grex.
  • Autism in Love (2015) is an American documentary film.
  • The Autistic Gardener (2015) is a Channel 4 documentary series in which a team of autistic people redesign people's gardens.[15]
  • Girls with Autism (2015) is a documentary following three girls at Limpsfield Grange, a specialized school in the United Kingdom.[16]
  • The Autistic Buddha (2017) is a non-fiction novel about an autistic individual's journey to Germany and China, and also about what he learned from the experience.[17]
  • The Autistic Brothers (2018) is a non-fiction novel written by a high-functioning autistic individual about his relationship with his low-functioning autistic brother. This book challenges several myths about autism.[18][19]
  • Love on the Spectrum (2019–2021) an Australian reality television show that follows people on the autism spectrum as they explore the dating world.
  • Journal of Best Practices (2012) is a memoir written by autistic engineer David Finch about his marriage to his neurotypical wife.
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The 2010s and 2020s have seen numerous publications of popular books related to autism as well as autism-related TV-series and movies, contributing to increased awareness and understanding of autism in popular culture. Some examples include:

  • American feature documentary Loving Lampposts was released in May 2010.
  • Ocean Heaven is a June 2010 Chinese dramatic feature film about a single father trying to teach his autistic adult son how to survive without him.
  • The book A History of Autism: Conversations with the Pioneers was published by British autism writer Adam Feinstein in June 2010.[20]
  • The first edition of Revista Autismo (Autism Magazine) was published in Brazil in September 2010.
  • Israeli TV drama Yellow Peppers first aired in December 2010. It featured a family caring for an autistic child. It won Israel's best TV drama award. A British version, The A Word, first aired in 2016. Greek and Dutch versions have also been made. An American version is currently in production.
  • American TV series Touch first went on air in January 2012. It is a drama centring on a single father with an autistic son.
  • The 2012 British children's documentary My Autism and Me aired as part of Newsround, and featured autistic girl Rosie King. It won the International Emmy Kids Award for Best Factual in Cannes that year.[21]
  • In 2013, the American feature documentaries Citizen Autistic and Neurotypical (July) were released.
  • The American feature documentary Autism in Love was released in cinemas in April 2015, and later aired in the US on PBS in 2016.
  • The TV series Good Doctor, featuring an autistic doctor, began on South Korean TV in August 2013. (An American version would first air in 2017, and a Japanese one in 2018).
  • The popular book Population One: Autism, Adversity, and the Will to Succeed[22] was released by 17 year old American author Tyler McNamer in August 2013.
  • In the UK, April 2014 saw the BBC broadcast an episode of Horizon entitled "Living with Autism", featuring Uta Frith.[23][24]
  • The French novel La Surface de reparation was released in 2015. It was made into a comedy-drama movie called Monsieur je-sais-tout in 2018.
  • Bestselling book NeuroTribes: The Legacy of Autism and the Future of Neurodiversity was published by American writer Steve Silberman in August 2015. It did much to spread the concept of neurodiversity, and explain the history of autism.
  • Speech therapist Barry Prizant (one of the SCERTS authors),[25] also released a popular book in August 2015 - Uniquely Human: A Different Way of Seeing Autism. The book explains autism from a neurodiversity perspective. A new edition was published in 2022,[26] with the help of writer Tom Fields-Meyer.[27]
  • French romantic comedy movie Le Goût des merveilles was released in December 2015. It featured a young man with Asperger's syndrome.
  • The book In a Different Key: The Story of Autism by John Donvan and Caren Zucker was released in January 2016. The authors found and interviewed the patient Leo Kanner first recognised as having autism, Donald Triplett. It was nominated for the 2017 Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction.[28]
  • The Accountant was an October 2016 American feature film, starring Ben Affleck as an autistic accountant.
  • Two substantive autistic characters featured on American television from 2017. The title character of new program The Good Doctor was an autistic young man. Also, a four-year-old autistic girl Muppet named Julia joined the main Sesame Street show, with the assistance of Autistic Self Advocacy Network. These programs subsequently circulated elsewhere.
  • American TV series Atypical, which centres on an autistic teenage boy, was first released in August 2017.
  • Quiet Girl in a Noisy World: An Introvert's Story was a popular book released by British cartoonist Debbie Tung[29] in November 2017.[30] It details a few years of the author's life as she learns she is introverted, and how she found her place in the world.
  • Australian factual TV series You Can't Ask That about different groups of unusual people began in 2016, and as of 2023 was subsequently remade in 11 other territories.[31] The Israeli version[32] broadcast an episode about people on the autistic spectrum in 2018. The Canadian version followed in 2019, and the Australian one did likewise in 2020. An American version of the series is currently in production.
  • Singer's 1998 thesis Odd People In: The Birth of Community Amongst People on the Autistic Spectrum,[33] wherein she had first coined the term neurodiversity, was republished as Neurodiversity: The Birth of an Idea in September 2017.[34]
  • Pablo is a British pre-school children's TV program about an autistic boy. It was first aired in October 2017. A number of books have subsequently been adapted from the series.
  • Israeli comedy-drama On the Spectrum first aired in May 2018. It won Israel's best drama award. An American version, As We See It, was first released in 2022.
  • A play about an autistic child, All in a Row was first performed in the UK in February 2019. It generated controversy, including for its use of a puppet to portray its lead character, while the others were portrayed by humans.
  • Sorry I'm Late, I Didn't Want to Come: An Introvert's Year of Living Dangerously was a popular book written by American psychologist and journalist Jessica Pan,[35] and released in May 2019.[36] It describes how the author spent a year fighting her introversion and succeeding.
  • Horsnormes (The Specials) was a French drama film released in May 2019.
  • Australian documentary TV series Love on the Spectrum first aired in November 2019. An American version, which featured Jennifer Cook, was launched in 2022.
  • The book Our autistic lives: personal accounts from autistic adults aged 20 to 70+ was compiled by British autism writer Alex Ratcliffe,[37] and was released in January 2020.[38]
  • The January 2020 Pixar short film Loop by Erica Milsom, featured a non-verbal autistic teenage girl.
  • A Kind of Spark was a book for children about an autistic girl, released by British author Elle McNicoll in 2020. In 2023, the BBC released a TV series based on it.
  • In the UK, the BBC broadcast the documentary Paddy And Christine McGuinness: Our Family And Autism in December 2021.[39]
  • Unmasking Autism: Discovering the New Faces of Neurodiversity was a popular book written by American psychologist Devon Price, and published in April 2022.[40]
  • Extraordinary Attorney Woo is a South Korean TV series about an autistic woman that first aired in June 2022.
  • The Loudest Girl In The World is a narrative English-language podcast series about American journalist Lauren Ober's later-in-life autism diagnosis. It was released in 2022.[41]
  • Carl the Collector is an English-language children's animated television series about an autistic racoon that first aired in November 2024.[42]

MMR vaccine theory

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Main article: MMR vaccine controversy § Media role

The MMR vaccine was the subject of controversy resulting from publication of a (now retracted) 1998 paper by Andrew Wakefield et al.[43] In 2010, Wakefield's research was found by the General Medical Council to have been "dishonest";[44] the research was declared fraudulent in 2011 by The BMJ.[45]

A March 2007 article in BMC Public Health postulated that media reports on Wakefield's study had "created the misleading impression that the evidence for the link with autism was as substantial as the evidence against".[46] Earlier papers in Communication in Medicine and British Medical Journal concluded that media reports provided a misleading picture of the level of support for Wakefield's theory.[47][48][49]

PRWeek noted that after Wakefield was removed from the general medical register for misconduct in May 2010, 62% of respondents to a poll regarding the MMR controversy stated they did not feel that the media conducted responsible reporting on health issues.[50]

A New England Journal of Medicine article examining the history of antivaccinationists said that opposition to vaccines has existed since the 19th century, but "now the antivaccinationists' media of choice are typically television and the Internet, including its social media outlets, which are used to sway public opinion and distract attention from scientific evidence".[51]

The role of the media in the sensationalization of the MMR vaccination issue was discussed by The BMJ:[52]

The original paper has received so much media attention, with such potential to damage public health, that it is hard to find a parallel in the history of medical science. Many other medical frauds have been exposed, but usually more quickly after publication and on less important health issues.

Concerns were also raised about the role of journalists reporting on scientific theories that they "are hardly in a position to question and comprehend.[53][54] Neil Cameron, a historian who specializes in the history of science, writing for The Montreal Gazette labeled the controversy a "failure of journalism" that resulted in unnecessary deaths, saying that 1) The Lancet should not have published a study based on "statistically meaningless results" from only 12 cases; 2) the anti-vaccination crusade was continued by the satirical Private Eye magazine; and 3) a grapevine of worried parents and "nincompoop" celebrities fueled the widespread fears.[55] The Gazette also reported that:[56]

There is no guarantee that debunking the original study is going to sway all parents. Medical experts are going to have to work hard to try to undo the damage inflicted by what is apparently a rogue medical researcher whose work was inadequately vetted by a top-ranked international journal.

Facilitated communication and rapid prompting

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A number of books and films exist that promote the scientifically discredited techniques of facilitated communication and rapid prompting as legitimate, such as:

Films

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Books

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Notable individuals

[edit]
Further information: Societal and cultural aspects of autism § Notable individuals, and Retrospective diagnosis § Retrospective diagnoses of autism

Some notable figures such as American animal handling systems designer and author Temple Grandin,[57] American Pulitzer Prize-winning music critic and author Tim Page,[58][59] and Swedish environmental activist Greta Thunberg are autistic. Thunberg, who in August 2018 started the "School strike for climate" movement, has explained how the "gift" of living with Asperger syndrome helps her "see things from outside the box" when it comes to climate change.[60] In an interview with presenter Nick Robinson on BBC Radio 4's Today, the then-16-year-old activist said that autism helps her see things in "black and white". She went on to say:[61]

It makes me different, and being different is a gift, I would say. It also makes me see things from outside the box. I don't easily fall for lies, I can see through things. I don't think I would be interested in the climate at all, if I had been like everyone else. Many people say that it doesn't matter, you can cheat sometimes. But I can't do that. You can't be a little bit sustainable. Either you're sustainable, or not sustainable. For way too long the politicians and people in power have got away with not doing anything at all to fight the climate crisis and ecological crisis, but we will make sure that they will not get away with it any longer.

Billionaire Elon Musk announced on Saturday Night Live in May 2021 that he has been diagnosed with Asperger's syndrome, although it was later revealed that he has never been medically diagnosed.[62][63] This announcement drew criticism from the autistic community.[64] Other websites (for example[65]) have lists of famous persons identified as autistic, though not all have been formally diagnosed. Additionally, media speculation of contemporary figures as being on the autism spectrum has become popular in recent times. New York magazine reported some examples, which included that Time magazine suggested that Bill Gates is autistic, and that a biographer of Warren Buffett wrote that his prodigious memory and "fascination with numbers" give him "a vaguely autistic aura". The magazine also reported that on Celebrity Rehab, Dr. Drew Pinsky deemed basketball player Dennis Rodman a candidate for an Asperger's diagnosis, and the UCLA specialist consulted "seemed to concur". Nora Ephron criticized these conclusions, writing that popular speculative diagnoses suggest autism is "an epidemic, or else a wildly over-diagnosed thing that there used to be other words for".[66] Thomas Sowell has criticized Time's diagnosis of Gates, saying that the people diagnosing him have not seen him personally.[67]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "Autism spectrum disorder fact sheet" (PDF). DSM5.org. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2013. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
  2. ^ Sarrett, J C (June 2011). "Trapped children: popular images of children with autism in the 1960s and 2000s". Journal of Medical Humanities. 32 (2): 141–53. doi:10.1007/s10912-010-9135-z. PMID 21225325. S2CID 10461718.
  3. ^ a b Murray S (2006). "Autism and the contemporary sentimental: fiction and the narrative fascination of the present". Lit Med. 25 (1): 24–45. doi:10.1353/lm.2006.0025. PMID 17040083. S2CID 29442808.
  4. ^ Holton, Avery; Farrell, Laura; Fudge, Julie (2014). "A threatening Space?: Stigmatization and the framing of Autism in the News". Communication Studies. 65 (2): 189. doi:10.1080/10510974.2013.855642. S2CID 145668002.
  5. ^ Draaisma D (May 2009). "Stereotypes of autism". Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 364 (1522): 1475–80. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0324. PMC 2677582. PMID 19528033.
  6. ^ Bethune, Brian (3 July 2009). "Autistic licence: suddenly, Asperger's is the new 'it' disorder on screen and in fiction". Macleans.ca. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
  7. ^ McGrath, James (3 April 2019). "Not all autistic people are good at maths and science – despite the stereotypes". The Conversation. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
  8. ^ Poulson S (2009). "Autism, through a social lens". Contexts. 8 (2): 40–5. doi:10.1525/ctx.2009.8.2.40. S2CID 56819155.
  9. ^ Library Journal. (15 April 2009). Video Archived 2011-12-04 at the Wayback Machine (Reviews). Accessed 9 September 2010.
  10. ^ "Autism:The Musical". The Washington Post. 19 November 2007. Archived from the original on 3 November 2012. Retrieved 9 September 2010.
  11. ^ "The Hollywood Reporter". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 5 July 2008.
  12. ^ Hector Gonzalez. "Autism One 2009 :: The Miracle Project". Old.autismone.org. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
  13. ^ Mallenbaum, Carly (20 December 2015). "'Big Short': 5 things to know about Christian Bale's real-life character". USA Today. McLean, Virginia. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
  14. ^ Flaherty, Keely. "Christian Bale Is Amazing In This Emotional Deleted Scene From "The Big Short"". BuzzFeed. BuzzFeed. Retrieved 20 October 2024.
  15. ^ Wednesday's best TV The Guardian 8 July 2015.
  16. ^ "I Watched the New Documentary 'Girls with Autism' and Saw Myself". www.vice.com. 17 July 2015. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
  17. ^ Singer, Angela (12 January 2018). "Thomas plots his journey through life in new book". Dunmow Broadcast. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  18. ^ Singer, Angela. "Why you should not ask: Is Jack's autism better now?". Dunmow Broadcast. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  19. ^ Barkley, Cat (26 December 2018). "Chronicles of brotherly love". Bishop's Stortford Independent. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  20. ^ Feinstein A (14 June 2010). A History of Autism: Conversations with the Pioneers (1st ed.). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781444325461. ISBN 978-1-4051-8654-4.
  21. ^ "/ Awards". Enter Yes™. Retrieved 17 June 2023.
  22. ^ McNamer T. "Population: ONE".
  23. ^ Autism in popular culture at IMDb.
  24. ^ "Living with Autism". BBC. 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
  25. ^ "Barry M. Prizant, Ph.D., CCC-SLP | Dr. Barry M. Prizant". barryprizant.com. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
  26. ^ Prizant, Barry M.; Fields-Meyer, Tom (21 April 2022). Uniquely Human: A Different Way of Seeing Autism - Revised and Expanded. Souvenir Press Limited. ISBN 978-1-80081-124-9.
  27. ^ "Tom Fields-Meyer". Simon & Schuster. Retrieved 27 March 2023.
  28. ^ "General Nonfiction". www.pulitzer.org. Retrieved 12 April 2017.
  29. ^ "Debbie Tung". Tumblr. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
  30. ^ "Books". Tumblr. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
  31. ^ "You Can't Ask That". ABC Content Sales. 6 September 2022. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  32. ^ "Missing". www.kan.org.il (in Hebrew). תאגיד השידור הישראלי [Israel Broadcasting Corporation].[full citation needed]
  33. ^ "Looking Terrified into the Years | Amanda Tink on Asperger's Children". Sydney Review of Books. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  34. ^ "Book review: Neurodiversity: The Birth of an Idea | Salvesen Mindroom Research Centre". salvesen-research.ed.ac.uk. 13 October 2022. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  35. ^ "Jess Pan". Jess Pan. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
  36. ^ Pan J (20 February 2020). Sorry I'm Late, I Didn't Want to Come.
  37. ^ Reid L (28 February 2019). "How Yorkshire writer hopes to change early death rate among autistic people". Yorkshire Post.
  38. ^ "Our Autistic Lives: Personal Accounts from Autistic Adu..." Goodreads. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  39. ^ "Paddy And Christine McGuinness: Our Family And Autism". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 19 January 2023.[permanent dead link‍]
  40. ^ "Unmasking Autism by Devon Price: 9780593235232 | PenguinRandomHouse.com: Books". PenguinRandomhouse.com. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
  41. ^ "The Loudest Girl In The World Podcast - Lauren Ober Podcast". Pushkin Industries. Retrieved 24 October 2023.
  42. ^ Amatangelo, Amy (14 November 2024). "'Carl the Collector,' a new animated PBS series, features characters with autism". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 15 December 2024.
  43. ^ Wakefield A, Murch S, Anthony A, et al. (1998). "Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children". Lancet. 351 (9103): 637–41. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(97)11096-0. PMID 9500320. S2CID 439791. Retrieved 5 September 2007. (Retracted, see doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60175-4, PMID 20137807,  Retraction Watch)
  44. ^ Boseley, Sarah (28 January 2012). "Andrew Wakefield found 'irresponsible' by GMC over MMR vaccine scare". The Guardian (London).
  45. ^ Godlee F, Smith J, Marcovitch H (2011). "Wakefield's article linking MMR vaccine and autism was fraudulent". The BMJ. 342: c7452. doi:10.1136/bmj.c7452. PMID 21209060. S2CID 43640126.
  46. ^ Hilton S, Petticrew M, Hunt K (2007). "Parents' champions vs. vested interests: who do parents believe about MMR? A qualitative study". BMC Public Health. 7: 42. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-7-42. PMC 1851707. PMID 17391507.
  47. ^ Speers T, Lewis J (2004). "Journalists and jabs: media coverage of the MMR vaccine". Commun Med. 1 (2): 171–81. doi:10.1515/come.2004.1.2.171. PMID 16808699. S2CID 29969819.
  48. ^ Jackson, Trevor, "MMR: more scrutiny, please." British Medical Journal, 326.7401 (7 June 2003): p1272(1).
  49. ^ Dobson Roger (May 2003). "Media misled the public over the MMR vaccine, study says". The BMJ. 326 (7399): 1107. doi:10.1136/bmj.326.7399.1107-a. PMC 1150987. PMID 12763972.
  50. ^ "Reputation Survey: MMR panic subsides." PR Week, 2 June 2010: 24.
  51. ^ Poland GA, Jacobson RM (13 January 2011). "The Age-Old Struggle against the Antivaccinationists". N Engl J Med. 364 (2): 97–9. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1010594. PMID 21226573. S2CID 39229852.
  52. ^ Goldee, F (January 2011). "The fraud behind the MMR scare". British Medical Journal. 342: d22. doi:10.1136/bmj.d22. S2CID 73020733.
  53. ^ "Link between MMR Vaccines and Autism conclusively broken". IB Times. 7 January 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2011.
  54. ^ Broyd, Nicky (6 January 2011). "BMJ Declares Vaccine-Autism Study 'an Elaborate Fraud', 1998 Lancet Study Not Bad Science but Deliberate Fraud, Claims Journal". WebMD Health News. Retrieved 8 January 2011.
  55. ^ Cameron, Neil (12 January 2011). "Autism 'study' represents a failure of journalism". The Montreal Gazette.
  56. ^ "False autism study has done untold harm". The Montreal Gazette. 10 January 2011.
  57. ^ Zwerdling, Daniel (April 2002). "Kill Them With Kindness". American RadioWorks. Archived from the original on 10 November 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2007.
  58. ^ Page, Tim (20 August 2007). "Parallel Play: A lifetime of restless isolation explained". The New Yorker: 36–41. PMID 17710777. Archived from the original on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2007.
  59. ^ "Pulitzer-Winner on Living with Asperger's: All Things Considered". NPR. 13 August 2007. Archived from the original on 25 August 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2007.
  60. ^ Ian Birrell (23 April 2019). "Greta Thunberg teaches us about autism as much as climate change". Guardian. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  61. ^ O'Malley, Katie (23 April 2019). "Greta Thunberg says 'gift' of Asperger's Syndrome helps her see through 'lies'". The Independent. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  62. ^ "Elon Musk reveals he has Asperger's on Saturday Night Live". BBC News. 9 May 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  63. ^ Isaacson (2023), p. 18.
  64. ^ Luterman, Sara (12 May 2021). "The One Big Problem With Elon Musk's Autism Announcement". Slate. ISSN 1091-2339. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
  65. ^ "30 Successful People on the Autism Spectrum". Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  66. ^ Wallace, Benjamin. "Autism Spectrum: Are You On It?". NYMag.com. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
  67. ^ Sowell, Thomas (2001). The Einstein Syndrome: bright children who talk late. New York: Basic Books. pp. 142, 189. ISBN 9780465081417. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
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