Archaeometallurgy

Archaeometallurgy is the study of the past use and production of metals by humans. It is a sub-discipline of archaeology and archaeological science.

Uses

Archaeometallurgical study has many uses in both the chemical and anthropological fields. Analysis contributes valuable insights into many archaeological questions, from technological choice to social organisation. Any project concerned with the relationship that the human species has had to the metals known to us is an example of archaeometallurgical study.

Methods

There are various methodological approaches to archaeometallurgical studies. The same methods used in analytical chemistry may be used to analyze artifacts. Chemical analysis methods may include the analysis of mass, density or chemical composition. Most methods are non-destructive in nature, such as X-ray spectroscopy, or micro-destructive (requiring removal of only a tiny portion of the sample). Non-destructive methods can be used on more artefacts than destructive ones, but because they operate at the surface of the metal, corrosion and other surface effects may interfere with the results. Options that include sampling include various forms of mass spectrometry and a variety of chemical tests.

Modern to ancient

One of the methods of archaeometallurgy is the study of modern metals and alloys to explain and understand the use of metals in the past. A study conducted by the department of Particle Physics and Astrophysics at Weizmann Institute of Science and the department of Archaeology at the University of Haifia analyzed the chemical composition and the mass of different denominations of Euro coinage. They concluded that even with modern standards and technology, there is a considerable variation within the "same" denomination of coin. This simple conclusion can be used to further analyze discoveries of ancient currency.

Non-ferrous archaeometallurgy

The specific study of the non-ferrous metals used in past. Gold, silver and copper were the first to be used by ancient humans. Gold and copper are both found in their 'native' state in nature, and were thus the first to be exploited as they did not need to be smelted from their ores. They could be hammered into sheets or decorative shapes. The extraction of copper from its ores may have developed due to the attractive colouring and value of ores such as malachite.

Ferrous archaeometallurgy

The specific study of the ferrous compounds (those including iron, Fe) used in the past. Iron metal was first encountered in meteorites, and was later extracted from iron ores to create wrought iron which was never fully molten, and later, cast iron. Iron combined with carbon formed steel, allowing people to develop superior tools and weapons from the Iron Age to the Industrial Revolution.

History

After initial sporadic work, archaeometallurgy was more widely institutionalised in the 1960s and 70s, with research groups in Britain (The British Museum, the UCL Institute of Archaeology, the Institute for Archeo-Metallurgical Studies (iams)), Germany (Deutsches Bergbau Museum) and the US (MIT and Harvard). Specialisations within metallurgical focus on metallography of finished objects, mineralogy of waste products such as slag and manufacturing studies.

See also

• Ancient iron production
• Cupellation
• Liquation
• Roman metallurgy
• Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe
• Metallurgy in Pre-Columbian America
• History of ferrous metallurgy
• Native copper
• Tin sources and trade in ancient times
• Experimental Archaeometallurgy
• Nonferrous Archaeometallurgy in the Southern Levant
• Metallurgy#History

Further reading

• Bayley, Justine; Crossley, David; Ponting, Matthew, eds. (2008). Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses. London: The Historical Metallurgy Society, Occasional Publication No 6. ISBN 978-0-9560225-0-9.
• Hauptmann, Andreas (2020). Archaeometallurgy–Materials Science Aspects. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-50366-6.
• Hauptmann, Andreas (2007). The Archaeometallurgy of Copper: Evidence from Faynan, Jordan. Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-72237-3.
• Hošek, Jiří; Cleere, Henry; Mihok, L'ubomír, eds. (2011). The Archaeometallurgy of Iron: Recent Developments in Archaeological and Scientific Research. Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Archaeology. ISBN 978-80-87365-41-0.
• S. Kalyanaraman (2011) "Indian Hieroglyphs", Sarasvati Research Center, Herndon, VA
• Killick, David, and Thomas Fenn (2012) "Archaeometallurgy: The Study of Preindustrial Mining and Metallurgy", Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 41:559-575, DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145719.
• TH. Rehren and E. Pernicka (2008) "Coins, Artefacts and Isotopes- Archaeometallurgy and Archaeometry", UCL Institute of Archaeology.
• Roberts, Benjamin W.; Thornton, Christopher P., eds. (2014). Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective:Methods and Syntheses. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4614-9016-6.
• R. F. Tylecote (1992) A History of Metallurgy, 2nd edn, Institute of Materials ISBN 0-901462-88-8

External links

• The Historical Metallurgy Society
• IAMS offered two courses in 2012:
  • Prehistoric Metallurgy by Simon Timberlake and Fergus Milton at Butser Ancient Farm.
• Yale University Archaeometallurgy Laboratory