Jump to content

Yodok concentration camp

Coordinates: 39°40′27″N 126°51′05″E / 39.674163°N 126.851406°E / 39.674163; 126.851406
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Yodok Concentration Camp)

Yodok concentration camp
Chosŏn'gŭl
요덕 제15호 관리소
Hancha
Revised RomanizationYodeok Je Sipo-ho Gwalliso
McCune–ReischauerYodŏk Che Sibo-ho Kwalliso
Chosŏn'gŭl
요덕 정치범수용소
Hancha
Revised RomanizationYodeok Jeongchibeum Suyongso
McCune–ReischauerYodŏk Chŏngch'ibŏm Suyongso
Part of a series on
Human rights in North Korea
Human rights abuses
Political prisons (Kwanliso)
Re-education camps (Kyohwaso)
Abductions and POWs
International reactions

Yodok concentration camp (/ˈjoʊdʌk, -dɒk, -doʊk/; Korean pronunciation: [jo.dʌ̹k̚])[a] was a kwalliso in North Korea. The official name was Kwan-li-so (penal labour colony) No. 15. The camp was used to segregate those seen as enemies of the state, punish them for political misdemeanors,[1] and put them to hard labour.[2][3] It was closed down in 2014.[4][5]

Location

[edit]
Yodok concentration camp is located in North Korea
Pyongyang
Pyongyang
Yodok
Yodok
class=notpageimage|
Location of Yodok camp in North Korea

Yodok camp was about 110 km (70 mi) northeast of Pyongyang.[6] It was located in Yodok County, South Hamgyong Province, stretching into the valley of the Ipsok River, surrounded by mountains: Paek-san 1,742 m (5,715 ft) to the north, Modo-san 1,833 m (6,014 ft) to the northwest, Tok-san 1,250 m (4,100 ft) to the west, and Byeongpung-san 1,152 m (3,780 ft) to the south.[3][7] The entrance to the valley is the 1,250 m (4,100 ft) Chaebong Pass to the east. The streams from the valleys of these mountains form the Ipsok River, which flows downstream into the Yonghung River and eventually into the sea near Wonsan city.[8]

Description

[edit]

Yodok camp had two parts:[7]

  • The total control zone (Chosŏn'gŭl: 완전통제구역), with the prison labour colonies Pyongchang-ri and Yongpyong-ri, was for people who authorities believed had committed crimes against the regime or whom had been denounced as politically unreliable (e.g. returnees from Japan or Christians).[9] These prisoners were usually never released (unless they had relatives in Japan, in which case they were released after 10 years).[10] The Christian mission organisation Open Doors estimated 6,000 Christians to be held in the camp.[11]
  • The revolutionary zone (Chosŏn'gŭl: 혁명화대상구역), with reeducation camps Ipsok-ri, Kuup-ri and Daesuk-ri, was to punish people for less serious political crimes (e.g. illegally leaving the country, listening to South Korean broadcasts, or criticising government policy). These prisoners were eventually released after serving their sentences.[12]

In the 1990s, the total control zone had an estimated 30,000 prisoners while the smaller revolutionary zone had about 16,500 prisoners;[8] later satellite images, however, indicate a significant increase in the camp's scale.[13] Most prisoners were deported to Yodok without trial, or following unfair trials, on the basis of confessions obtained through torture. People were often imprisoned together with family members and close relatives, including small children and the elderly,[14] based on guilt by association (Sippenhaft).[15]

The camp was around 378 km2 (146 sq mi) in area.[16] It was surrounded by a barbed-wire fence 3–4 m (10–13 ft) tall and walls with electric wire and watchtowers at regular intervals. The camp was patrolled by 1,000 guards with automatic rifles and guard dogs.[8]

Conditions in the camp

[edit]

Living conditions

[edit]

The prisoners lived in dusty huts with walls made of dried mud, a roof (rotten and leaking) made of straw laid on wooden planks, and a floor covered with straw and dry plant mats.[17] In a room of around 50 m2 (540 sq ft), 30–40 prisoners slept on a bed made of a wooden board covered with a blanket.[10] Most huts were not heated, even in winter, where temperatures are below −20 °C (−4 °F),[8] and most prisoners got frostbite and had swollen limbs during the winter.[18] Camp inmates also suffered from pneumonia, tuberculosis, pellagra, and other diseases, with no available medical treatment.[19]

New prisoners received clothes that predecessors had worn until their deaths.[20] Most clothes were dirty, worn-out, and full of holes.[21] Prisoners had no proper shoes, socks, or gloves, and usually no spare clothes.[22] The dead were buried naked because their possessions were taken by other prisoners.[23] All prisoners were covered with a thick layer of dirt, as they were overworked and had almost no opportunity to wash themselves or their clothes.[15] As a result, the prisoners’ huts were foul-smelling and infested with lice, fleas, and other insects.[24] Prisoners had to queue in front of dirty community toilets, one for every 200 prisoners,[25] using dry leaves for cleaning.[26]

The camp guards made prisoners report on each other and designate specific ones as foremen to control a group. If one person did not work hard enough, the whole group was punished. This created animosity among the detainees, destroyed any solidarity, and forced them to create a system of self-surveillance.[17]

Slave labour

[edit]

Men, women, and children performed hard labour seven days a week and were treated as slaves.[27] Labour operations included a gypsum quarry and a gold mine, textile plants, distilleries, a coppersmith workshop,[8] agriculture, and logging. Serious work accidents often occurred.[28]

Work shifts in summer started at 4 a.m. and ended at 8 p.m.[13] Work shifts in other seasons started at 5:30 a.m., but were often extended past 8 p.m. when work quotas were not met, even when dark.[29] After dinner, prisoners were required to attend ideological re-education and struggle sessions from 9 to 11 p.m., where inmates who did not meet the targets were severely criticized and beaten.[15] If prisoners could not memorize the teachings of Kim Il-sung, they were not allowed to sleep, or their food rations were reduced.[13]

Most of the primary school children attended school in the morning. The main subject was the history of the revolution of Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il.[30] In the afternoon they carried out hard labour with very high work quotas in terms of amount and intensity. Children were beaten with a stick for failure to meet the day's quota.[29] Primary school children had to carry heavy logs 12 times a day over 4 km (2+1⁄2 mi)[31] or dung buckets of 30 kg (66 lb) 30 times a day.[32] Other children's work involved collecting 20 kg (44 lb) of plants in the mountains or cultivating 130–200 m2 (1,400–2,200 sq ft) of field.[33] Sometimes children died in work accidents.[34] Older children had to work all day and from age of 16, were assigned the same work quotas as adults.[29]

Malnutrition

[edit]

Prisoners were constantly kept on the verge of starvation.[35] The daily rations for prisoners were between 100 and 200 g (3+1⁄2 and 7 oz) of corn boiled into gruel, served three times a day.[36] Depending on the agricultural produce of the year, rations could be less.[20] If prisoners did not finish their daily work quota or violate minor rules, the daily rations were reduced or temporarily discontinued,[37] no matter if they were sick, crippled, or disabled.[38] Prisoners killed and ate whatever wild animals they could catch, including rats, snakes, frogs, salamanders, worms, and insects,[39] though they were severely punished if seen doing so by the guards.[40] To avoid being detected, they mostly ate the meat raw, often without removing the skin.[29] These wild animals were the only source of fat, as the food rations completely lack meat and plant oil.[19] In particular, eating these animals helps to reduce pellagra caused by the lack of protein and niacin. Some prisoners sneaked into the pigsties and stole pig slops[41] or picked undigested corn kernels out of animal feces in order to survive.[42]

Lee Young-kuk estimates that at the end of the 1990s, around 20% of prisoners in Daesuk-ri died from malnutrition each year, with new prisoners arriving each month.[8] All former prisoners say they frequently saw people dying.[36]

Human rights violations

[edit]

Torture

[edit]

The following torture methods are described in testimonies of former prisoners:

  • "Pigeon torture":[43] The prisoner's arms were tied behind their back, their legs tied together, and they were hung from the ceiling for several days.[44]
  • Forced water ingestion: The prisoner was strapped to a table and forced to drink large amounts of water. Guards then jumped on a board laid on the swollen stomach to force the water out.[15]
  • Immersion in water: A plastic bag was placed over the prisoner's head and they were submerged in water for long periods of time.[15]
  • Beatings: Prisoners were beaten every day if work quotas were not met,[45] if they did not kneel down quickly enough before the guards, or just for the sake of humiliation.[46] Prisoners often became disabled or died from the beatings.[20] Even children were severely beaten[47] and tormented.[48]

Prisoners were completely at the guards’ mercy; guards could abuse them without restraint. Former prisoners witnessed a man being tied by the neck to a vehicle and dragged for long distances[20] and a primary school child being beaten and kicked hard on his head.[49] In both cases, the prisoners died soon after.

Executions

[edit]

Prisoners released from Yodok were forced to abide by a written oath with a hand stamp. The pledge read: "I will face execution if I reveal the secrets of Yodok."[50]

A common method of killing singled-out prisoners was to assign them an impossible workload. When the work was not finished, the prisoner's food rations were reduced as punishment. Eventually, the combination of heavy work and less food led to death by starvation.[51]

Prisoners who violated camp rules (e.g. steal food or attempt to escape) were usually executed in public (barring those already shot).[45] Summary executions[52] took place in front of assembled prisoners several times each year;[53] and every former prisoner testifies to having witnessed them.[54] Before the execution, the prisoners were tortured and denied food.[55] Those forced to watch the execution often could not endure the scene without protest and were killed as well.[20]

Abuse and forced abortions

[edit]

Women in the camp were completely unprotected against sexual assaults by the guards.[46] Prisoners were often ordered to strip naked to be beaten and harassed,[20] and a former prisoner said that it was routine for guards to sexually abuse female prisoners.[56] The women sometimes died after being raped.[20] Pregnant women were usually given forced abortions.[57]

Demand for closure

[edit]

Amnesty International summarized the human rights situation in Yodok camp: "Men, women and children in the camp face forced hard labour, inadequate food, beatings, totally inadequate medical care and unhygienic living conditions. Many fall ill while in prison, and a large number die in custody or soon after release." The organization demands the immediate closure of Yodok and all other political prison camps in North Korea.[10] The demand was supported by the International Coalition to Stop Crimes against Humanity in North Korea, a coalition of over 40 human rights organizations.[58] As of 2014, the camp has been emptied and overhauled.[4][5]

In 2018, North Korean Economy Watch, an affiliate of 38 North, posited that the prisoners had been moved to a mine farther south, at the Kowon mine.[59]

Prisoners (witnesses)

[edit]
  • Kang Chol-hwan (in Yodok 1977–1987) was imprisoned as a 9-year-old child because his family returned from Japan and was considered politically unreliable.[14]
  • An Hyuk (in Yodok 1987–1989) was imprisoned at the age of 18 because he illegally left North Korea.[29]
  • Kim Tae-jin (in Yodok 1988–1992)[60][61] was imprisoned for alleged espionage[62] after he spent 18 months in China illegally and converted to Christianity.[63] Since camp rules prohibited gatherings of at least three people, Kim said he was tortured after he attempted to hold a meeting with other religious prisoners.[64]
  • Lee Young-kuk (in Yodok 1995–1999), former bodyguard of Kim Jong-il, was kidnapped from China and imprisoned because he illegally left North Korea and criticized the country.[65]
  • Kim Eun-cheol (in Yodok 2000–2003) was imprisoned at the age of 19 because he illegally left North Korea.[50] He was part of a group of seven refugees returned by the Russian regime under Putin's rule to China, which in turn handed them over back to North Korea; the United Nations granted them refugee status but failed to protect them.[6]
  • South Korean citizens Shin Suk-ja and her daughters Oh Hae-won and Oh Kyu-won (in Yodok since 1987, when the daughters were ages 9 and 11) were imprisoned because her husband Oh Kil-nam did not return from a stay abroad.[66] The family had been lured from Germany on North Korean agents’ false promises two years prior.[67] Kang Chol-hwan and An Hyuk testified to meeting Shin Suk-ja during their imprisonments.[68]
  • South Korean citizen Jeong Sang-un (in Yodok since 2010) is an unrepatriated Korean War prisoner and was imprisoned at age 84 for illegally leaving North Korea.[69]
  • Kim Young-soon (in Yodok 1970–1979) was born in 1937 in Shenyang, Manchuria (China). She was a student of famed Korean dancer Choi Seung-hee, and was for a time a member of Pyongyang's elite. After Choi and her husband were purged in 1967, Kim continued to dance, but in 1970 she was imprisoned in Yodok without being informed as to why. She was released in 1979, and only long after being released learned why she had been imprisoned in the first place. She had once been best friends with Song Hye-rim, one of Kim Jong-il's lovers, and knowing about the relationship was presumably the reason for her internment. Kim Jong-il and Song Hye-rim's son, Kim Jong-nam, was later assassinated by North Korean hitmen in 2017.[70] Kim Young-soon's mother and father both died of starvation while imprisoned in the camp with her. After enduring many horrifying incidents within the camp, including the deaths of her parents, she was released and spent the next 19 years living on the fringes of society. She escaped from North Korea to China in 2001 and arrived in South Korea in 2003. One of her sons died in Yodok while young; another was shot trying to escape to China in 1989, and one was recaptured several times before finally succeeding.[71][72][73]
[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Also romanized as Yodŏk, Yodeok or Yoduck

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "North Korea: A case to answer – a call to act" (PDF). Christian Solidarity Worldwide. June 20, 2007. pp. 25–26. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 21, 2013. Retrieved December 7, 2011.
  2. ^ "North Korea: A case to answer – a call to act" (PDF). Christian Solidarity Worldwide, June 20, 2007. pp. 44–45. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 21, 2013. Retrieved December 7, 2011.
  3. ^ a b Bermudez Jr., Joseph S.; Dinville, Andy; Eley, Mike (February 13, 2015). "North Korea Imagery Analysis of Camp 15" (PDF). United States: U.S. Committee for Human Rights in North Korea & AllSource Analysis. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 7, 2015. Retrieved June 8, 2015. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  4. ^ a b "Prison Camps of North Korea - Camp 15 Yodok". Humanrights.gov. Archived from the original on May 1, 2017. Retrieved April 12, 2016.
  5. ^ a b "Camp 15 Gone But No Liberty for Prisoners". Daily NK. November 8, 2014. Archived from the original on April 19, 2017. Retrieved April 12, 2016.
  6. ^ a b Sang-Hun, Choe (May 31, 2007). "An escapee tells of life and death in North Korea's labor camps". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 20, 2013. Retrieved December 6, 2011.
  7. ^ a b "The Hidden Gulag – Satellite imagery: Kwan-li-so No. 15 Yodok Partial Overview" (PDF). The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea. p. 197. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 13, 2015. Retrieved September 14, 2012.
  8. ^ a b c d e f "The Hidden Gulag: Testimony Kwan-li-so No. 15 Yodok" (PDF). The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea. pp. 52–56. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 13, 2015. Retrieved September 14, 2012.
  9. ^ "A Christian Family Detained for life for Praying". The Daily NK, October 14, 2005. October 14, 2005. Archived from the original on October 1, 2017. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  10. ^ a b c "End horror of North Korean political prison camps". Amnesty International. May 4, 2011. Archived from the original on December 25, 2011. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
  11. ^ "World Watch List 2013" (PDF). Open Doors. January 6, 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 23, 2013. Retrieved January 9, 2013.
  12. ^ "North Korea: Political Prison Camps". Amnesty International. May 4, 2011. Archived from the original on June 22, 2019. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
  13. ^ a b c "Images reveal scale of North Korean political prison camps". Amnesty International. May 3, 2011. Archived from the original on March 31, 2019. Retrieved November 24, 2011.
  14. ^ a b "Child prisoner: Kang Chol Hwan". NBC News, January 15, 2003. October 21, 2003. Archived from the original on October 20, 2014. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
  15. ^ a b c d e "North Korea: Political Prison Camps". Amnesty International. May 4, 2011. Archived from the original on June 22, 2019. Retrieved November 24, 2011.
  16. ^ Harden, Blaine (July 20, 2009). "North Koreas Hard Labor Camps with interactive map". Washington Post, July 20, 2009. Archived from the original on May 14, 2019. Retrieved November 24, 2011.
  17. ^ a b "Inside North Korea's gulag". The Independent, February 18, 2006. Archived from the original on March 29, 2010. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  18. ^ "Prisoners Forced to Work at a Frozen River during the Winter". The Daily NK, February 14, 2006. February 14, 2006. Archived from the original on October 15, 2011. Retrieved November 24, 2011.
  19. ^ a b "North Korea's Political Prison Camp". International Coalition to Stop Crimes against Humanity in North Korea. October 13, 2011. Archived from the original on April 26, 2012. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g "I Was a Prisoner of North Korea's Political Prison Camp". Citizens’ Alliance for North Korean Human Rights, December 20, 2007. Archived from the original on April 23, 2012. Retrieved January 17, 2014.
  21. ^ "The physical appearance of typical prisoners". The Daily NK, January 31, 2006. January 31, 2006. Archived from the original on January 5, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  22. ^ "Prisoners Forced to Work at a Frozen River during the Winter". The Daily NK, February 14, 2006. February 14, 2006. Archived from the original on October 15, 2011. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  23. ^ "Prisoners Steal the Leftover Possessions of Dead Prisoners". The Daily NK, February 10, 2006. February 10, 2006. Archived from the original on January 5, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  24. ^ "Prisoners Harassed by Lice under Extremely Unsanitary Conditions". The Daily NK, February 23, 2006. February 23, 2006. Archived from the original on January 6, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  25. ^ "Speak out for the 50,000 forgotten prisoners of Yodok, North Korea". Amnesty International Australia, August 9, 2011. Archived from the original on June 4, 2012. Retrieved May 15, 2012.
  26. ^ "Prisoners Using Community Toilet". The Daily NK, February 27, 2006. Archived from the original on January 5, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  27. ^ "Concentrations of Inhumanity (p. 47 – 48)" (PDF). Freedom House, May 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 8, 2011. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  28. ^ "Survey Report on Political Prisoners' Camps in North Korea (p. 111 – 112)" (PDF). National Human Rights Commission of Korea, December 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 26, 2012. Retrieved December 7, 2011.
  29. ^ a b c d e "Children in North Korean Concentration Camps – 2". Citizens’ Alliance for North Korean Human Rights, December 20, 2007. Archived from the original on April 23, 2012. Retrieved January 17, 2014.
  30. ^ "Survey Report on Political Prisoners' Camps in North Korea (p. 161 – 172)" (PDF). National Human Rights Commission of Korea, December 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 26, 2012. Retrieved December 7, 2011.
  31. ^ "Inside North Korea's gulag". The Independent, February 18, 2006. Archived from the original on March 29, 2010. Retrieved December 7, 2011.
  32. ^ "Children Routinely Carry Heavy Loads". The Daily NK, October 26, 2005. Archived from the original on December 13, 2013. Retrieved December 7, 2011.
  33. ^ "Survey Report on Political Prisoners' Camps in North Korea (p. 156 – 159)" (PDF). National Human Rights Commission of Korea, December 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 26, 2012. Retrieved December 7, 2011.
  34. ^ "Labor of Death". Citizens’ Alliance for North Korean Human Rights, December 20, 2007. Archived from the original on April 23, 2012. Retrieved January 17, 2014.
  35. ^ "Inside North Korea's labour camps". Al Jazeera, June 9, 2009. Archived from the original on October 25, 2012. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
  36. ^ a b "Images reveal scale of North Korean political prison camps". Amnesty International. May 3, 2011. Archived from the original on April 7, 2012. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
  37. ^ "The physical appearance of typical prisoners". The Daily NK, January 31, 2006. January 31, 2006. Archived from the original on January 5, 2012. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
  38. ^ "People I met in No. 15 Camp". International Coalition to Stop Crimes against Humanity in North Korea. October 13, 2011. Archived from the original on April 26, 2012. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
  39. ^ "Prisoners Eating Salamanders, Frogs and Anything Else To Stay Alive". The Daily NK, October 25, 2005. October 25, 2005. Archived from the original on December 12, 2013. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
  40. ^ "Prisoners Catching Rats for Survival". The Daily NK, February 21, 2006. February 21, 2006. Archived from the original on January 6, 2012. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
  41. ^ "Prisoners Eat Pig Slops to Avoid Starvation". The Daily NK, February 16, 2006. February 16, 2006. Archived from the original on January 5, 2012. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
  42. ^ "Political Prison Camps Expand". Radio Free Asia, May 4, 2011. Archived from the original on May 18, 2011. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
  43. ^ "NK gulags hellish for detainees". The Korea Times, September 5, 2011. Archived from the original on December 11, 2013. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  44. ^ "Yodok, North Korea – Write for Rights 2011 (demonstration of pigeon torture 01:55 – 02:30)". Amnesty International USA, November 23, 2011. Archived from the original on January 5, 2015. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  45. ^ a b "Concentrations of Inhumanity (p. 48)" (PDF). Freedom House, May 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 8, 2011. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  46. ^ a b "A Well-founded Fear: Punishment and Labor Camps in North Korea". Human Rights Watch, November 19, 2002. November 19, 2002. Archived from the original on February 17, 2015. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  47. ^ "A Child Brutally Beaten for a Minor Offense". The Daily NK, November 2, 2005. November 2, 2005. Archived from the original on December 12, 2013. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  48. ^ "Cruel Punishment for Children". The Daily NK, October 30, 2005. Archived from the original on December 12, 2013. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  49. ^ "A Child Kicked into a Dung Bucket and Beaten to Death". The Daily NK, November 3, 2005. Archived from the original on December 12, 2013. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  50. ^ a b "After Repatriation: Three Years in Yodok". Citizens’ Alliance for North Korean Human Rights, December 20, 2007. Archived from the original on April 23, 2012. Retrieved January 17, 2014.
  51. ^ Tran, Mark (November 4, 2009). "North Korean defectors tell of torture and beatings". The Guardian, November 4, 2009. London. Archived from the original on September 8, 2013. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  52. ^ "My Experience in a Political Prison Camp". Citizens’ Alliance for North Korean Human Rights, December 20, 2007. Archived from the original on April 23, 2012. Retrieved January 17, 2014.
  53. ^ "North Korea: A case to answer – a call to act" (PDF). Christian Solidarity Worldwide, June 20, 2007. pp. 36–37. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 21, 2013. Retrieved December 7, 2011.
  54. ^ "Survey Report on Political Prisoners' Camps in North Korea" (PDF). National Human Rights Commission of Korea, December 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 26, 2012. Retrieved December 6, 2011.
  55. ^ "Child prisoner: Kang Chol Hwan". NBC News, October 28, 2003. October 21, 2003. Archived from the original on October 20, 2014. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  56. ^ "N. Korean Security Turns to Sexual Abuse, Seduction". The Chosun Ilbo, March 16, 2010. Archived from the original on November 30, 2011. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  57. ^ "Concentrations of Inhumanity" (PDF). Freedom House, May 2007. pp. 53–59. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 8, 2011. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  58. ^ "ICNK Letter To Kim Jong Il". International Coalition to Stop Crimes against Humanity in North Korea. October 13, 2011. Archived from the original on April 26, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  59. ^ "What happened to the Camp 15 (Yodok) Prisoners? | 38 North". 38 North. Archived from the original on February 28, 2018. Retrieved February 27, 2018.
  60. ^ Sang-Hun, Choe (March 22, 2016). "Re-enacting horrors of North Korean prison" Archived March 9, 2021, at the Wayback Machine The New York Times.
  61. ^ Laurence, Jeremy; Park, Ju-min (May 4, 2011). "Guilty-by-association: growing up in hell of North Korean gulag" Archived March 4, 2020, at the Wayback Machine Reuters.
  62. ^ Glionna, John M. (January 27, 2010). "North Korean ex-prisoners recall ordeal in gulag" Archived October 15, 2019, at the Wayback Machine Los Angeles Times.
  63. ^ Onishi, Norimitsu (February 24, 2006). "North Korea: Rights plus religion" Archived March 8, 2021, at the Wayback Machine The New York Times.
  64. ^ Penketh, Anne (April 5, 2005). "Where being a Christian leads to prison and torture" Archived March 8, 2021, at the Wayback Machine The Independent.
  65. ^ Macintyre, Donald (February 18, 2002). "The Supremo in His Labyrinth". Time Magazine, February 11, 2002. Archived from the original on March 21, 2009. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
  66. ^ "Document – North Korea: Summary of Amnesty International's concerns: 2.2 Shin Sook Ja and her daughters". Amnesty International, October 12, 1993. Archived from the original on July 2, 2015. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
  67. ^ Harden, Blaine (February 22, 2010). "A family and a conscience, destroyed by North Korea's cruelty". Washington Post, February 22, 2010. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved September 27, 2011.
  68. ^ "아내·두 딸을 북한에 두고 탈출한 오길남 박사", Chosun Ilbo, September 3, 2009, archived from the original on February 21, 2012, retrieved February 25, 2010
  69. ^ "North Korea: Elderly prisoner's life at risk in North Korea: Jeong Sang-un". Amnesty International, August 19, 2010. Archived from the original on June 18, 2018. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
  70. ^ Berlinger, Joshua. "Murder of Kim Jong Nam: Timeline of intrigue". CNN. Archived from the original on January 14, 2018. Retrieved January 13, 2018.
  71. ^ Alexander, Harriet (October 8, 2013). "North Korean who spent nine years in prison camp: Tourists must stay away". The Daily Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on January 14, 2018. Retrieved January 13, 2018.
  72. ^ "My prison life: Kim Young Soon on North Korea's secret prison camps". www.amnesty.org.uk. Archived from the original on January 14, 2018. Retrieved January 13, 2018.
  73. ^ "A N.Korean life shattered by Kim Jong-il's secret". Reuters. February 3, 2010. Archived from the original on March 27, 2019. Retrieved January 13, 2018.
  74. ^ "The Aquariums of Pyongyang: Ten Years in the North Korean Gulag". Brothers Judd Book Reviews, July 22, 2005. Archived from the original on March 12, 2012. Retrieved November 24, 2011.
  75. ^ "Yoduk Story: Promotion Clip". yodukstory, 2006. Archived from the original on December 12, 2016. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
  76. ^ "Yodok Stories: The Movie". Piraya Film, 2009. Archived from the original on March 16, 2009. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
[edit]

39°40′27″N 126°51′05″E / 39.674163°N 126.851406°E / 39.674163; 126.851406

Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=Yodok_concentration_camp&oldid=1264489707"