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{{Redirect|Write}}
'''Writing''' is the representation of language in a [[text (literary theory)|text]]ual [[Media (arts)|medium]] through the use of a set of signs or symbols (known as a [[writing system]]).<ref>Peter T. Daniels, "The Study of Writing Systems", in ''The World's Writing Systems'', ed. Bright and Daniels, p. 3</ref> It is distinguished from [[illustration]], such as [[cave drawing]] and [[painting]], and non-symbolic preservation of language via non-textual media, such as [[Magnetic tape sound recording|magnetic tape audio]].

Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which needed reliable means for transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration outgrew the power of memory,{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form.<ref name="Robinson, 2003, p. 36">Robinson, 2003, p.&nbsp;36</ref> In both [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Mesoamerica]] writing may have evolved through calendrics and a political necessity for recording historical and environmental events.

==Writing as a category==
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2010}}
{{Globalize|date=February 2010}}
''Writing'', more particularly, refers to two things: ''writing'' as a [[noun]], the ''thing'' that is written; and ''writing'' as a [[verb]], which designates the ''activity'' of writing. It refers to the [[inscription]] of [[Glyph|characters]] on a medium, thereby forming [[Word (linguistics)|words]], and larger units of [[language]], known as texts. It also refers to the creation of meaning and the [[information]] thereby generated. In that regard, [[linguistics]] (and related [[sciences]]) distinguishes between the [[written language]] and the [[spoken language]]. The significance of the medium by which meaning and information is conveyed is indicated by the distinction made in the arts and sciences. For example, while [[public speaking]] and [[poetry reading]] are both types of [[Speech communication|speech]], the former is governed by the rules of [[rhetoric]] and the latter by [[poetics]].

A person who composes a message or story in the form of text is generally known as a [[writer]] or an [[author]]. However, more specific designations exist which are dictated by the particular nature of the text such as that of [[poet]], [[essayist]], [[novelist]], [[playwright]], [[journalist]], and more. A [[Translation|translator]] is a specialized multilingual writer who must fully understand a message written by somebody else in one language; the translator's job is to produce a document of faithfully equivalent message in a completely different language. A person who [[Transcription (linguistics)|transcribes]] or produces text to deliver a message authored by another person is known as a [[scribe]], [[typing|typist]] or [[typesetter]]. A person who produces text with emphasis on the [[aesthetics]] of [[glyph]]s is known as a [[calligrapher]] or [[graphic designer]].

Writing is also a distinctly [[human]] activity. Such writing has been speculatively designated as [[coincident]]al. At this point in time, the only confirmed writing in existence is of human origin.

==Means for recording information==
Wells argues that writing has the ability to "put agreements, laws, commandments on record. It made the growth of states larger than the old city states possible. The command of the priest or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death".<ref>Wells in Robinson, 2003, p.&nbsp;35</ref>

===Writing systems===
The major [[writing system]]s – methods of inscription – broadly fall into four categories: logographic, syllabic, alphabetic, and featural. Another category, [[ideographic]] (symbols for ideas), has never been developed sufficiently to represent language. A sixth category, [[pictographic]], is insufficient to represent language on its own, but often forms the core of logographies.

====Logographies====
A [[logogram]] is a written character which represents a word or [[morpheme]]. The vast number of logograms needed to write a language, and the many years required to learn them, are the major disadvantage of the logographic systems over alphabetic systems. However, the efficiency of reading logographic writing once it is learned is a major advantage.<ref>Smith, Frank. ''Writing and the writer.'' Routledge, 1994, pg. 142.</ref>
No writing system is wholly logographic: all have phonetic components as well as logograms ("logosyllabic" components in the case of [[Chinese characters]], [[cuneiform]], and [[Mayan script|Mayan]], where a glyph may stand for a morpheme, a syllable, or both; "logoconsonantal" in the case of hieroglyphs), and many have an ideographic component (Chinese "radicals", hieroglyphic "determiners"). For example, in Mayan, the glyph for "fin", pronounced "ka'", was also used to represent the syllable "ka" whenever the pronunciation of a logogram needed to be indicated, or when there was no logogram. In Chinese, about 90% of characters are compounds of a semantic (meaning) element called a ''radical'' with an existing character to indicate the pronunciation, called a ''phonetic.'' However, such phonetic elements complement the logographic elements, rather than vice versa.

The main logographic system in use today is Chinese characters, used with some modification for various languages of China, Japanese, and, to a lesser extent, Korean in South Korea. Another is the classical [[Yi script]].

====Syllabaries====
A [[syllabary]] is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) [[syllable]]s. A glyph in a syllabary typically represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone, though in some scripts more complex syllables (such as consonant-vowel-consonant, or consonant-consonant-vowel) may have dedicated glyphs. Phonetically related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, the syllable "ka" may look nothing like the syllable "ki", nor will syllables with the same vowels be similar.

Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other languages that use syllabic writing include the [[Linear B]] script for [[Mycenaean Greek]]; [[Cherokee]]; [[Ndjuka]], an English-based [[creole language]] of [[Surinam]]; and the [[Vai language|Vai]] script of [[Liberia]]. Most logographic systems have a strong syllabic component. [[Ge'ez alphabet|Ethiopic]], though technically an alphabet, has fused consonants and vowels together to the point that it's learned as if it were a syllabary.

====Alphabets====
{{See also|History of the alphabet}}

An [[alphabet]] is a small set of symbols, each of which roughly represents or historically represented a phoneme of the language. In a perfectly [[phonology|phonological]] alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling.

As languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.

=====Abjads=====
In most of the writing systems of the Middle East, it is usually only the consonants of a word that are written, although vowels may be indicated by the addition of various diacritical marks. Writing systems based primarily on marking the consonant phonemes alone date back to the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt. Such systems are called ''[[abjad]]'s'', derived from the Arabic word for "alphabet".

=====Abugidas=====
In most of the alphabets of India and Southeast Asia, vowels are indicated through diacritics or modification of the shape of the consonant. These are called ''[[abugida]]s''. Some abugidas, such as [[Ethiopic]] and [[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics|Cree]], are learned by children as syllabaries, and so are often called "syllabics". However, unlike true syllabaries, there is not an independent glyph for each syllable.

Sometimes the term "alphabet" is restricted to systems with separate letters for consonants and vowels, such as the [[Latin alphabet]], although abugidas and abjads may also be accepted as alphabets. Because of this use, [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] is often considered to be the first alphabet.

====Featural scripts====
A featural script notates the building blocks of the phonemes that make up a language. For instance, all sounds pronounced with the lips ("labial" sounds) may have some element in common. In the Latin alphabet, this is accidentally the case with the letters "b" and "p"; however, labial "m" is completely dissimilar, and the similar-looking "q" and "d" are not labial. In Korean [[hangul]], however, all four labial consonants are based on the same basic element. However, in practice, Korean is learned by children as an ordinary alphabet, and the featural elements tend to pass unnoticed.

Another featural script is [[SignWriting]], the most popular writing system for many [[sign languages]], where the shapes and movements of the hands and face are represented [[secular icon|iconically]]. Featural scripts are also common in fictional or invented systems, such as [[J.R.R. Tolkien|Tolkien's]] [[Tengwar]].

====Historical significance of writing systems====
[[Image:Olin-Warner-LoC-tympanum-Highsmith.jpeg|thumb|300px|[[Olin Levi Warner]], [[tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]] representing Writing, above exterior of main entrance doors, [[Thomas Jefferson Building]], Washington DC, 1896.]]

Historians draw a distinction between prehistory and history, with history defined by the advent of writing. The cave paintings and petroglyphs of prehistoric peoples can be considered precursors of writing, but are not considered writing because they did not represent language directly.

Writing systems always develop and change based on the needs of the people who use them. Sometimes the shape, orientation and meaning of individual signs also changes over time. By tracing the development of a script it is possible to learn about the needs of the people who used the script as well as how it changed over time.

===Tools and materials===
{{See also|writing implements}}
The many tools and writing materials used throughout history include [[stone tablets]], [[clay tablet]]s, [[wax tablet]]s, [[vellum]], [[parchment]], [[paper]], [[intaglio printing|copperplate]], [[stylus]]es, [[quill]]s, [[ink brush]]es, [[pencil]]s, [[pen]]s, and many styles of [[lithography]]. It is speculated that the Incas might have employed knotted threads known as [[quipu]] (or khipu) as a writing system.<ref>The Khipu Database Project, http://khipukamayuq.fas.harvard.edu/index.html</ref>

The [[typewriter]] and various forms of word processors have subsequently become widespread writing tools, and various studies have compared the ways in which writers have framed the experience of writing with such tools as compared with the pen or pencil.
<ref>{{
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|last=Chandler
|first=Daniel
|authorlink=Daniel Chandler
|year=1990
|journal=Electric Word
|volume=17
|pages=27–30
}}</ref>
<ref>{{
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|title=The phenomenology of writing by hand
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|year=1992
|journal=Intelligent Tutoring Media
|volume=3
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<ref>{{
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<ref>{{
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<ref>{{
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==History of writing==
{{Main|History of writing}}

===The beginning of writing===
{{Globalize|date=February 2010}}
By definition, the modern practice of [[history]] begins with written records; evidence of human culture without writing is the realm of [[prehistory]].

The writing process first evolved from economic necessity in the ancient near east. Archaeologist [[Denise Schmandt-Besserat]] determined the link between previously uncategorized clay "tokens" and the first known writing, [[cuneiform]].<ref name="Rudgley">{{cite book | title=The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age| last=Rudgley| first=Richard| authorlink=Richard Rudgley| year=2000| pages=48–57| publisher=Simon & Schuster| location=New York}}</ref> The clay tokens were used to represent commodities, and perhaps even units of [[time]] spent in labor, and their number and type became more complex as civilization advanced. A degree of complexity was reached when over a hundred different kinds of tokens had to be accounted for, and tokens were wrapped and fired in clay, with markings to indicate the kind of tokens inside. These markings soon replaced the tokens themselves, and the clay envelopes were demonstrably the prototype for clay writing tablets.<ref name="Rudgley" />

Writing is an extension of human language across time and space. Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which needed reliable means for transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration outgrew the power of memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form.<ref name="Robinson, 2003, p. 36"/> In both [[Mesoamerica]] and [[Ancient Egypt]] writing may have evolved through calendrics and a political necessity for recording historical and environmental events. There is however evidence in the [[Dispilio Tablet]], which was carbon dated to the 6th millennium BC, that writing was used even earlier than that.
<!-- [[Image:Caslonsample.jpg|thumb|350px|''A Specimend'' of typesdet fonts and languages, by William Caslon, letdter founder; from the 1728 ''[[Cyclopaedia]]''.]]-->

===Mesopotamia===
The original [[Mesopotamian]] writing system was derived from this method of keeping accounts, and by the end of the [[4th millennium BC]],<ref>The Origin and Development of the Cuneiform System of Writing, Samuel Noah Kramer, ''Thirty Nine Firsts In Recorded History'' pp 381–383</ref> this had evolved into using a triangular-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay for recording numbers. This was gradually augmented with using a sharp stylus, indicating what was being counted by means of [[pictographs]]. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus writing was gradually replaced by writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term [[cuneiform script|cuneiform]]), at first only for [[logogram]]s, but evolved to include phonetic elements by the 29th century BC. Around the 26th century BC, cuneiform began to represent syllables of spoken [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]. Also in that period, cuneiform writing became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers, and this script was adapted to another Mesopotamian language, [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], and from there to others such as [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]], and [[Hittite language|Hittite]]. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for [[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]] and [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]].

====Cretan and Greek scripts====
{{Main|Cretan hieroglyphs|Linear A|Linear B}}
Cretan hieroglyphs are found on artifacts of [[Crete]] (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BC, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). Linear B, the writing system of the [[Mycenaean Greeks]],<ref name="Olivier 1986, 377f."/> has been deciphered while Linear A has yet to be deciphered. The sequence and the geographical spread of the three overlapping, but distinct writing systems can be summarized as follows:<ref name="Olivier 1986, 377f.">{{harvnb|Olivier|1986|pp=377f.}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:1px; border:1px solid #cccccc; "
|- align="left" valign="top" bgcolor="cccccc"
! Writing system
! Geographical area
! Time span<ref name group="A">Beginning date refers to first attestations, the assumed origins of all scripts lie further back in the past.</ref>
|-
|[[Cretan hieroglyphs|Cretan Hieroglyphic]]
|[[Crete]]
|ca. 1625{{0|s}}−1500 BC
|-
|[[Linear A]]
|[[Aegean islands]] ([[Kea (island)|Kea]], [[Kythera]], [[Melos]], [[Santorini|Thera]]), and [[Greek mainland]] ([[Laconia]])
|ca. 18th century−1450 BC
|-
|[[Linear B]]
|Crete ([[Knossos]]), and mainland ([[Pylos]], [[Mycenae]], [[Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)|Thebes]], [[Tiryns]])
|ca. 1375{{0|s}}−1200 BC
|-
|}

===China===
{{See|Oracle bone script|Bronzeware script}}
From the [[Shang Dynasty]] most writing has survived on bones or bronze implements. Markings on [[turtle]] [[Animal shell|shells]] (used as [[oracle bone]]s) have been carbon-dated to around 1500 BC. Historians have found that the type of [[Media (arts)|media]] used had an effect on what the writing was documenting and how it was used.

There have [[Jiahu symbols|recently been discoveries of tortoise-shell carvings]] dating back to c. 6000 BC, but whether or not the carvings are of sufficient complexity to qualify as writing is under debate.<ref>China Daily, 12 June 2003, ''Archaeologists Rewrite History'', http://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Jun/66806.htm</ref><ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title='Earliest writing' found in China. |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2956925.stm |quote=Signs carved into 8,600-year-old tortoise shells found in China may be the earliest written words, say archaeologists. |publisher=[[BBC]] |accessdate=2008-03-30 | date=2003-04-17}}</ref> If it is deemed to be a written language, writing in China will predate Mesopotamian cuneiform, long acknowledged as the first appearance of writing, by some 2000 years.

===Egypt===
The earliest known [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyphic]] inscriptions are the [[Narmer Palette]], dating to c.3200 BC, and several recent discoveries that may be slightly older, though the glyphs were based on a much older artistic tradition. The hieroglyphic script was [[logogram|logographic]] with phonetic adjuncts that included an effective [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|alphabet]].

Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of [[scribe]]s. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes' status.

The world's [[Middle Bronze Age alphabets|oldest known alphabet]] appears to have been developed by Canaanite turquoise miners in the Sinai desert around the mid nineteenth century BC.<ref>Goldwasser, Orly. "How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphs", Biblical Archaeology Review, Mar/Apr 2010</ref> Around 30 crude inscriptions have been found at a mountainous Egyptian mining site known as Serabit el-Khadem. This site was also home to a temple of Hathor, the "Mistress of turquoise". A later, two line inscription has also been found at Wadi el-Hol in Central Egypt. Based on [[hieroglyph]]ic prototypes, but also including entirely new symbols, each sign apparently stood for a consonant rather than a word: the basis of an alphabetic system. It was not until the twelfth to the ninth centuries, however, that the alphabet took hold and became widely used.

===Indus Valley===
{{Main|Indus script}}
'''Indus script''' refers to short strings of symbols associated with the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] (which spanned modern-day [[Pakistan]] and [[North India]]) used between 2600–1900 BC. In spite of many attempts at decipherments and claims, it is as yet undeciphered. The script generally refers to that used in the mature Harappan phase, which perhaps evolved from a few signs found in early Harappa after 3500 BC,<ref>Whitehouse, David (1999) ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/334517.stm 'Earliest writing' found]'' BBC</ref> and was followed by the mature Harappan script. The script is written from right to left,<ref>(Lal 1966)</ref> and sometimes follows a [[boustrophedonic]] style. Since the number of principal signs is about 400-600,<ref>(Wells 1999)</ref> midway between typical logographic and syllabic scripts, many scholars accept the script to be logo-syllabic<ref>(Bryant 2000)</ref> (typically syllabic scripts have about 50-100 signs whereas logographic scripts have a very large number of principal signs). Several scholars maintain that structural analysis indicates an [[agglutinative]] language underlies the script.

===Turkmenistan===
Archaeologists have recently discovered that there was a civilization in Central Asia using writing 4,000 years ago. An excavation near [[Ashgabat]], the capital of [[Turkmenistan]], revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that was used as a stamp seal.<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Ancient writing found in Turkmenistan. |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1330705.stm |quote=A previously unknown civilisation was using writing in Central Asia 4,000 years ago, hundreds of years before Chinese writing developed, archaeologists have discovered. An excavation near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that seems to have been used as a stamp seal. |publisher=[[BBC]] |accessdate=2008-03-30 | date=2001-05-15}}</ref>

===Phoenician writing system and descendants===
The [[Phoenician script|Phoenician writing system]] was adapted from the Proto-Caananite script sometime before the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed principles of representing phonetic information from [[Egyptian hieroglyphics]]. This writing system was an odd sort of syllabary in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the [[Greek alphabet|Greeks]], who adapted certain consonantal signs to represent their vowels. The [[Cumae alphabet]], a [[variant]] of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the [[Etruscan alphabet]], and its own descendants, such as the [[Latin alphabet]] and [[Rune]]s. Other descendants from the [[Greek alphabet]] include the [[Cyrillic alphabet]], used to write [[Russian language|Russian]], among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the [[Aramaic script]], from which the [[Hebrew script]] and also that of [[Arabic script|Arabic]] are descended.

The [[Tifinagh]] script (Berber languages) is descended from the Libyco-Berber script which is assumed to be of Phoenician origin.

===Mesoamerica===
A stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing was discovered in the Mexican state of [[Veracruz]] and is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere, preceding the oldest [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]] writing by approximately 500 years.<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Writing May Be Oldest in Western Hemisphere. |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/15/science/15writing.html |quote=A stone slab bearing 3,000-year-old writing previously unknown to scholars has been found in the Mexican state of Veracruz, and archaeologists say it is an example of the oldest script ever discovered in the Western Hemisphere. |publisher=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=2008-03-30 | date=2006-09-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title='Oldest' New World writing found |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5347080.stm |quote=Ancient civilisations in Mexico developed a writing system as early as 900 BC, new evidence suggests. |publisher=[[BBC]] |accessdate=2008-03-30 | date=2006-09-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Oldest Writing in the New World |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/313/5793/1610 |quote=A block with a hitherto unknown system of writing has been found in the Olmec heartland of Veracruz, Mexico. Stylistic and other dating of the block places it in the early first millennium before the common era, the oldest writing in the New World, with features that firmly assign this pivotal development to the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica. |publisher=[[Science]] |date= |accessdate=2008-03-30 }}</ref> It is thought to be [[Olmec]].

Of several [[pre-Columbian]] scripts in [[Mesoamerica]], the one that appears to have been best developed, and the only one to be deciphered, is the [[Maya script]]. The earliest inscriptions which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century BC, and writing was in continuous use until shortly after the arrival of the Spanish [[Conquistador|conquistadores]] in the 16th century AD. Maya writing used logograms complemented by a set of syllabic glyphs, somewhat similar in function to modern Japanese writing.

==Creation of textual or written information==
{{See|Literature}}
[[File:Botticelli Sant'Agostino.jpg|thumb|[[St. Augustine]] writing, revising, and re-writing: [[Sandro Botticelli]]'s ''[[St. Augustine in His Cell (Botticelli)|St. Augustine in His Cell]]'' ]]

===Composition===
{{Main|Composition (language)}}

===Creativity===
{{Main|Creativity|Creative writing}}

===Author===
{{Main|Author}}

===Writer===
{{Main|Writer}}

===Critiques===
{{Main|Peer critique}}

==See also==
{|
|- valign=top
|
* [[Asemic writing]]
* [[Author]]
* [[Boustrophedon text]]
* [[Calligraphy]]
* [[Collaborative writing]]
* [[Communication]]
* [[Composition studies]]
* [[Copyright Clause]]
* [[Creative writing]]
* [[Decipherment]]
* [[Dyslexia]]
* [[Essay]]
* [[Fiction writing]]
* [[Grammar]]
* [[Graphonomics]]
|
* [[Interactive fiction]]
* [[Journalism]]
* [[Kishotenketsu]]
* [[Linguistics]]
* [[List of writers' conferences]]
* [[Literacy]]
* [[Literary award]]
* [[Literary criticism]]
* [[Literary festival]]
* [[Literature]]
* [[Manuscript]]
* [[Mechanical Pencil]]
* [[Orthography]]
* [[Pencil]]
* [[Printing]]
|
* [[Publishing]]
* [[Sequoyah#Creation_of_the_syllabary|Creation of the Sequoyah syllabary]]
* [[Scriptorium]]
* [[Bible (writing)|Story bible]]
* [[Speech communication]]
* [[Teaching Writing in the United States]]
* [[Typography]]
* [[White papers]]
* [[Word processing]]
* [[Writer]]
* [[Writer's block]]
* [[Writing bump]]
* [[Writing circle]]
* [[Writing in space]]
* [[Slate (writing)|Writing slate]]
* [[Writing style]]
* [[Writing systems]]
* [[Writer's voice]]
|}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=A}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|People writing}}
{{Wikiversity|Collaborative_play_writing}}
* <Cite>A History of Writing: From Hieroglyph to Multimedia</cite>, edited by Anne-Marie Christin, [http://www.flammarion.com/groupe/ Flammarion] (in French, hardcover: 408 pages, 2002, ISBN 2-08-010887-5)
* [http://www.newjewishbooks.org/ITB/ ''In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language.''] By Joel M. Hoffman, 2004. [http://www.newjewishbooks.org/ITB/toc.html Chapter 3] covers the invention of writing and its various stages.
* [http://www.ancientscripts.com/ws.html Origins of writing on AncientScripts.com]
* [http://www.museumofwriting.co.uk/ Museum of Writing]: UK Museum of Writing with information on writing history and implements
* On ERIC Digests: [http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/writing.htm ''Writing Instruction: Current Practices in the Classroom'']; [http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/development.htm ''Writing Development'']; [http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/views.htm ''Writing Instruction: Changing Views over the Years'']
* [http://www.childrenofthecode.org/Tour/c5/index.htm Children of the Code: The Power of Writing – Online Video]
*Powell, Barry B. 2009. ''Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization,'' Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-14051-6256-2
* Rogers, Henry. 2005. ''Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach.'' Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23463-2 (hardcover); ISBN 0-631-23464-0 (paperback)
* {{cite book|last= Ankerl |first= Guy |title= Global communication without universal civilization |origyear= 2000 |series= INU societal research |volume= Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western |publisher= INU Press |location= Geneva |isbn= 2-88155-004-5 |pages= 59–66, 235s|year= 2000 }}
* Robinson, Andrew "The Origins of Writing" in David Crowley and Paul Heyer (eds) ''Communication in History: Technology, Culture, Society'' (Allyn and Bacon, 2003).

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Fiction technique}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.uca.edu.ar/esp/sec-ffilosofia/esp/docs-institutos/s-cehao/boletin/damqatum3_eng2007.pdf Language, Writing and Alphabet: An Interview with Christophe Rico] [[Damqatum]] 3 (2007)
* [http://www.bl.uk/learning/artimages/why/whywrite.html Why write?] – a history of writing and the alphabet from the British Library

[[Category:Writing| ]]
[[Category:Nonverbal communication]]

{{Link GA|eo}}

[[ar:كتابة]]
[[an:Escritura]]
[[arc:ܟܬܒܬܐ]]
[[ast:Escritura]]
[[ay:Qillqa]]
[[be-x-old:Пісьмо]]
[[bs:Pisanje]]
[[bg:Писменост]]
[[ca:Escriptura]]
[[ceb:Pagsulat]]
[[cs:Psaní]]
[[cy:Ysgrifen]]
[[de:Schreiben]]
[[el:Γραφή]]
[[es:Escritura]]
[[eo:Skribo]]
[[ext:Escreviura]]
[[fa:نوشتن]]
[[fr:Écriture]]
[[gl:Escrita]]
[[gan:書寫]]
[[ko:쓰기]]
[[hi:लेखन]]
[[hr:Pisanje]]
[[io:Skriburo]]
[[id:Menulis]]
[[ia:Scriptura]]
[[is:Skrift]]
[[it:Scrittura]]
[[he:כתיבה]]
[[ka:დამწერლობა]]
[[kk:Жазу]]
[[sw:Maandishi]]
[[ht:Ekri]]
[[la:Scriptura]]
[[lv:Rakstība]]
[[lt:Rašymas]]
[[hu:Írás]]
[[mg:Soratra]]
[[ml:എഴുത്ത്]]
[[ms:Penulisan]]
[[mwl:Scrita]]
[[nah:Āmatlalcāyōtl]]
[[nl:Schrijven]]
[[ja:筆記]]
[[no:Skriving]]
[[nn:Skrift]]
[[oc:Escritura]]
[[pnb:لکھائی]]
[[pl:Pismo]]
[[pt:Escrita]]
[[ro:Scriere]]
[[qu:Qillqa]]
[[rue:Писаня]]
[[ru:Письмо (письменность)]]
[[sah:Сурук]]
[[sco:Scrievin]]
[[scn:Scrittura]]
[[simple:Writing]]
[[sl:Pisanje]]
[[sr:Писање]]
[[sh:Pisanje]]
[[su:Nulis]]
[[fi:Kirjoitus]]
[[sv:Skrivkonst]]
[[tl:Pagsusulat]]
[[ta:எழுத்து]]
[[th:การเขียน]]
[[tr:Yazı]]
[[uk:Письмо]]
[[vi:Chữ viết]]
[[fiu-vro:Kirotaminõ]]
[[war:Panurat]]
[[yi:שרייבן]]
[[bat-smg:Rašėms]]
[[zh:寫作]]

Revision as of 17:17, 6 December 2011

{toz toz toz toz is a right angle :P luli:P lluli the best !! toz :P toz :P

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