Woodrow Wilson: Difference between revisions
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{{Infobox President |
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|name=Woodrow Wilson |
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|image=Woodrow Wilson-H&E.jpg |
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|imagesize=250px |
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|order=[[List of Presidents of the United States|28th]] |
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|office=President of the United States |
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|term_start=March 4, 1913|term_end=March 4, 1921 |
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|vicepresident=[[Thomas R. Marshall]] |
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|predecessor=[[William Howard Taft]] |
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|successor=[[Warren G. Harding]] |
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|order2=[[List of Governors of New Jersey|34th]] |
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|office2=Governor of New Jersey |
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|term_start2= January 17, 1911 |
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|term_end2= March 1, 1913 |
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|predecessor2= [[John Franklin Fort]] |
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|successor2= [[James Fairman Fielder]] |
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|order3=13th [[President of Princeton University]] |
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|term_start3= 1902 |
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|term_end3= 1910 |
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|predecessor3= Francis L. Patton |
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|successor3= John Aikman Stewart |
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|birth_date={{birth date|1856|12|28}} |
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|birth_place=[[Staunton, Virginia]] |
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|birthname = Thomas Woodrow Wilson |
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|death_date={{death date and age|mf=yes|1924|02|03|1856|12|28}} |
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|death_place=[[Washington, D.C.]] |
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|spouse=[[Ellen Axson Wilson]]<br />[[Edith Bolling Galt Wilson]] |
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|children=[[Margaret Woodrow Wilson]]<br>[[Jessie Woodrow Wilson Sayre]]<br>[[Eleanor R. Wilson]] |
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|alma_mater=[[Princeton University]] (B.A) </br> [[Johns Hopkins University]] ([[doctorate of philosophy|PhD]]) |
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|profession=[[Academia|Academic]] ([[History]], [[Political science]]) |
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|party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] |
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|signature=Woodrow Wilson Signature 2.svg |
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|religion=[[Presbyterianism]] |
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}} |
}} |
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'''Thomas Woodrow Wilson''' (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924)<ref name=GenWebJRAC>{{cite web|url=http://genweb.jrac.com/genweb.php?DB=presidents&ID=I1735&query=LookupInternal |
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|title=Woodrow (Thomas) Wilson |work=Genealogy@jrac.com}}</ref><ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1919/wilson-bio.html Wilson's biography at Nobelprize.org]</ref> was the [[List of Presidents of the United States|28th]] [[President of the United States]]. A leading intellectual of the [[Progressive Era]], he served as [[President of Princeton University|President]] of [[Princeton University]] from 1902 to 1910, and then as the [[Governor of New Jersey]] from 1911 to 1913. With [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and [[William Howard Taft]] dividing the [[History of the United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] vote, Wilson was [[United States presidential election, 1912|elected]] President as a [[History of the United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] in 1912. |
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In his first term, Wilson persuaded a Democratic [[United States Congress|Congress]] to pass the [[Federal Reserve Act]],<ref name="white 294">{{cite book |title= Woodrow Wilson - The Man, His Times and His Task|last= White|first= William Allen|authorlink= |coauthors=|year= 2007|publisher= Read Books|location= |isbn= 1406776858|page= 294|pages= |url= }}</ref> [[Federal Trade Commission]], the [[Clayton Antitrust Act]], the [[Federal Farm Loan Act]] and America's first-ever federal [[progressive income tax]] in the [[Revenue Act of 1913]]. Wilson brought many white Southerners into his administration, and tolerated their expansion of [[Racial segregation|segregation]] in many federal agencies.<ref name=weiss>Nancy J. Weiss, "The Negro and the New Freedom: Fighting Wilsonian Segregation," ''Political Science Quarterly'' 1969 84(1): 61-79, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2147047 in JSTOR]</ref><ref name=JNH_Wolgemuth>{{cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716036?seq=1 |
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|title=Woodrow Wilson and Federal Segregation |
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|first=Kathleen L. |last=Wolgemuth |
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|journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=44 |issue=2 |date=1 April 1959|pages=158–173 |publisher=Association for the Study of African-American Life and History, Inc.|doi=10.2307/2716036|issn=00222992}} |
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</ref> |
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Narrowly [[United States presidential election, 1916|re-elected]] in 1916, Wilson's second term centered on [[World War I]]. He based his re-election campaign around the slogan "he kept us out of the war," but U.S. neutrality was challenged in early 1917 when the German government [[Zimmermann Telegram|proposed]] to Mexico a military alliance in a war against the U.S., and began [[unrestricted submarine warfare]], sinking without warning every American merchant ship its submarines could find. Wilson in April 1917 asked Congress to [[Declaration of war|declare war]]. |
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He focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving the waging of the war primarily in the hands of the Army. On the home front in 1917, he began the United States' first [[Military draft|draft]] since the [[US civil war]], raised billions in war funding through [[Liberty Bonds]], set up the [[War Industries Board]], promoted [[labor union]] growth, supervised agriculture and food production through the [[Lever Food Control Act of 1917|Lever Act]], took over control of the railroads, enacted the first [[Harrison Narcotics Tax Act|federal drug prohibition]], and suppressed [[anti-war]] movements. National [[women's suffrage]] was also achieved under Wilson's presidency. |
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In the late stages of the war, Wilson took personal control of negotiations with Germany, including the [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|armistice]]. He issued his ''[[Fourteen Points]]'', his view of a post-war world that could avoid another terrible conflict. He went to Paris in 1919 to create the [[League of Nations]] and shape the [[Treaty of Versailles]], with special attention on creating new nations out of defunct [[empire]]s. Largely for his efforts to form the League, he was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. In 1919, during the bitter fight with the Republican-controlled [[U.S. Senate|Senate]] over the U.S. joining the League of Nations, Wilson collapsed with a debilitating [[stroke]]. He refused to compromise, effectively destroying any chance for ratification. The League of Nations was established anyway, but the United States never joined. A Presbyterian of deep religious faith, he appealed to a gospel of service and infused a profound sense of moralism into Wilsonianism. Wilson's idealistic [[Internationalism (politics)|internationalism]], now referred to as "[[Wilsonian]]ism", which calls for the United States to enter the world arena to fight for democracy, has been a contentious position in [[Foreign policy in the United States|American foreign policy]], serving as a model for "idealists" to emulate and "realists" to reject ever since.<ref>John Morton Blum, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality'' (1956); Richard M. Gamble, "Savior Nation: Woodrow Wilson and the Gospel of Service," ''Humanitas'' Volume: 14. Issue: 1. 2001. pp 4+; Cooper, ''Woodrow Wilson'' (2009) p 560.</ref> |
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==Early life== |
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Wilson was born in [[Staunton, Virginia]] on December 28, 1856 as the third of four children of Reverend Dr. Joseph Ruggles Wilson (1822–1903) and Jessie Janet Woodrow (1826–1888).<ref name=GenWebJRAC/> His ancestry was [[Ulster Scots people|Scots-Irish]] and Scottish. His paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from [[Strabane]], [[County Tyrone]], Ireland (now [[Northern Ireland]]), in 1807. His mother was born in [[Carlisle, Cumbria|Carlisle]], England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow, born in [[Paisley, Scotland]] and Marion Williamson from [[Glasgow]].<ref>[http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=AHN&db=woodrow_wilson&id=I0001 Genealogy of President Woodrow Wilson]</ref> His grandparents' [[whitewash]]ed house has become a tourist attraction in Northern Ireland. Descendants of the Wilsons still live in the farmhouse next door to it.<ref name=GeographiaTyrone>{{cite web |
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|url=http://www.geographia.com/northern-ireland/ukiher01.htm#Tyrone |
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|title= President Wilson House, Dergalt |
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|work=Northern Ireland - Ancestral Heritage |
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|publisher=Northern Ireland Tourist Board}}</ref> |
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Wilson's father was originally from [[Steubenville, Ohio]], where his grandfather published a newspaper, ''The Western Herald and Gazette'', that was [[tariff|pro-tariff]] and [[abolitionist]].<ref>{{harvnb|Walworth|1958}} p. 4</ref> Wilson's parents moved South in 1851 and identified with the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. His father defended slavery, owned slaves and set up a Sunday school for them. They cared for wounded soldiers at their church. The father also briefly served as a chaplain to the [[Confederate Army]].<ref name=PresidentialAvenue>{{cite web |accessdate= |
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|url=http://www.presidentialavenue.com/ww.cfm |
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|title=Woodrow Wilson — 28th President, 1913–1921 |
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|publisher=PresidentialAvenue.com}}</ref> Woodrow Wilson's earliest memory, from the age of three, was of hearing that [[Abraham Lincoln]] had been elected and that a war was coming. Wilson would forever recall standing for a moment at [[Robert E. Lee]]'s side and looking up into his face.<ref name=PresidentialAvenue/> |
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Wilson’s father was one of the founders of the Southern [[Presbyterian Church in the United States]] (PCUS) after it split from the northern Presbyterians in 1861. Joseph R. Wilson served as the first permanent clerk of the southern church’s General Assembly, was Stated Clerk from 1865–1898 and was Moderator of the PCUS General Assembly in 1879. Wilson spent the majority of his childhood, up to age 14, in [[Augusta, Georgia]], where his father was [[Minister (Christianity)|minister]] of the First Presbyterian Church.<ref name=White_Ch2>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pXYqVxLyRrwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Woodrow+Wilson:+The+Man,+His+Times+and+His+Task#PPA28,M1 |
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|title=Woodrow Wilson - The Man, His Times and His Task |
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|last=White|first=William Allen |
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|chapter=Chapter II: The Influence of Environment |
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}}</ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pXYqVxLyRrwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Woodrow+Wilson:+The+Man,+His+Times+and+His+Task#PPA28,M1 |
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|title=Woodrow Wilson - The Man, His Times and His Task |
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|last=White|first=William Allen |
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|chapter=Chapter II: The Influence of Environment |
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}}</ref> |
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Wilson was over ten years of age before he learned to read. His difficulty reading may have indicated [[dyslexia]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Wilson: A Portrait |publisher=American Experience, PBS Television |year=2001 |accessdate=2009-01-19 |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/portrait/wp_wilson.html}}</ref> but as a teenager he taught himself [[shorthand]] to compensate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Woodrow Wilson, Episode One: He Was a Quiet Man (transcript) |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/filmmore/fm_trans1.html |publisher=American Experience, PBS Television |year=2001 |accessdate=2009-01-19}}</ref> He was able to achieve academically through determination and self-discipline. He studied at home under his father's guidance and took classes in a small school in Augusta.<ref>Link ''Road to the White House'' pp. 3–4.</ref> |
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During [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]], Wilson lived in [[Columbia, South Carolina]], the state capital, from 1870–1874, where his father was professor at the [[Columbia Theological Seminary]].<ref>Walworth ch 1</ref> |
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In 1873, he spent a year at [[Davidson College]] in North Carolina, then transferred to [[Princeton University|Princeton]] as a freshman, graduating in 1879, becoming a member of [[Phi Kappa Psi]] fraternity. Beginning in his second year, he read widely in political philosophy and history. Wilson credited the British parliamentary sketch-writer [[Henry Lucy]] as his inspiration to enter public life. He was active in the undergraduate [[American Whig-Cliosophic Society]] discussion club, and organized a separate Liberal Debating Society.<ref>Link, ''Wilson'' I:5–6; Wilson Papers I: 130, 245, 314</ref> |
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In 1879, Wilson attended law school at [[University of Virginia School of Law|University of Virginia]] for one year. Although he never graduated, during his time at the University he was heavily involved in the [[Virginia Glee Club]] and the [[Jefferson Literary and Debating Society]], serving as the Society's president.<ref name="worldswork">{{cite book|title=The World's Work: A History of our Time, Volume IV: November 1911-April 1912|location=|publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]]|year=1912|pages=74–75}}</ref> His frail health dictated withdrawal, and he went home to [[Wilmington, North Carolina|Wilmington]], [[North Carolina]] where he continued his studies.<ref>{{harvnb|Cranston|1945}}</ref> |
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In January 1882, Wilson started a law practice in [[Atlanta]]. One of his [[University of Virginia]] classmates, Edward Ireland Renick, invited him to join his new law practice as partner and Wilson joined him in May 1882. He passed the Georgia Bar. On October 19, 1882, he appeared in court before Judge [[George Hillyer]] to take his examination for the bar, which he passed easily. Competition was fierce in the city with 143 other lawyers, and he found few cases to keep him occupied.<ref name=Mulder1978_pp71-72>{{cite book|author=Mulder, John H. |title=Woodrow Wilson: The Years of Preparation|publisher=Princeton |year=1978|pages=71–72}}</ref> Nevertheless, he found staying current with the law obstructed his plans to study government to achieve his long-term plans for a political career. In April 1883, Wilson applied to the [[Johns Hopkins University]] to study for a doctorate in history and political science and began his studies there in the fall.<ref name="Mulder1978_pp71-72"/> |
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==Personal life== |
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Wilson’s mother was possibly a [[hypochondriac]] and Wilson himself seemed to think that he was often in poorer health than he really was. He did suffer from [[hypertension]] at a relatively early age and may have suffered his first stroke at age 39.<ref>[http://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org/index.asp?section=timeline&file=timelinesearch_day&id=302 Health of Woodrow Wilson]</ref> |
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In 1885, he married [[Ellen Axson Wilson|Ellen Louise Axson]], the daughter of a minister from [[Rome, Georgia]]. They had three daughters: [[Margaret Woodrow Wilson]] (1886–1944); [[Jessie Woodrow Wilson Sayre|Jessie Wilson]] (1887–1933); and [[Eleanor R. Wilson]] (1889–1967)<ref name=GenWebJRAC />. Axson died in 1914, and Wilson married [[Edith Wilson|Edith Galt]], a direct descendant of the famous Native American [[Pocahontas]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Interesting Wilson Facts |publisher= Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library|url=http://www.woodrowwilson.org/learn_sub/learn_sub_show.htm?doc_id=362639 |accessdate=2009-07-18}}</ref> in 1915. Wilson is one of only three presidents to be widowed while still in office.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Presidents' Wives: Reassessing the Office of First Lady |last=Watson |first=Robert P. |publisher= Lynne Rienner Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=1555879489 |pages=261}}</ref> |
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[[File:wilsonspiercearrow.jpg|thumb|right|Wilson's Pierce Arrow, which is on display in his hometown of Staunton, Virginia.]] |
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Wilson was an early automobile enthusiast, and he took daily rides while he was President. His favorite car was a 1919 [[Pierce-Arrow]], in which he preferred to ride with the top down.<ref>[http://www.woodrowwilson.org/visit_sub/visit_sub_show.htm?doc_id=321148 The Pierce Arrow Limousine] from the Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library</ref> His enjoyment of motoring made him an advocate of funding for public [[National Highway System (United States)|highways]].<ref>Richard F. Weingroff, [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/rw96b.htm#6 President Woodrow Wilson– Motorist Extraordinaire], Federal Highway Administration</ref> |
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Wilson was an avid [[baseball]] fan. In 1916, he became the first sitting president to attend a [[World Series]] game. Wilson had been a [[center fielder]] during his Davidson College days. When he transferred to Princeton he was unable to make the varsity team and so became the team's assistant manager. He was the first President officially to throw out a first ball at a World Series.<ref>[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/statitudes/news/2002/10/16/worldseries_btn/ CNNSI.com - Statitudes - Statitudes: World Series, By the Numbers - Thursday October 17, 2002 03:33 AM<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> |
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He cycled regularly, including several cycling vacations in the English [[Lake District]].<ref>see Andrew Wilson, ''A President's Love Affair with the Lake District: Woodrow Wilson's "Second Home"'' (Lakeland Press Agency 1996)</ref> Unable to cycle around Washington, D.C. as President, Wilson took to playing golf, although he played with more enthusiasm than skill.<ref name="president golf">see Don Van Natta Jr., ''First Off the Tee: Presidential Hackers, Duffers, and Cheaters from Taft to Bush'' (PublicAffairs 2003)</ref> Wilson holds the record of all the presidents for the most rounds of golf,<ref name="president golf"/> over 1,000, or almost one every other day. During the winter, the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] would paint golf balls with black paint so Wilson could hit them around in the snow on the [[White House]] lawn.<ref>for details on Wilson's health see Edwin A. Weinstein, ''Woodrow Wilson: A Medical and Psychological Biography'' (Princeton 1981)</ref> |
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==Academic career== |
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He began his graduate studies at [[Johns Hopkins University]] in 1883 and three years later he completed his doctoral dissertation, "Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics," and received a Ph.D. in history and political science. He received academic appointments at [[Bryn Mawr College]] (1885–88) and [[Wesleyan University]] (1888–90).<ref name=PrincetonCompanion1978_Link_PhDquote>{{cite book|accessdate=2008-10-29 |
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|url=http://etcweb.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/wilson_woodrow.html |
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|chapter=Wilson, Woodrow |
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|first=Arthur S. |last=Link |
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|editor=Alexander Leitch |
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|title=A Princeton Companion |year=1978 |
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|publisher=Princeton University Press |
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}}</ref> |
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At Wesleyan, he also coached the [[American football|football]] team and founded the debate team – it is still called the T. Woodrow Wilson debate team. He then joined the [[Princeton University|Princeton]] faculty as professor of [[jurisprudence]] and [[political economy]] in 1890. While there, he was one of the faculty members of the short-lived coordinate college, [[Evelyn College for Women]]. Additionally, Wilson became the first lecturer of Constitutional Law at [[New York Law School]] where he taught with [[Charles Evans Hughes]].<ref>Walworth, v. 1; Link (1947)</ref> |
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Wilson delivered an oration at Princeton's sesquicentennial celebration (1896) entitled "Princeton in the Nation's Service." This phrase became the motto of the University, later expanded to "Princeton in the Nation's Service and in the Service of All Nations."<ref>[http://www.princeton.edu/~compub/pwb/98/0622/speech.html "Beyond FitzRandolph Gates,"] ''Princeton Weekly Bulletin'' June 22, 1998.</ref> In this speech, he outlined his vision of the university in a democratic nation, calling on institutions of higher learning "to illuminate duty by every lesson that can be drawn out of the past".<ref>[http://infoshare1.princeton.edu/libraries/firestone/rbsc/mudd/online_ex/wilsonline/indn8nsvc.html ''"Princeton in the Nation's Service"'' Commemorative Address delivered 21 October 1896.]</ref> |
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Wilson was annoyed that Princeton was not living up to its potential, complaining "There's a little college down in Kentucky which in 60 years has graduated more men who have acquired prominence and fame than has Princeton in her 150 years."<ref>The college he was referring to was [[Centre College]]. Link (1947)</ref> |
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==Writings on government and politics== |
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{{morerefs|section}} |
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{{story|section}} |
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Wilson came of age in the decades after the [[American Civil War]], when Congress was leading – "the gist of all policy is decided by the legislature" |
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—and corruption was rampant. Instead of focusing on individuals in explaining where American politics went wrong, Wilson focused on the American constitutional structure.<ref name=PhD_p180>Wilson ''Congressional Government'' 1885, p. 180.</ref> |
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Under the influence of [[Walter Bagehot]]'s ''The English Constitution'', Wilson saw the [[United States Constitution]] as pre-modern, cumbersome, and open to corruption. An admirer of Parliament (though he did not visit Great Britain until 1919), Wilson favored a [[parliamentary system]] for the United States. Writing in the early 1880s:<ref>The Politics of Woodrow Wilson, 41–48</ref> |
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:"I ask you to put this question to yourselves, should we not draw the Executive and Legislature closer together? Should we not, on the one hand, give the individual leaders of opinion in Congress a better chance to have an intimate party in determining who should be president, and the president, on the other hand, a better chance to approve himself a statesman, and his advisers capable men of affairs, in the guidance of Congress?" |
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Wilson is widely known as the father of public administration. His article "The Study of Administration" was published in June 1887 in the ''Political Science Quarterly''. Wilson believed that public administration was an important topic not just because of growing popularity within college campuses. He believed it was a requirement for a growing nation. He defined public administration simply as “government in action; it is the executive, the operative, the most visible side of government, and is of course as old as government itself” (Wilson 3). He believed that by studying public administration that governmental efficiency may be increased.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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This set the tone for his following discussion. Wilson was concerned with the implementation of government and not just its principles defined by documents such as the Constitution. Wilson analyzed European history and saw a pattern where educated leaders debated the nature of the state, yet the question of how should the law be administrated was relegated to a lowly “practical detail”. Most of this was due to a much smaller—in comparison to the 19th century—population with the government being relatively “simple”.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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Wilson thought it was long past due time to confront these issues, or as he put the problem, “[i]t is getting to be harder to run a constitution than to frame one” (Wilson 4). His justification and purpose for a science of administration was for it to “seek to straighten the paths of government, to make its business less unbusinesslike, to strengthen and purify its organization, and it to crown its dutifulness” (Wilson 5). |
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The first problem (as he saw it) identified was that so far the advancement of this science had been undertaken by Europeans, not including England, whose goals and historical backgrounds were far different from America. He declared that Americans must advance this science as well, to steep it in the American tradition and make this science their own.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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Wilson then described the growth of modern governments, starting with absolute rule, progressing to popular rule based upon a constitution, and then finally leading to a stage where the people undertake to develop administration as a science. He briefly gives a summary of the growth of such foreign states as Prussia, France, and England, highlighting the events that led to advances in administration.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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The next problem was that the American Republic required great compromise since public opinion differed on so many levels. The people of America itself come from diverse backgrounds. These people must be persuaded to form a majority opinion. Thus practical reform to the government is necessarily slow. Although this could be judged a good thing since a single person cannot make drastic, damaging changes. Every change must be pondered at length.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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Now Wilson insisted that "administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics" (Wilson 10) and that "general laws which direct these things to be done are as obviously outside of and above administration" (Wilson 11). He likens administration to a machine that functions independent of the changing mood of its leaders.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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Such a line of demarcation is intended to focus responsibility for actions taken on the people or persons in charge. As Wilson put it, "[p]ublic attention must be easily directed, in each case of good or bad administration, to just the man deserving of praise or blame. There is no danger in power, if only it be not irresponsible. If it be divided, dealt out in share to many [presumably within administration], it is obscured..." (Wilson 12). Essentially, the items under the discretion of administration must be limited in scope, as to not block, nullify, obfuscate, or modify the implementation of governmental decree made by the executive branch. While this is Wilson’s ideal in today’s practice people within administration often greatly influence the makeup of law and not just its implementation.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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==='Congressional Government'=== |
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Wilson started ''Congressional Government'', his best known political work, as an argument for a parliamentary system, but Wilson was impressed by [[Grover Cleveland]], and ''Congressional Government'' emerged as a critical description of America's system, with frequent negative comparisons to [[Westminster system|Westminster]]. Wilson himself claimed, "I am pointing out facts—diagnosing, not prescribing remedies.".<ref name=PhD_p205>Wilson ''Congressional Government'' 1885, p. 205.</ref> |
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Wilson believed that America's intricate system of [[checks and balances]] was the cause of the problems in American governance. He said that the divided power made it impossible for voters to see who was accountable for ill-doing. If government behaved badly, Wilson asked, |
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:"...how is the schoolmaster, the nation, to know which boy needs the whipping? ... Power and strict accountability for its use are the essential constituents of good government... It is, therefore, manifestly a radical defect in our federal system that it parcels out power and confuses responsibility as it does. The main purpose of the [[Constitutional convention of 1787|Convention of 1787]] seems to have been to accomplish this grievous mistake. The 'literary theory' of checks and balances is simply a consistent account of what our Constitution makers tried to do; and those checks and balances have proved mischievous just to the extent which they have succeeded in establishing themselves... ''[the Framers]'' would be the first to admit that the only fruit of dividing power had been to make it irresponsible."<ref name=PhD_pp186-187>Wilson ''Congressional Government'' 1885, pp. 186–187.</ref> |
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The longest section of ''Congressional Government'' is on the [[United States House of Representatives]], where Wilson pours out scorn for the committee system. Power, Wilson wrote, |
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:"is divided up, as it were, into forty-seven [[seignory|seignories]], in each of which a Standing Committee is the court-baron and its chairman lord-proprietor. These petty barons, some of them not a little powerful, but none of them within reach [of] the full powers of rule, may at will exercise an almost despotic sway within their own shires, and may sometimes threaten to convulse even the realm itself".<ref name=PhD_p76>Wilson ''Congressional Government'' 1885, p. 76.</ref> |
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Wilson said that the committee system was fundamentally undemocratic because committee chairs, who ruled by seniority, were responsible to no one except their constituents, even though they determined national policy.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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Besides its undemocratic nature, Wilson also believed that the Congressional Committee System facilitated corruption.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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:"the voter, moreover, feels that his want of confidence in [[United States Congress|Congress]] is justified by what he hears of the power of corrupt lobbyists to turn legislation to their own uses. He hears of enormous subsidies begged and obtained... of appropriations made in the interest of dishonest contractors; he is not altogether unwarranted in the conclusion that these are evils inherent in the very nature of Congress; there can be no doubt that the power of the lobbyist consists in great part, if not altogether, in the facility afforded him by the Committee system.<ref name=PhD_p132>Wilson ''Congressional Government'' 1885, p. 132.</ref> |
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By the time Wilson finished ''Congressional Government'', [[Grover Cleveland]] was President, and Wilson had his faith in the United States government restored. When [[William Jennings Bryan]] captured the Democratic nomination from Cleveland's supporters in 1896, however, Wilson refused to stand by the ticket. Instead, he cast his ballot for [[John M. Palmer (politician)|John M. Palmer]], the presidential candidate of the [[National Democratic Party (United States)|National Democratic Party]], or Gold Democrats, a short-lived party that supported a gold standard, low tariffs, and limited government.<ref>David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=22&articleID=261 "Gold Democrats and the Decline of Classical Liberalism, 1896–1900,"]Independent Review 4 (Spring 2000), 555–75.</ref> |
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After experiencing the vigorous presidencies of [[William McKinley]] and [[Theodore Roosevelt]], Wilson no longer entertained thoughts of parliamentary government at home. In his last scholarly work in 1908, ''Constitutional Government of the United States'', Wilson said that the presidency "will be as big as and as influential as the man who occupies it". By the time of his presidency, Wilson merely hoped that Presidents could be party leaders in the same way [[prime minister]]s were. Wilson also hoped that the parties could be reorganized along ideological, not geographic, lines. "Eight words," Wilson wrote, "contain the sum of the present degradation of our political parties: No leaders, no principles; no principles, no parties."<ref>''Frozen Republic'', 145</ref> |
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==President of Princeton University== |
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[[File:Pu-prospect-house.JPG|200px|thumb|Prospect House, located in the center of [[Princeton University|Princeton's]] campus, was Wilson's home during his term as president of the university.]] |
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The trustees promoted Professor Wilson to president of Princeton in 1902, replacing [[Francis Landey Patton]], whom the Trustees perceived to be an inefficient administrator. Although the school's endowment was barely $4 million, Wilson sought $2 million for a preceptorial system of teaching, $1 million for a school of science, and nearly $3 million for new buildings and salary increases. As a long-term objective, Wilson sought $3 million for a graduate school and $2.5 million for schools of jurisprudence and [[electrical engineering]], as well as a museum of natural history.<ref>Walworth v. 1</ref> He achieved little of those ambitious plans because he was not a strong fund raiser, but he did increase the faculty from 112 to 174, most of whom he selected himself on the basis of their records as outstanding teachers. The curriculum guidelines he developed proved important progressive innovations in the field of higher education.<ref>Walworth v. 1; Bragdon, ''Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years'' (1967)</ref> |
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To emphasize the development of expertise, Wilson instituted academic departments and a system of core requirements where students met in groups of six with preceptors, followed by two years of concentration in a selected major. He tried to raise admission standards and to replace the "gentleman C" with serious study. Wilson aspired, as he told alumni, "to transform thoughtless boys performing tasks into thinking men."<ref>Bragdon, ''Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years''; Walworth v. 1; Link (1947)</ref> |
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In 1906–10, he attempted to curtail the influence of social elites by abolishing the upper-class [[eating club]]s and moving the students into colleges, also known as quadrangles. Wilson's Quad Plan was met with fierce opposition from Princeton's alumni, most importantly [[Moses Taylor Pyne]], the most powerful of Princeton's Trustees. Wilson refused any proposed compromises that stopped short of abolishing the clubs because he felt that to compromise "would be to temporize with evil."<ref>Walworth 1:109</ref> In October 1907, due to the intensity of alumni opposition and Wilson's refusal to compromise, the Board of Trustees withdrew its support for the Quad Plan and instructed Wilson to withdraw it.<ref>Bragdon, ''Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years'', 326–327.</ref> |
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Even more damaging to Wilson's administration of the University was his confrontation with Andrew Fleming West, Dean of the graduate school, and West's ally, former President [[Grover Cleveland]], a trustee. Wilson wanted to integrate the proposed graduate building into the same area with the undergraduate colleges. West wanted them to remain separate. The trustees rejected Wilson's plan for colleges in 1908, and then endorsed West's alternative in 1909. The national press covered the confrontation as a battle of the [[elites]] represented by West versus [[democracy]] represented by Wilson.<ref>Around 1910 Wilson engaged in long meetings in Bermuda with socialite Mary Hulbert Peck; historians are unsure whether there was an affair. There is no evidence but Wilson did send very personal letters, and ugly rumors were circulated by his political enemies in 1912. Cooper (2009) pp. 99-101.</ref> |
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Wilson served as president of the [[American Political Science Association]] in 1910. Around this time, Wilson decided to leave his post at Princeton. After considering an immediate resignation, he decided instead to take up invitations to enter [[New Jersey]] [[Politics of New Jersey|state politics]].<ref>Walworth v 1 ch 6, 7, 8</ref> |
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==Governor of New Jersey== |
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In 1910 Wilson ran for [[Governor of New Jersey]] against the Republican candidate [[Vivian M. Lewis]], the State Commissioner of Banking and Insurance. Wilson's campaign focused on his independence from machine politics, and he promised that if elected he would not be beholden to party bosses. Wilson soundly defeated Lewis in the general election by a margin of more than 49,000 votes, although Republican [[William Howard Taft]] had carried New Jersey in the [[United States presidential election, 1908|1908 presidential election]] by more than 80,000 votes.<ref>[http://www.njstatelib.org/NJ_Information/Digital_Collections/Governors_of_New_Jersey/GWILS.pdf Biography of Woodrow Wilson (PDF)], [[New Jersey State Library]].</ref> |
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In the 1910 election the Democrats also took control of the [[New Jersey General Assembly|General Assembly]]. The [[New Jersey Senate|State Senate]], however, remained in Republican control by a slim margin. After taking office, Wilson set in place his reformist agenda, ignoring the demands of party machinery. While governor, in a period spanning six months, Wilson established state primaries. This all but took the party bosses out of the presidential election process in the state. He also revamped the public utility commission, and introduced [[worker's compensation]].<ref>Shenkman, Richard. p. 275. ''Presidential Ambition''. New York, New York. Harper Collins Publishing, 1999. First Edition. 0-06-018373-X</ref> |
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==Election of 1912== |
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{{Main|United States presidential election, 1912}} |
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Wilson's popularity as governor and his status in the national media gave impetus to his presidential campaign in 1912. He selected William Frank McCombs, a New York lawyer and a friend from college days, to manage his campaign. Much of Wilson's support came from the South, especially from young progressives in that region, especially intellectuals, editors and lawyers. Wilson managed to maneuver through the complexities of local politics. For example, in Tennessee the Democratic Party was divided on the issue of prohibition. Wilson was progressive and sober, but not a dry, and appealed to both sides. They united behind him to win the presidential election in the state, but divided over state politics and lost the gubernatorial election.<ref>Arthur S. Link, "Democratic Politics and the Presidential Campaign of 1912 in Tennessee," ''East Tennessee Historical Society's Publications'' 1979 51: 114-137</ref> |
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The convention deadlocked for more than 40 ballots as no candidate could reach the two-thirds vote required to win the nomination. A leading contender was House Speaker [[Champ Clark]], a prominent progressive strongest in the border states. Other contenders were [[Judson Harmon]] of Ohio, and [[Oscar Underwood]] of Alabama. They lacked Wilson's charisma and dynamism. Publisher [[William Randolph Hearst]], a leader of the left-wing of the party, supported Clark. [[William Jennings Bryan]], the nominee in 1896, 1900 and 1908, played a critical role in opposition to any candidate who had the support of "the financiers of Wall Street." He finally announced for Wilson, who won on the 46th ballot.<ref>Arthur S. Link, "The Baltimore Convention of 1912," ''American Historical Review'' 1945 50(4): 691-713 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1842698 in JSTOR]</ref> |
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In the campaign Wilson promoted the "New Freedom," emphasizing limited federal government and opposition to monopoly powers—positions that he reversed on coming to office. Wilson enjoyed the support of many black leaders including [[W.E.B. DuBois]] and [[William Monroe Trotter]]. Wilson's speeches and letters expressed the sentiments of a defender of the underprivileged.<ref name=weiss /> |
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In a bitter contest for the Republican nomination, President [[William Howard Taft]] defeated former president [[Theodore Roosevelt]] , but when Roosevelt walked out of the Republican convention and ran as a third party candidate, Wilson's success in the electoral college was assured. He won 41.8% of the popular vote.<ref>Lewis L. Gould, ''Four Hats in the Ring: The 1912 Election and the Birth of Modern American Politics'' (2008); Link (1947)</ref>. |
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==First term as President, 1913–1917== |
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Wilson is the only President to hold a [[doctorate of philosophy|Ph.D.]] degree and the only President to serve in a political office in New Jersey before election to the Presidency. He was the first person identified with the South to be elected President since [[Zachary Taylor]] and the first Southerner in the White House since [[Andrew Johnson]] left in 1868.<ref>Arthur S. Link, "Woodrow Wilson: The American as Southerner," ''Journal of Southern History,'' Vol. 36, No. 1 (Feb., 1970), pp. 3-17 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2206599 in JSTOR] Andrew Johnson was not elected; he moved from vice president to president after Lincoln's death in 1865.</ref> Wilson had a strong base of support in the South. He was the first president to deliver his State of the Union address before Congress personally since [[John Adams]] in 1799. Wilson was also the first Democrat elected to the presidency since [[Grover Cleveland]] in 1892 and only the second Democrat in the White House since the Civil War. |
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[[File:Woodrow Wilson addressing Congress (LOC).jpg|thumb|200px|right|Wilson addressing the U.S. Congress, April 8, 1913]] |
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In resolving economic policy issues, he had to manage the conflict between two wings of his party, the agrarian wing led by Bryan and the pro-business wing. With large Democratic majorities in Congress and a healthy economy, he promptly seized the opportunity to implement his agenda.<ref name="Link 1972">Link (1972)</ref> Wilson experienced early success by implementing his "[[The New Freedom|New Freedom]]" pledges of [[antitrust]] modification, tariff revision, and reform in banking and currency matters.<ref>Clements, ''Presidency'' ch. 3</ref> He held the first modern presidential press conference, on March 15, 1913, in which reporters were allowed to ask him questions.<ref name="american chronicle">{{cite news |
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|url=http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/6883 |
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|publisher=''American Chronicle'' |
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|date=March 15, 2006 |
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|title=Happy Anniversary to the first scheduled presidential press conference - 93 years young! |first=Robert |last=Rouse}}</ref> |
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Wilson's first wife [[Ellen Axson Wilson|Ellen]] died on August 6, 1914 of [[Bright's disease]]. In 1915, he met [[Edith Galt]]. They married later that year on December 18. |
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===Federal Reserve 1913=== |
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[[File:US100000dollarsbillobverse.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Wilson on the $100,000 [[gold certificate]]]] |
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Wilson secured passage of the [[Federal Reserve]] system in late 1913. Wilson had tried to find a middle ground between conservative Republicans led by Senator [[Nelson W. Aldrich]] and those, especially the powerful left wing of the Democratic party led by [[William Jennings Bryan]], who opposed all banking schemes and strenuously denounced private banks and [[Wall Street]]. The later group wanted a government-owned central bank that could print paper money as Congress required. The compromise, based on the Aldrich Plan but sponsored by Democratic Congressmen [[Carter Glass]] and [[Robert Owen]], allowed the private banks a certain influence over the new Federal Reserve, but appeased the populists by placing controlling interest in a central, public board. This Board of Governors included members appointed by the President and approved by Congress who would outnumber the board members selected by bankers. Moreover, Wilson convinced Bryan’s supporters that because Federal Reserve notes were obligations of the government, the plan met their demands. Wilson’s plan also organized the Federal Reserve system into 12 districts, a structure meant to weaken the influence of the powerful New York banks, a key demand of Bryan’s allies in the South and West. This decentralization was a key factor in winning the support of Congressman Glass.<ref>Link (1954) pp 43-53</ref> |
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The final plan passed in December 1913. Some bankers felt it gave too much control to Washington, and some reformers felt it allowed bankers to maintain too much power. Several Congressmen claimed that New York bankers feigned their disapproval.<ref>Clements, ''Presidency'' pp 40–44</ref> |
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Wilson named [[Paul Warburg]] and other prominent bankers to direct the new system. While power was supposed to be decentralized, the New York branch dominated the Fed as the "first among equals."<ref name="jecreport">{{cite web |url= http://www.house.gov/jec/fed/fed/fed-impt.htm|title= The Importance of the Federal Reserve |author= Keleher, Robert|date=1997-03|work= Joint Economic Committee |publisher= US House of Representatives}}</ref> The new system began operations in 1915 and played a major role in financing the [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] and American war effort.<ref>Link, ''Wilson: The New Freedom'' (1956) pp. 199–240</ref> |
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In 1929, Wilson's image appeared on the [[Large denominations of United States currency|$100,000 bill]]. The bill, which is now out of print but is still [[legal tender]], was only used to transfer money between [[Federal Reserve]] banks.<ref>[http://ask.yahoo.com/20051110.html Ask Yahoo!] November 10, 2005</ref><ref>[http://www.frbsf.org/currency/world/nocirc/m2.html The $100,000 bill] Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco</ref> |
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===Economic views=== |
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In 1913, the [[Underwood tariff]] lowered the [[tariff]]. The revenue thereby lost was replaced by a new federal income tax (authorized by the [[Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|16th Amendment]], which had been sponsored by the Republicans). The "Seaman's Act" of 1915 improved working conditions for merchant sailors. As response to the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] disaster, it also required all ships to be retrofitted with lifeboats. |
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A series of programs were targeted at farmers. The "Smith Lever" act of 1914 created the modern system of agricultural extension agents sponsored by the state agricultural colleges. The agents taught new techniques to farmers. The 1916 "Federal Farm Loan Board" issued low-cost long-term mortgages to farmers.<ref>Clements, ''Presidency'' ch 4</ref> |
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[[Child labor]] was curtailed by the [[Keating-Owen Act]] of 1916, but the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] declared it unconstitutional in 1918. No major child labor prohibition would take effect until the 1930s.<ref>H.D. Hindman ''Child labor: an American history'' (2002)</ref> |
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The railroad brotherhoods threatened in summer 1916 to shut down the national transportation system. Wilson tried to bring labor and management together, but when management refused he had Congress pass the [[Adamson Act|"Adamson Act"]] in September 1916, which avoided the strike by imposing an 8-hour work day in the industry (at the same pay as before). It helped Wilson gain union support for his reelection; the act was approved by the Supreme Court.<ref>K. Austin Kerr, "Decision For Federal Control: Wilson, McAdoo, and the Railroads, 1917," ''Journal of American History,'' Vol. 54, No. 3 (Dec., 1967), pp. 550–560 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2937406 in JSTOR]</ref> |
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[[File:Pump1913.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Wilson uses tariff, currency and anti-trust laws to prime the pump and get the economy working in a 1913 political cartoon]] |
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===Antitrust=== |
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Wilson broke with the big lawsuit tradition of his predecessors Taft and Roosevelt as [[trust-busting|Trustbusters]], finding a new approach to encouraging competition through the [[Federal Trade Commission]], which stopped unfair trade practices. In addition, he pushed through Congress the [[Clayton Antitrust Act]] making certain business practices illegal (such as price discrimination, agreements prohibiting retailers from handling other companies’ products, and directorates and agreements to control other companies). The power of this legislation was greater than previous anti-trust laws, because individual officers of corporations could be held responsible if their companies violated the laws. More importantly, the new laws set out clear guidelines that corporations could follow, a dramatic improvement over the previous uncertainties. This law was considered the "[[Magna Carta]]" of labor by [[Samuel Gompers]] because it ended union liability antitrust laws. In 1916, under threat of a national railroad strike, he approved legislation that increased wages and cut working hours of railroad employees; there was no strike.<ref>{{Citation |first=Carlos D. |last=Ramírez |first2=Christian |last2=Eigen-Zucchi |title=Understanding the Clayton Act of 1914: An Analysis of the Interest Group Hypothesis |journal=Public Choice |volume=106 |issue=1–2 |year=2001 |pages=157–181 |doi=10.1023/A:1005201409149 }}</ref> |
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===War policy—World War I=== |
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{{Main|World War I}} |
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Wilson spent 1914 through the beginning of 1917 trying to keep America out of the [[World War I|war in Europe]]. He offered to be a mediator, but neither the [[Allies]] nor the [[Central Powers]] took his requests seriously. Republicans, led by [[Theodore Roosevelt]], strongly criticized Wilson’s refusal to build up the [[U.S. Army]] in anticipation of the threat of war. Wilson won the support of the U.S. peace element by arguing that an army buildup would provoke war. Secretary of State [[William Jennings Bryan]], whose pacifist recommendations were ignored by Wilson, resigned in 1915.<ref name="Clements, Presidency ch. 7">Clements, ''Presidency'' ch. 7</ref> |
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On 18 December 1916 Wilson unsuccessfully offered to mediate peace. As a preliminary he asked both sides to state their minimum terms necessary for future security. The [[Central Powers]] replied that victory was certain, and the Allies required the dismemberment of their enemies' empires. No desire for peace or common ground existed, and the offer lapsed.<ref>[[John Keegan]], ''The First World War'' (Hutchinson, London 1998), p. 345.</ref> |
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While German submarines were killing sailors and civilian passengers Wilson demanded that Germany stop, but he kept the U.S. out of the war. Britain had declared a blockade of Germany to prevent neutral ships from carrying contraband goods to Germany. Wilson protested some British violation of neutral rights, where no one was killed. His protests were mild, and the British knew America would not take action.<ref name="Clements, Presidency ch. 7"/> |
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===Segregation in the federal government=== |
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In 1912, "an unprecedented number"<ref name=JNH_Wolgemuth>{{cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716036?seq=1 |
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|title=Woodrow Wilson and Federal Segregation |
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|first=Kathleen L. |last=Wolgemuth |
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|journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=44 |issue=2 |month=April | year=1959 |pages=158–173 |publisher=Association for the Study of African-American Life and History, Inc.|doi=10.2307/2716036}} |
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</ref><!-- p. 158--> of African Americans left the Republican Party to cast their vote for Democrat Wilson. They were encouraged by his promises of support for their issues. However, they were disappointed when early in his administration he allowed the introduction of segregation into several federal departments<ref name="'70s 41">{{cite book |title= How We Got Here: The '70s|last= Frum|first= David|authorlink= David Frum|coauthors= |year= 2000|publisher= Basic Books|location= New York, New York|isbn= 0465041957|page= 41|pages= |url= }}</ref> and signed a bill making [[miscegenation]] a felony in the [[District of Columbia]]<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/portrait/wp_african.html Wilson-A Portrait | African Americans]</ref> |
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. He also allowed DC streetcars to become segregated.<ref name="'70s 41"/> In response to African American protests Wilson claimed that the segregation policy "...was caused by friction between the colored and white clerks, and not done to injure or humiliate the colored clerks, but to avoid friction." Wilson also authorized that federal employment seekers must contain photos with applications in order to discriminate between African American and Whites. |
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The issue of segregation came up early in his presidency when, at an April 1913 [[United States Cabinet|cabinet]] meeting, [[Albert Burleson]], Wilson's [[United States Postmaster General|Postmaster General]], complained about working conditions at the Railway Mail Service. Offices and restrooms became segregated, sometimes by partitions erected between seating for white and African-American employees in Post Office Department offices, lunch rooms, and bathrooms, as well as in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury]] and the [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]]. It also became accepted policy for "Negro" employees of the Postal Service to be reduced in rank or dismissed. And unlike his predecessors [[Grover Cleveland]] and [[Theodore Roosevelt]], Wilson backed down in the face of Southern opposition to the re-appointment of an African-American to the position of [[Register of the Treasury]] and other positions within the federal government. This set the tone for Wilson's attitude to race throughout his presidency, in which the rights of African-Americans were sacrificed, for what he felt would be the more important longer term progress of the common good.<ref name=JNH_Wolgemuth/><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716642?seq=1 |
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|title=Woodrow Wilson and the Race Question |
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|first=Henry |last=Blumenthal |
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|journal=The Journal of Negro History |volume=48 |issue=1 |month=January | year=1963 |pages=1–21 |publisher=Association for the Study of African-American Life and History, Inc.|doi=10.2307/2716642}} |
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</ref> |
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===Election of 1916=== |
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{{Main|United States presidential election, 1916}} |
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Renominated in 1916, Wilson used as a major campaign slogan "He kept us out of the war", referring to his administration's avoiding open conflict with Germany or Mexico while maintaining a firm national policy. Wilson, however, never promised to keep out of war regardless of provocation. In his acceptance speech on September 2, 1916, Wilson pointedly warned Germany that submarine warfare that took American lives would not be tolerated: |
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:"The nation that violates these essential rights must expect to be checked and called to account by direct challenge and resistance. It at once makes the quarrel in part our own."<ref>[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65393 Woodrow Wilson: Speech of Acceptance<!--Bot-generated title-->]</ref> |
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Wilson narrowly won [[U.S. presidential election, 1916|the election]], defeating Republican candidate [[Charles Evans Hughes]]. As governor of New York from 1907–1910, Hughes had a progressive record, strikingly similar to Wilson's as governor of New Jersey. Theodore Roosevelt would comment that the only thing different between Hughes and Wilson was a shave. However, Hughes had to try to hold together a coalition of conservative Taft supporters and progressive Roosevelt partisans and so his campaign never seemed to take a definite form. Wilson ran on his record and ignored Hughes, reserving his attacks for Roosevelt. When asked why he did not attack Hughes directly, Wilson told a friend to “Never murder a man who is committing suicide.”<ref>[http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/3489 The American Presidency Project] Wilson quote</ref> |
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The result was exceptionally close and the outcome was in doubt for several days. Because of Wilson's fear of becoming a [[Lame duck (politics)|lame duck]] president during the uncertainties of the war in Europe, he created a hypothetical plan where if Hughes were elected he would name Hughes [[United States Secretary of State]] and then resign along with the vice-president to enable Hughes to become the president. The vote came down to several close states. Wilson won California by 3,773 votes out of almost a million votes cast and New Hampshire by 54 votes. Hughes won [[Minnesota]] by 393 votes out of over 358,000. In the final count, Wilson had 277 electoral votes vs. Hughes 254. Wilson was able to win [[U.S. presidential election, 1916|reelection in 1916]] by picking up many votes that had gone to Teddy Roosevelt or [[Eugene V. Debs]] in 1912.<ref>William M. Leary, Jr. "Woodrow Wilson, Irish Americans, and the Election of 1916," ''The Journal of American History,'' Vol. 54, No. 1. (Jun., 1967), pp. 57–72. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723%28196706%2954%3A1%3C57%3AWWIAAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T in JSTOR]</ref> |
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==Second term as President, 1917–1921== |
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===Decision for War, 1917=== |
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Before entering the war in 1917, the U.S. had made a declaration of neutrality in 1914. During this time of neutrality, President Wilson warned citizens not to take sides in the war in fear of endangering wider U.S. policy. In his address to congress in 1914, Wilson states, “Such divisions amongst us would be fatal to our peace of mind and might seriously stand in the way of the proper performance of our duty as the one great nation at peace, the one people holding itself ready to play a part of impartial mediation and speak the counsels of peace and accommodation, not as a partisan, but as a friend.” <ref>"Primary Documents: U.S. Declaration of Neutrality, 19 August 1914". 7 January 2002. <http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usneutrality.htm>.</ref> |
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The U.S. maintained neutrality despite increasing pressure placed on Wilson after the sinking of the British passenger liner [[RMS Lusitania]] with American citizens on board. This neutrality would deteriorate when Germany began to initiate its unrestricted submarine warfare threatening U.S. commercial shipping. When Germany started [[unrestricted submarine warfare]] in early 1917, despite the promises made in the [[Arabic pledge]] and the [[Sussex pledge]], and attempted to enlist Mexico as an ally (see [[Zimmermann Telegram]]), Wilson took America into World War I as a war to make "the world safe for democracy." He did not sign a formal alliance with the United Kingdom or France but operated as an "Associated" power. He raised a massive army through [[conscription]] and gave command to General [[John J. Pershing]], allowing Pershing a free hand as to tactics, strategy and even diplomacy.<ref>Edward M. Coffman, ''The war to end all wars'' (1968) ch 3</ref> |
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[[File:USA bryter de diplomatiska förbindelserna med Tyskland 3 februari 1917.jpg|300px|thumb|President Wilson before Congress, announcing the break in official relations with Germany. February 3, 1917.]] |
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Woodrow Wilson had decided by then that the war had become a real threat to humanity. Unless the U.S. threw its weight into the war, as he stated in his declaration of war speech, on April 2, 1917.<ref>[http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usawardeclaration.htm Declaration of war speech (FirstWorldWar.com)]</ref> Western civilization itself could be destroyed. His statement announcing a "war to end all wars" meant that he wanted to build a basis for peace that would prevent future catastrophic wars and needless death and destruction. This provided the basis of Wilson's [[Fourteen Points]], which were intended to resolve territorial disputes, ensure free trade and commerce, and establish a peacemaking organization. Included in these fourteen points was the proposal of the [[League of Nations]].<ref>Clements, ''Presidency'' ch 7–8</ref> |
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===War Message=== |
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[[File:Woodrow Wilson War Declaration Speech 2 April 1917.jpg|thumb|left|300px|President Wilson delivering his war message before Congress. April 2, 1917.]] |
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Woodrow Wilson delivered his ''War Message'' to Congress on the evening of April 2, 1917. Introduced to great applause that he remained intense and almost motionless for the entire speech, only raising one arm as his only bodily movement.<ref>Baker, Ray Stannard, ''Woodrow Wilson Life and Letters'' (Garden City, NY, 1937)</ref> |
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Wilson announced that his previous position of "armed neutrality" was no longer tenable now that the Imperial German Government had announced that it would use its submarines to sink any vessel approaching the ports of Great Britain, Ireland or any of the Western Coasts of Europe. He advised Congress to declare that the recent course of action taken by the Imperial German Government constituted an act of war. He proposed that the United States enter the war to "vindicate principles of peace and justice in the life of the world as against selfish and autocratic power." He also charged that Germany had "filled our unsuspecting communities and even our offices of government with spies and set criminal intrigues everywhere afoot against our national unity of counsel, our peace within and without our industries and our commerce." Furthermore, the United States had intercepted [[Zimmermann Telegram|a telegram sent to the German ambassador in Mexico City]] that evidenced Germany's attempt to instigate a Mexican attack upon the U.S. The German government, Wilson said, "means to stir up enemies against us at our very doors." Wilson closed with the statement that the world must be again safe for democracy.<ref>''"Woodrow Wilson's War Message". <http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ww18.htm>.''</ref> |
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With only 6 Senators in opposition, Congress declared war two days later, on April 4, 1917. |
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===The Fourteen Points=== |
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{{wikisource|Fourteen Points}} |
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{{Main|Fourteen Points}} |
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[[File:14Points.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Woodrow Wilson's Speech in Congress: January 8, 1918]] |
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In a speech to Congress on January 8, 1918, Wilson articulated America's war aims. It was the clearest expression of intention made by any of the belligerent nations. The speech, authored principally by [[Walter Lippmann]], translated Wilson's progressive domestic policies into comparably idealistic equivalents for the international arena: self-determination, open agreements, international cooperation. Promptly dubbed the ''Fourteen Poins'', Wilson attempted to make them the basis for the treaty that would mark the end of the war. They ranged from the most generic principles like the prohibition of secret treaties to such detailed outcomes as the creation of an independent Poland with access to the sea.<ref>[http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/President_Wilson%27s_Fourteen_Points President Wilson's Fourteen Points]</ref> |
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===Home front=== |
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To counter opposition to the war at home, Wilson pushed the [[Espionage Act of 1917]] and the [[Sedition Act of 1918]] through Congress to suppress anti-British, pro-German, or anti-war opinions. He welcomed [[Socialism|socialists]] who supported the war and pushed for deportation of foreign-born radicals.<ref>Avrich, Paul, Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background, Princeton University Press, 1991</ref> Citing the Espionage Act, the U.S. Post Office refused to carry any written materials that could be deemed critical of the U. S. war effort. Some sixty newspapers were deprived of their second-class mailing rights.<ref name="Clements, Presidency ch 8">Clements, ''Presidency'' ch 8</ref> |
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His wartime policies were strongly pro-labor. He worked closely with [[Samuel Gompers]] and the AFL, while suppressing antiwar groups trying to impede the war effort. The [[American Federation of Labor]], the railroad brotherhoods and other 'moderate' unions saw enormous growth in membership and wages during Wilson's administration. There was no rationing, so consumer prices soared. As income taxes increased, [[white-collar worker]]s suffered. Appeals to buy [[war bond]]s were highly successful, however. Bonds had the result of shifting the cost of the war to the affluent 1920s.<ref name="Clements, Presidency ch 8"/> |
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Wilson set up the first western propaganda office, the United States [[Committee on Public Information]], headed by [[George Creel]] (thus its popular name, ''Creel Commission''), which filled the country with patriotic anti-German appeals and conducted various forms of [[censorship]].<ref>[http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/063.html Records of the Committee on Public Information] from the [[National Archives]]</ref> In 1917, Congress authorized ex-President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] to raise four divisions of volunteers to fight in France- [[Roosevelt's World War I volunteers]]; Wilson refused to accept this offer from his political enemy. Other areas of the war effort were incorporated into the government along with propaganda. The [[War Industries Board]] headed by [[Bernard Baruch]] set war goals and policies for American factories. Future President [[Herbert Hoover]] was appointed to head the [[Food Administration]] which encouraged Americans to participate in "Meatless Mondays" and "Wheatless Wednesdays" to conserve food for the troops overseas. The [[Federal Fuel Administration]] run by Henry Garfield introduced [[daylight savings time]] and rationed fuel supplies such as coal and oil to keep the US military supplied. These and many other boards and administrations were headed by businessmen recruited by Wilson for a dollar a day salary to make the government more efficient in the war effort.<ref name="Clements, Presidency ch 8"/> |
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===Other foreign affairs=== |
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Between 1914 and 1918, the United States intervened in [[Latin America]], particularly in Mexico, [[Haiti]], [[Cuba]], and [[Panama]]. The U.S. maintained troops in [[Nicaragua]] throughout the Wilson administration and used them to select the president of Nicaragua and then to force Nicaragua to pass the [[Bryan-Chamorro Treaty]]. American troops in Haiti, under the command of the federal government, forced the Haitian legislature to choose the candidate Wilson selected as Haitian president. American troops occupied Haiti between 1915 and 1934.<ref>Clements, ''Presidency'' 103–6</ref> Wilson ordered the military occupation of the [[Dominican Republic]] shortly after the resignation of its President [[Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra]] in 1916. The U.S. military worked in concert with wealthy Dominican landowners to suppress the ''gavilleros'', a ''[[campesino]]'' [[guerrilla]] force fighting the occupation. The occupation lasted until 1924, and was notorious for its brutality against those in the resistance.<ref>{{citation |title=Culture and Customs of the Dominican Republic |last=Brown |first=Isabel Zakrzewski |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1999}}</ref> |
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{{Main|American Expeditionary Force Siberia}} |
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{{Main|Polar Bear Expedition}} |
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After Russia left the war following the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] of 1917, the Allies sent troops there to prevent a German or [[Bolshevik]] takeover of allied-provided weapons, munitions and other supplies, previously shipped as aid to the pre-revolutionary government.<ref>[[George F. Kennan]], ''Russia Leaves the War'', p. 472, ''et passim''. 1956, repr. 1989, ISBN 0691008418.</ref> Wilson sent armed forces to assist the withdrawal of [[Czechs|Czech]] and [[Slovaks|Slovak]] prisoners along the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]], hold key port cities at [[Arkhangelsk|Arkangel]] and [[Vladivostok]]. Though not sent to engage the Bolsheviks, the U.S. forces engaged in several armed conflicts against forces of the new Russian government. Despite the apparent innocuousness of Wilson's motives, revolutionaries in Russia resented the American intrusion. As Robert Maddox puts it, "The immediate effect of the intervention was to prolong a bloody civil war, thereby costing thousands of additional lives and wreaking enormous destruction on an already battered society."<ref>Robert J. Maddox, ''The Unknown War with Russia'' (San Rafael, CA: Prisidio Press, 1977), 137.</ref> Wilson withdrew most of the soldiers on April 1, 1920, though some remained until as late as 1922. |
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In 1919 Wilson guided American foreign policy to "acquiesce" in the [[Balfour Declaration of 1917|Balfour Declaration]] without supporting Zionism in an official way. Wilson expressed sympathy for the plight of Jews, especially in Poland and in France.<ref>Walworth (1986) 473–83, esp. p. 481; Melvin I. Urofsky, ''American Zionism from Herzl to the Holocaust,'' (1995) ch. 6; Frank W. Brecher, ''Reluctant Ally: United States Foreign Policy toward the Jews from Wilson to Roosevelt.'' (1991) ch 1–4.</ref> |
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In May 1920, after the Senate passed a resolution unanimously expressing sympathy for [[Armenian Genocide|Armenia's suffering]], Wilson sent a proposal to Congress to establish an American mandate over Armenia. It failed in the Senate with only 23 votes for and 52 against. He later requested an appropriation to underwrite a loan to Armenia, but got no response from Congress.<ref>Cooper, ''Woodrow Wilson'' 564, 575</ref> |
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===Peace Conference 1919=== |
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{{Main|Paris Peace Conference, 1919}} |
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After World War I, Wilson participated in negotiations with the stated aim of assuring statehood for formerly oppressed nations and an equitable peace. On January 8, 1918, Wilson made his famous ''[[Fourteen Points]]'' address, introducing the idea of a League of Nations, an organization with a stated goal of helping to preserve territorial integrity and political independence among large and small nations alike.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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Wilson intended the Fourteen Points as a means toward ending the war and achieving an equitable peace for all the nations. He spent six months in Paris for the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|1919 Paris Peace Conference]] (making him the first U.S. president to travel to Europe while in office). He worked tirelessly to promote his plan. The charter of the proposed League of Nations was incorporated into the conference's [[Treaty of Versailles]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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[[File:WoodrowWilsonVersailles.jpg|right|thumb|Wilson returning from the Versailles Peace Conference, 1919.]] |
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For his peace-making efforts, Wilson was awarded the 1919 [[Nobel Peace Prize]],<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1919/index.html Woodrow Wilson bio sketch] from NobelFoundation.org</ref> however, he failed to even win US Senate support for ratification. The United States never joined the League. Republicans under [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] controlled the Senate after the 1918 elections, but Wilson refused to give them a voice at Paris and refused to agree to Lodge's proposed changes. The key point of disagreement was whether the League would diminish the power of Congress to declare war. During this period, Wilson became less trustful of the press and stopped holding press conferences for them, preferring to use his propaganda unit, the Committee for Public Information, instead.<ref name="american chronicle"/> |
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A poll of historians in 2006 cited Wilson's failure to compromise with the Republicans on U.S. entry into the League as one of the 10 largest errors on the part of an American president.<ref>[http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20060218/presidential_errors_060218/20060218?hub=World CTV.ca U.S. historians pick top 10 presidential errors]</ref> The extensive restrictions in the Treaty of Versailles left the German populace with a resentment against the treaty and ultimately contributed to the rise of [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[World War II]]. |
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When Wilson traveled to Europe to settle the peace terms, he visited Pope [[Benedict XV]] in Rome, making Wilson the first American President to visit the Pope while in office. |
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===Post war: 1919–20=== |
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Wilson's administration did not plan for the process of demobilization at the war's end. Though some advisers tried to engage the President's attention to what they called "reconstruction," his tepid support for a federal commission evaporated with the election of 1918. Republican gains in the Senate meant that his opposition would have to consent to the appointment of commission members. Instead, Wilson favored the prompt dismantling of wartime boards and regulatory agencies.<ref>David M. Kennedy, ''Over Here: The First Wold War and American Society'' (NY: Oxford University Press, 2004) 249-50</ref> |
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Demobilization proved chaotic and violent. Four million soldiers were sent home with little planning, little money, and few benefits. A wartime bubble in prices of farmland burst, leaving many farmers bankrupt or deeply in debt after they purchased new land. Major strikes in steel, coal, and meatpacking followed in 1919.<ref>Leonard Williams Levy and Louis Fisher, ''Encyclopedia of the American Presidency'', Simon and Schuster: 1994, p. 494. ISBN 0132759837</ref> Serious [[Red Summer of 1919|race riots]] hit [[Chicago Race Riot of 1919|Chicago]], [[Omaha Race Riot of 1919|Omaha]] and two dozen other cities.<ref>Ann Hagedorn, ''Savage Peace: Hope and Fear in America, 1919-1920'' (NY: Simon & Schuster, 2007), 196-7, 302-7, 312-9, 376-80</ref> |
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<!-- we lack coverage of Wilson and domestic scene during these years, but he didn't order Palmer to get radicals and his role in strikes is slight --> |
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As the election of 1920 approached, Wilson imagined that a deadlocked Democratic convention might turn to him as the only candidate who would make U.S. participation in the League of Nations the dominant issue. He imagined and sometimes pretended he was healthy enough for the effort, but several times admitted that he knew he could not survive a campaign. No one around the President dared tell him that he was incapable and that the campaign for the League was already lost. At the Convention in late June, 1920, some Wilson partisans made efforts on his behalf and sent Wilson hopeful reports, but they were quashed by Wilson’s wiser friends.<ref>David Pietrusza, ''1920: The Year of Six Presidents'' (NY: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2007), 191-2, 198-200, 253</ref> |
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===Incapacity=== <!-- needs to be condensed --> |
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[[File:Woodrow and Edith Wilson2.jpg|right|thumb|Woodrow Wilson's first posed photograph after his stroke. He was paralyzed on his left side, so his wife [[Edith Bolling Wilson|Edith]] holds a document steady while he signs. June 1920.]] |
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The immediate cause of Wilson's incapacitation was the physical strain of the public speaking tour he undertook to obtain support for ratification of the Covenant of the League of Nations. In [[Pueblo, Colorado]], on September 25, 1919<ref>[http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/wilsonspeech_league.htm Primary Documents: President Woodrow Wilson's Address in Favor of the League of Nations, September 25, 1919 (FirstWorldWar.com)]</ref> he collapsed.<ref>Wilson had long-standing arterial hypertension, a condition for which little could be done in the early 1900s. [http://www.google.com/search?q=hypertension+treatment+history&hl=en&rlz=1B3GGGL_enUS239US239&sa=X&tbo=p&tbs=tl:1,tll:1900,tlh:1919&ei=kLGuSq_CMaCw8QbEsInHCA&oi=timeline_histogram_main&ct=timeline-histogram&cd=5 Timeline for Hypertension Treatment History], accessed September 14, 2009. During his presidency, he had repeated episodes of unexplained arm and hand weakness, and his [[retinal]] arteries were said to be abnormal on fundoscopic examination.[http:www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g28.htm The Health & Medical History of President Woodrow Wilson], accessed 9-11-2009. He developed severe headaches, diplopia (double vision), and evanescent weakness of the left arm and leg. In retrospect, those problems likely represented the effects of cerebral [[transient ischemic attack]]s. Weinstein EA, ''Woodrow Wilson: A Medical & Psychological Biography'' (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1981), pp. 260–270</ref> |
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Then, on October 2, 1919, he suffered a serious [[stroke]] that almost totally incapacitated him, leaving him paralyzed on his left side and blind in his left eye.<ref>This was a cataclysmic "cerebrovascular accident" ([[stroke]]) that left him with a dense and permanent [[paralysis]] of the left side of his body ([[hemiplegia]]), as well as [[hemianopsia]]. Park BE, ''The Impact of Illness of World Leaders'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1986), pp. 3–76</ref> He was confined to bed for weeks, sequestered from nearly everyone but his wife and his physician, Dr. [[Cary Grayson]].<ref>Grayson CT, ''Woodrow Wilson: An Intimate Memoir'' (NY: Holt, Rhinehart, & Winston, 1960), pp. 96–110</ref> For at least a few months, he used a wheelchair. Later, he could walk only with the assistance of a cane. The full extent of his disability was kept from the public until after his death on February 3, 1924. |
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With few exceptions, Wilson was kept out of the presence of [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Thomas R. Marshall]], his [[United States Cabinet|cabinet]] and Congressional visitors to the [[White House]] for the remainder of his term. His wife, [[Edith Bolling Wilson|Edith]], served as his steward, selecting issues for his attention and delegating other issues to his cabinet heads. Eventually, Wilson did resume his attendance at cabinet meetings, but his input there was perfunctory at best.<ref>Hoover H., ''The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1958), pp. 271–278</ref> This was one of the most serious cases of presidential disability in American history and was later cited as an argument for the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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===Administration and Cabinet=== |
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Wilson's chief of staff ("Secretary") was [[Joseph Patrick Tumulty]] 1913–1921, but he was largely upstaged after 1916 when Wilson's second wife, [[Edith Bolling Wilson]], assumed full control of Wilson's schedule. The most important foreign policy advisor and confidant was "Colonel" [[Edward M. House]] until Wilson broke with him in early 1919.<ref>Arthur Walworth, "Considerations on Woodrow Wilson and Edward M. House," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 1994 24(1): 79–86. ISSN: 0360-4918</ref> |
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[[File:Wilson Cabinet 2.jpg|right|320px|thumb|Woodrow Wilson and his cabinet in the Cabinet Room]] |
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{{Infobox U.S. Cabinet |
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|align= left |
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|clear= yes |
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|Name= Wilson |
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|President = Woodrow Wilson |
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|President start = 1913 |
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|President end = 1921 |
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|Vice President = [[Thomas R. Marshall]] |
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|Vice President start = 1913 |
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|Vice President end = 1921 |
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|State = [[William J. Bryan]] |
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|State start = 1913 |
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|State end = 1915 |
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|State 2 = [[Robert Lansing]] |
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|State start 2 = 1915 |
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|State end 2 = 1920 |
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|State 3 = [[Bainbridge Colby]] |
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|State start 3 = 1920 |
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|State end 3 = 1921 |
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|Treasury = [[William G. McAdoo]] |
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|Treasury start = 1913 |
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|Treasury end = 1918 |
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|Treasury 2 = [[Carter Glass]] |
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|Treasury start 2 = 1918 |
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|Treasury end 2 = 1920 |
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|Treasury 3 = [[David F. Houston]] |
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|Treasury start 3 = 1920 |
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|Treasury end 3 = 1921 |
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|War = [[Lindley M. Garrison]] |
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|War start = 1913 |
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|War end = 1916 |
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|War 2 = [[Newton D. Baker]] |
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|War start 2 = 1916 |
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|War end 2 = 1921 |
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|Justice = [[James C. McReynolds]] |
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|Justice start = 1913 |
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|Justice end = 1914 |
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|Justice 2 = [[Thomas W. Gregory]] |
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|Justice start 2 = 1914 |
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|Justice end 2 = 1919 |
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|Justice 3 = [[A. Mitchell Palmer]] |
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|Justice start 3 = 1919 |
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|Justice end 3 = 1921 |
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|Post = [[Albert S. Burleson]] |
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|Post start = 1913 |
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|Post end = 1921 |
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|Navy = [[Josephus Daniels]] |
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|Navy start = 1913 |
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|Navy end = 1921 |
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|Interior = [[Franklin K. Lane]] |
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|Interior start = 1913 |
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|Interior end = 1920 |
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|Interior 2 = [[John B. Payne]] |
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|Interior start 2 = 1920 |
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|Interior end 2 = 1921 |
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|Agriculture = [[David F. Houston]] |
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|Agriculture start = 1913 |
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|Agriculture end = 1920 |
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|Agriculture 2 = [[Edwin T. Meredith]] |
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|Agriculture start 2 = 1920 |
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|Agriculture end 2 = 1921 |
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|Commerce = [[William C. Redfield]] |
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|Commerce start = 1913 |
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|Commerce end = 1919 |
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|Commerce 2 = [[Joshua W. Alexander]] |
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|Commerce start 2 = 1919 |
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|Commerce end 2 = 1921 |
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|Labor = [[William B. Wilson]] |
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|Labor start = 1913 |
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|Labor end = 1921 |
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}}{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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===Supreme Court appointments=== |
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Wilson appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]: |
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*[[James Clark McReynolds]] in 1914. He served more than 26 years and established a consistent record in opposition to Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal programs, including the Tennessee Valley Authority, the National Industrial Recovery Act and the Social Security Act. |
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*[[Louis Brandeis|Louis Dembitz Brandeis]] in 1916. He served almost 23 years and wrote landmark opinions in cases respecting free speech and the right to privacy. |
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*[[John Hessin Clarke]] in 1916. He served just 6 years on the Court before resigning. He thoroughly disliked his work as an Associate Justice. |
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==Wilsonian idealism{{anchor | Wilsonian Idealism}}== |
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[[File:Ww28.gif|thumb|right|200px|Official White House portrait of Woodrow Wilson]] |
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In the opinion of historian John Cooper, Wilson was a remarkably effective writer and thinker.<ref>[http://www.neh.gov/news/humanities/2001-11/woodrowwilson.html The Passions of Woodrow Wilson] By Lynn Fabian Lasner – Humanities, November/December 2001, Volume 22/Number 6</ref> He composed speeches and other writings with two fingers on a little Hammond typewriter.<ref>Phyllis Lee Levin. Edith and Woodrow: The Wilson White House. Simon and Schuster. New York. 2001, p139</ref> |
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Link finds that Wilson from his earliest days had imbibed the beliefs of his denomination - in the omnipotence of God, the morality of the Universe, a system of rewards and punishments and the notion that nations, as well as man, transgressed the laws of God at their peril.<ref>Arthur S. Link, "A Portrait of Wilson," ''Virginia Quarterly Review''1956 32(4): 524-541</ref> Blum (1956) argues that he learned from [[William Ewart Gladstone]] a mystic conviction in the superiority of Anglo-Saxons, in their righteous duty to make the world over in their image. Moral principle, constitutionalism, and faith in God were among the prerequisites for alleviating human strife. While he interpreted international law within such a brittle, moral cast, Wilson remained remarkably insensitive to new and changing social forces and conditions of the 20th century. He expected too much justice in a morally brutal world which disregarded the self-righteous resolutions of parliaments and statesmen like himself. Wilson's triumph was as a teacher of international morality to generations yet unborn.<ref>John Morton Blum, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality'' (1956), p p10, 197-99</ref> [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] sees Wilson's vision of world order anticipated humanity prevailing through the "Holy Ghost of Reason," a vision which rested on religious faith.<ref>David Steigerwald, ''Wilsonian Idealism in America'' (1994) p. 230.</ref> |
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Wilson's diplomatic policies had a profound influence on shaping the world. Diplomatic historian [[Walter Russell Mead]] has explained: |
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:"Wilson's principles survived the eclipse of the Versailles system and they still guide European politics today: self-determination, democratic government, collective security, international law, and a league of nations. Wilson may not have gotten everything he wanted at [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Versailles]], and his treaty was never ratified by the Senate, but his vision and his diplomacy, for better or worse, set the tone for the twentieth century. [[French Third Republic|France]], [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italy]], and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] may have sneered at Wilson, but every one of these powers today conducts its European policy along Wilsonian lines. What was once dismissed as visionary is now accepted as fundamental. This was no mean achievement, and no European statesman of the twentieth century has had as lasting, as benign, or as widespread an influence."<ref>Walter Russell Mead, [http://www.randomhouse.com/knopf/authors/mead/excerpt.html ''Special Providence''], (2001)</ref> |
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American foreign relations since 1914 have rested on Wilsonian idealism, says historian David Kennedy, even if adjusted somewhat by the "realism" represented by [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] and [[Henry Kissinger]]. Kennedy argues that every president since Wilson has |
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:"embraced the core precepts of Wilsonianism. Nixon himself hung Wilson's portrait in the White House Cabinet Room. Wilson's ideas continue to dominate American foreign policy in the twenty-first century. In the aftermath of [[September 11 attacks|9/11]] they have, if anything, taken on even greater vitality."<ref>David M. Kennedy, "What 'W' Owes to 'WW': President Bush May Not Even Know It, but He Can Trace His View of the World to Woodrow Wilson, Who Defined a Diplomatic Destiny for America That We Can't Escape", ''The Atlantic Monthly'' Vol: 295. Issue: 2. (March 2005) pp 36+.</ref> |
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==Civil Rights== |
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[[File:Wilson-quote-in-birth-of-a-nation.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Quotation from Woodrow Wilson's ''History of the American People'' as reproduced in the film ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]''.]] |
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===African-Americans=== |
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Wilson did not interfere with the well-established system of [[Jim Crow]] and backed the demands of Southern Democrats that their states be left alone to deal with issues of race and black voting without interference from the North, ensuring there would be no challenge to the raft of laws passed to disenfranchise African Americans across the region."<ref>Douglas A. Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II, Anchor Books 2009, pp. 357–58.</ref> |
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While president of [[Princeton University]], Wilson discouraged blacks from even applying for admission, preferring to keep the peace among white students than have black students admitted.<ref>Arthur Link, ''Wilson:The Road to the White House'' (Princeton University Press, 1947) 502</ref> [[Bruce M. Wright]] was the first African American admitted to Princeton in the 20th-century, in 1935. Upon arriving on campus Wright's race became apparent, and he was promptly sent home.<ref>http://www.princeton.edu/mudd/news/faq/topics/African_Americans.shtml</ref> It was not until 1942 that Princeton started admitting black students, the first of whom graduated in 1947(John Leroy Howard).<ref>[http://www.princeton.edu/~bhm/history.html Black History Month at Princeton University]</ref> |
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Many black leaders supported Wilson in the 1912 election. However their rejoicing over Wilson's victory was short-lived as segregationist white Southerners took control of Congress and many executive departments.<ref name=weiss /> As President of the United States, Wilson ignored complaints that his cabinet officials had established official [[racial segregation|segregation]] in most federal government offices, in some departments for the first time since 1863. New buildings and facilities were built to house black workers separately.<ref name="reasonmag">[http://www.reason.com/news/show/33906.html Dixiecrats Triumphant: The menacing Mr. Wilson]Charles Paul Freund (December 18, 2002) Reason Magazine</ref> "His administration imposed full racial segregation in Washington and hounded from office considerable numbers of black federal employees."<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |
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|accessdate= |
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|url=http://www.umich.edu/%7eurel/admissions/legal/expert/foner.html |
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|author=Foner, Eric |
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|work=The Compelling Need for Diversity in Higher Education |
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|title= Expert Report Of Eric Foner |
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|publisher=University of Michigan}}</ref> |
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Wilson and his cabinet members fired many black Republican office holders in political appointee positions, but also appointed a few black Democrats to such posts. |
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[[W. E. B. Du Bois]], a leader of the [[NAACP]], campaigned for Wilson and in 1918 was offered an Army commission in charge of dealing with race relations; DuBois accepted, but he failed his Army physical and did not serve.<ref>Ellis, Mark. "'Closing Ranks' and 'Seeking Honors': W. E. B. Du Bois in World War I" ''Journal of American History'', 1992 79(1): 96–124. ISSN 0021-8723</ref> Wilson drafted hundreds of thousands of blacks into the army, giving them equal pay with whites, but kept them in all-black units with white officers.<ref>James J. Cooke, ''The All-Americans at War: The 82nd Division in the Great War, 1917-1918'' (1999)</ref> When a delegation of blacks protested the discriminatory actions, Wilson told them that "[S]egregation is not a humiliation but a benefit, and ought to be so regarded by you gentlemen." In 1914, he told ''[[The New York Times]]'', "If the colored people made a mistake in voting for me, they ought to correct it."<ref>{{cite news | title=President Resents Negro's Criticism | url= http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C01E0DC1738E633A25750C1A9679D946596D6CF | work=[[New York Times]] | pages= 1 | date=November 13, 1914 | accessdate=2009-02-04 }}</ref> |
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Wilson was highly criticized by African Americans for his actions. He was also criticized by such hard-line segregationists as Georgia's [[Thomas E. Watson]], who believed Wilson did not go far enough in restricting black employment in the federal government. The segregation introduced into the federal workplace by the Wilson administration was kept in place by the succeeding presidents and not officially ended until the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] Administration.<ref>Executive Order 9980, July 26, 1948</ref> |
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Woodrow Wilson's "History of the American People" explained the [[Ku Klux Klan]] of the late 1860s as the natural outgrowth of [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]], a lawless reaction to a lawless period. Wilson noted that the Klan "began to attempt by intimidation what they were not allowed to attempt by the ballot or by any ordered course of public action."<ref>Woodrow Wilson, ''A History of the American People'' (1931) V:59.</ref> |
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===White ethnic groups=== |
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Wilson had harsh words to say about immigrants in his history books, but after he entered politics in 1910, Wilson worked to integrate immigrants into the Democratic party, the army, and American life. During the war, he demanded in return that they repudiate any loyalty to enemy nations.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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[[Irish American]]s were powerful in the Democratic party and opposed going to war as allies of their traditional enemy Great Britain, especially after the violent suppression of the [[Easter Rebellion]] of 1916. Wilson won them over in 1917 by promising to ask Great Britain to give Ireland its independence. At Versailles, however, he reneged and the Irish-American community vehemently denounced him. Wilson, in turn, blamed the Irish Americans and [[German American]]s for lack of popular support for the [[League of Nations]], saying, |
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:"There is an organized propaganda against the League of Nations and against the treaty proceeding from exactly the same sources that the organized propaganda proceeded from which threatened this country here and there with disloyalty, and I want to say, I cannot say too often, any man who carries a hyphen about with him carries a dagger that he is ready to plunge into the vitals of this Republic whenever he gets ready."<ref>American Rhetoric, [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/wilsonleagueofnations.htm "Final Address in Support of the League of Nations"], Woodrow Wilson, delivered 25 Sept 1919 in Pueblo, CO. John B. Duff, "German-Americans and the Peace, 1918–1920" ''American Jewish Historical Quarterly'' 1970 59(4): 424–459. and Duff, "The Versailles Treaty and the Irish-Americans" ''Journal of American History'' 1968 55(3): 582–598. ISBN 0021-8723</ref>'' |
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Wilson refused to meet with [[Éamon de Valera]], the [[President of Dáil Éireann]] (the revolutionary Irish Republic), during the latter's 1919 visit to the United States.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}} |
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President Wilson nominated to the Supreme Court [[Louis Brandeis]], the first [[Jewish]] American to ever hold this position. Wilson's appointment started a long line of Jewish justices who would serve on the nation's highest court in the future. |
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==Death== |
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[[File:Woodrow Wilson Tomb.JPG|thumb|right|The final resting place of Woodrow Wilson at the [[Washington National Cathedral]]]] |
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In 1921, Wilson and his wife retired from the White House to a home in the [[Embassy Row]] section of [[Washington, D.C.]] Wilson continued going for daily drives and attended Keith's [[vaudeville]] theater on Saturday nights. Wilson was one of only two Presidents ([[Theodore Roosevelt]] was the first) to have served as president of the [[American Historical Association]].<ref>David Henry Burton. ''Theodore Roosevelt, American Politician'', p.146. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997, ISBN 0838637272</ref> |
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Wilson died in his S Street home on February 3, 1924. He was buried in [[Washington National Cathedral]]. He is the only president buried in Washington, D.C.<ref>John Whitcomb, Claire Whitcomb. ''Real Life at the White House'', p.262. Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0415939518</ref> |
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Mrs. Wilson stayed in the home another 37 years, dying on December 28, 1961. It was the day she was to be the guest of honor at the opening of the [[Woodrow Wilson Bridge]] near [[Washington, D.C.]] She died with her favorite dog, Rooter, at her bedside. |
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Mrs. Wilson left the home to the [[National Trust for Historic Preservation]] to be made into a museum honoring her husband. The [[Woodrow Wilson House (Washington, D.C.)|Woodrow Wilson House]] opened as a museum. It was designated a [[National Historic Landmark]] in 1964 and listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1966.<ref>[http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/Presidents/site16.htm "Woodrow Wilson House"], National Park Service Website, accessed 12 Jan 2009</ref> |
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==1944 film== |
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[[Darryl F. Zanuck]] of [[20th Century Fox]] produced a film titled ''Wilson'' during World War II. It looked back with nostalgia to the commander-in-chief of World War I. |
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==Media== |
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[[File:Postcard21000SoldiersCreateImageofPresidentWilsonCampShermanOH1918-commons.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Image of Wilson created by 21,000 soldiers at Camp Sherman, [[Chillicothe, Ohio]], 1918]] |
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{{Listen |
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|filename=WoodrowWilson-addresstoAmericanIndians.ogg |
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|title="Address to the American Indians" |
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|description=("The great white father now calls you his brothers"), an address given in 1913 |
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|format=[[Ogg]] |
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}} |
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<gallery widths=300px> |
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File:Woodrow Wilson at a parade, 1918.ogg|Wilson tips his hat as he exits the White House on his way to a parade along [[Pennsylvania Avenue]] (1918) |
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File:Woodrow Wilson video montage.ogg|Collection of video clips of the president |
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</gallery> |
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==See also== |
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*[[United States presidential election, 1912]] |
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*[[United States presidential election, 1916]] |
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*[[History of the United States (1865–1918)]] |
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*[[History of the United States (1918–1945)]] |
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*[[World War I]] |
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* [[Paris Peace Conference]] |
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* [[Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library]] |
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* [[The Woodrow Wilson House (Washington, D.C.)]] |
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* [[The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]] |
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* [[Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs]], Princeton, New Jersey |
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* [[USS Woodrow Wilson (SSBN-624)|USS ''Woodrow Wilson'' (SSBN-624)]] |
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* [[Ivy League Presidents]] |
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{{-}} |
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==Notes== |
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{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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==References== |
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{{Refbegin}} |
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===Secondary sources=== |
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* Ambrosius, Lloyd E., “Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies,” ''Diplomatic History'', 30 (June 2006), 509–43. |
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* Bailey; Thomas A. ''Wilson and the Peacemakers: Combining Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace and Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal'' (1947) |
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* Bennett, David J., ''He Almost Changed the World: The Life and Times of Thomas Riley Marshall'' (2007) |
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* Brands, H. W. ''Woodrow Wilson 1913–1921'’ (2003) |
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* Clements, Kendrick, A. ''Woodrow Wilson : World Statesman'' (1999) |
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* Clements, Kendrick A. ''The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson'' (1992) |
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* Clements, Kendrick A. "Woodrow Wilson and World War I," ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 34:1 (2004). pp 62+ |
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* Cooper, John Milton. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009) |
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* {{Cite book |last=Cranston |first=Ruth |title=The Story of Woodrow Wilson: Twenty-Eighth President of the United States, Pioneer of World Democracy |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=1945}} |
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* Davis, Donald E. and Eugene P. Trani; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109328821 ''The First Cold War: The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson in U.S.-Soviet Relations''] (2002) |
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* Freud, Sigmund and Bullitt, William C. [http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=29a-aCzGShgC ''Woodrow Wilson: A Psychological Study''] (1966). |
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* Greene, Theodore P. Ed. ''Wilson at Versailles'' (1957) |
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* Hofstadter, Richard. "Woodrow Wilson: The Conservative as Liberal" in ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), ch. 10. |
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* Knock, Thomas J. ''To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order'' (1995) |
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* N. Gordon Levin, Jr., ''Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to War and Revolution'' (1968) |
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* Link, Arthur S. "Woodrow Wilson" in Henry F. Graff ed., ''The Presidents: A Reference History '' (2002) pp 365–388 |
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* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910–1917'' (1972) standard political history of the era |
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* Link, Arthur Stanley. ''Wilson: The Road to the White House'' (1947), first volume of standard biography (to 1917); ''Wilson: The New Freedom'' (1956); ''Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality: 1914–1915'' (1960); ''Wilson: Confusions and Crises: 1915–1916'' (1964); ''Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace: 1916–1917'' (1965), the last volume of standard biography |
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* Link, Arthur S.; ''Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies'' (1957) |
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* Link, Arthur S.; ''Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913–1921'' (1982) |
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* Livermore, Seward W. ''Woodrow Wilson and the War Congress, 1916–1918'' (1966) |
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* Malin, James C. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5260560 ''The United States after the World War'' ] (1930) |
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* May, Ernest R. ''The World War and American Isolation, 1914–1917'' (1959) |
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* Saunders, Robert M. ''In Search of Woodrow Wilson: Beliefs and Behavior'' (1998) |
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* Trani, Eugene P. “Woodrow Wilson and the Decision to Intervene in Russia: A Reconsideration.” ''Journal of Modern History'' (1976). 48:440–61. in JSTOR |
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* {{Cite book |last=Walworth |first=Arthur |title=Woodrow Wilson, Volume I |publisher=Longmans, Green |year=1958 |url= http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24215014}} |
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* Walworth, Arthur; [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104399613 ''Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919''] |
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* {{cite journal |title=Woodrow Wilson - Catalogue of an Exhibition in the Princeton University Library February 18 through April 15, 1956 Commemorating the Centennial of His Birth |last=Princeton University |publisher=The Princeton University Library Chronicle |volume=XVII| issue = 3, Spring issue |year=1956}} |
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===Primary sources=== |
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* August Heckscher, ed., ''The Politics of Woodrow Wilson: Selections from his Speeches and Writings'' (1956) |
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* {{cite book |
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|url=http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/catalogs/series/pw.html |
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|title=The Papers of Woodrow Wilson |
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|author=Link, Arthur S. (editor)}} Complete in 69 volumes at major academic libraries. Annotated edition of all of Wilson's correspondence, speeches and writings. |
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* {{cite book |
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|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8wwik10.txt |
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|author=Tumulty, Joseph P. |
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|title=Woodrow Wilson as I Know Him |
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|year=1921}}. Memoir by Wilson's chief of staff. |
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* {{gutenberg|no=14811|name=The New Freedom by Woodrow Wilson}} 1912 campaign speeches |
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* {{cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/whwar10h.htm |
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|author=Wilson, Woodrow |
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|title=Why We Are at War |year=1917}} Six war messages to Congress, January – April 1917. |
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* {{cite book |
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|author=Wilson, Woodrow |
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|title=Selected Literary & Political Papers & Addresses of Woodrow Wilson}} 3 volumes, 1918 and later editions. |
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* Woodrow Wilson, compiled with his approval by Hamilton Foley; ''Woodrow Wilson's Case for the League of Nations'', Princeton University Press, Princeton 1923; [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,716925-1,00.html contemporary book review]. |
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* Wilson, Woodrow. ''Messages & Papers of Woodrow Wilson'' 2 vol (ISBN 1-135-19812-8) |
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* Wilson, Woodrow. ''The New Democracy. Presidential Messages, Addresses, and Other Papers (1913–1917)'' 2 vol 1926 (ISBN 0-89875-775-4 |
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* Wilson, Woodrow. [http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/fourteen-points.html ''President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points (1918)'']. |
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{{Refend}} |
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==External links== |
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{{commons|Woodrow Wilson}} |
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{{Wikisource author}} |
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{{wikiquote}} |
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* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0402.html#article NY Times main headline, April 2, 1917, ''President Calls for War Declaration, Stronger Navy, New Army of 500,000 Men, Full Cooperation With Germany's Foes''] |
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* [http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/index.php/academic/americanpresident/wilson Extensive essay on Woodrow Wilson and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs] |
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* [http://www.heritageandhistory.com/contents1a/2008/10/the-president-visits-carlisle/ Woodrow Wilson visits Carlisle - UK] |
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* [http://www.utwatch.org/funfacts/woodrowwilson.html Ode to Woodrow Wilson] |
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* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/ww28.html Official White House biography] |
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* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/wilson/index.html Woodrow Wilson: A Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress |
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*[http://woodrowwilson.net Presidential Biography by Stanley L. Klos] |
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*[http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=WilsonW Audio clips of Wilson's speeches] |
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*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/wilson1.htm First Inaugural Address] |
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*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/wilson2.htm Second Inaugural Address] |
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*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/President_Wilson's_War_Address President Wilson's War Address] |
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*[http://www.libraryreference.org/wilson.html Woodrow Wilson Biography] |
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*[http://www.woodrowwilson.org Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library at His Birthplace] Staunton, Virginia |
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*[http://www.wilsonboyhoodhome.org Boyhood Home of President Woodrow Wilson] Augusta, GA |
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*[http://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org Woodrow Wilson House] Washington,DC |
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*[http://www.wilsoncenter.org Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars] Washington,DC |
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*[http://www.davidpietrusza.com/wilson-links.html Woodrow Wilson Links] |
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*{{gutenberg author|id=Woodrow+Wilson | name=Woodrow Wilson}} |
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*[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/dec28.html Library of Congress: "Today in History: December 28"] |
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*[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun09.html Library of Congress: "Today in History: June 9"] |
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*[http://www.discovernorthernireland.com/product.aspx?ProductID=2941 Woodrow Wilson Ancestral Home] |
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*[http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/14wilson/14wilson.htm ''Woodrow Wilson: Prophet of Peace,'' a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan] |
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*[http://boomp3.com/m/46f4c88f954a President Woodrow Wilson: Address To The American Indians] |
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*[http://www.nga.org/portal/site/nga/menuitem.29fab9fb4add37305ddcbeeb501010a0/?vgnextoid=534c3058be3f9010VgnVCM1000001a01010aRCRD&vgnextchannel=e449a0ca9e3f1010VgnVCM1000001a01010aRCRD New Jersey Governor Thomas Woodrow Wilson], [[National Governors Association]] (listen online) |
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* [http://www.njstatelib.org/NJ_Information/Digital_Collections/Governors_of_New_Jersey/GWILS.pdf Biography of Woodrow Wilson], [[New Jersey State Library]] |
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{{end}} |
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{{US Presidents}} |
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{{Wilson cabinet}} |
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{{Governors of New Jersey}} |
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{{Nobel Peace Prize Laureates 1901-1925}} |
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{{Persondata |
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|NAME = Wilson, Woodrow |
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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Wilson, Thomas Woodrow |
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|SHORT DESCRIPTION = 28th [[President of the United States]] |
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|DATE OF BIRTH = December 28, 1856 |
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|PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Staunton, Virginia|Staunton]], [[Virginia]], United States |
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|DATE OF DEATH = February 3, 1924 |
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|PLACE OF DEATH = [[Washington, D.C.]], United States |
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}} |
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Revision as of 20:38, 10 February 2010
woodrow wilson is a gay little fag who sleeps with his daughter }}