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Women in Bangladesh
Begum Rokeya was a pioneer writer and a social worker of the undivided Bengal. She is most famous for her efforts in favour of gender equality and other social issues.
General Statistics
Maternal mortality (per 100,000)176 (2015)
Women in parliament20.3% (2018)
Women over 25 with secondary education45.3% (2018)
Women in labour force36.0% (2018)
Gender Inequality Index[1]
Value0.530 (2021)
Rank131st out of 191
Global Gender Gap Index[2]
Value0.714 (2022)
Rank71st out of 146
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The status of women in Bangladesh has been subject to many important changes over the past few centuries. Bangladeshi women have made significant progress since the country's independence in 1971, where women in the region experienced increased political empowerment for women, better job prospects, increased opportunities of education and the adoption of new laws to protect their rights through Bangladesh's policies in the last four decades. Still, women in Bangladesh continue to struggle to achieve equal status to men due to societal norms that enforce restrictive gender roles as well as poor implementation of laws that were set to protect women.

Under the leadership of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, Bangladesh has achieved remarkable success in promoting the rights of women. Her efforts in the realm of women's empowerment and gender equality are frequently regarded as a model for other nations.[3]

The Government of Bangladesh has mandated the reservation of at least 33% of all committee positions for women.[4] Within the Parliament, there is one whip, two chairpersons, and several members of standing committees who are women. Presently, the national parliament boasts 20 elected female representatives, and an additional 50 seats are exclusively reserved for women. Consequently, the total count of women serving as members of the National Parliament amounts to 70.[4]

In legal matters, Bangladesh follows a mixed system, predominantly of common law inherited from its colonial past as well as some Islamic laws that mostly concern personal status issues. Politically, women have been comparatively prominent in the sphere: since 1990s the Prime Ministers elected were women. To ensure the well-being and progress of women, the government has implemented and revised several laws, establishing institutions and formulating targeted policies. These efforts aim to safeguard women's interests and create an environment conducive to their empowerment. By introducing gender-sensitive policies and programs, the government strives to enable women to play a vital role in society and actively contribute to development as empowered agents.[5]

The budget allocated for gender-related initiatives in the fiscal year 2023-24 amounts to Tk175,350.5 crore. Out of this total, 58.4% is designated for empowering women and enhancing their social dignity, 33.5% is allocated for expanding women's access to public services, and 8.1% is dedicated to improving women's productivity and participation in the labor force.[6] Enhanced engagement of women in socio-economic and political endeavors has led to noteworthy advancements in gender parity across all sectors within Bangladesh. For the second consecutive year, Bangladesh has claimed the foremost position in gender equality among South Asian nations, as affirmed by the Gender Gap Index. Notably, the country has effectively bridged 73% of its comprehensive gender gap, as indicated by the Global Gender Gap Index of 2020. During the period spanning 1996 to 2017, the national female labor force participation rate escalated from 15.8% to 36.3%, surpassing the South Asian average of 35%.[7]

History

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The extent to which women in the region in the past has varied over time, where the status of women varied between religious and ethnic groups, as well as across social classes.

Pre-Independence Era

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Before the 20th century, women in this region, as well as in Bengal in general, experienced different levels of autonomy depending on where they lived. While women who lived in rural areas were able to roam around in groups and appear in public, those who lived in urban areas would have to observe purdah by covering up. Prevalent in both Hindu and Muslim families at the time, these middle-class and upper-class women were mostly homemakers who barely went outside; any occasional movement outside were done inside cloaked carriages. This was seen as a way to protect women from unknown dangers of urban areas by the patriarch of the house. However, purdah was not common among lower-class women.[8]

Polygamy was practiced in this region regardless of religion. Nevertheless, the practice was not common among the general populace and was more commonly observed in the aristocratic class; recent eras see a further decline in polygamous relationships. Historically, Sati was practiced in this region, mostly among the upper class, until the late 19th century.

Post-Independence Era

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Available data on health, nutrition, education, and economic performance indicated that in the 1980s the status of women in Bangladesh remained considerably inferior to that of men. Women, in custom and practice, remained subordinate to men in almost all aspects of their lives; greater autonomy was the privilege of the rich or the necessity of the very poor.

Most women's lives remained centred on their traditional roles, and they had limited access to markets, productive services, education, health care, and local government. This lack of opportunities contributed to high fertility patterns, which diminished family well-being, contributed to the malnourishment and generally poor health of children, and frustrated educational and other national development goals. In fact, acute poverty at the margin appeared to be hitting hardest at women. As long as women's access to health care, education, and training remained limited, prospects for improved productivity among the female population remained poor.

About 82 percent of women lived in rural areas in the late 1980s. The majority of rural women, perhaps 70 percent, were in small cultivator, tenant, and landless households; many worked as labourers part-time or seasonally, usually in post-harvest activities, and received payment in kind or in meager cash wages. Another 20 percent, mostly in poor landless households, depended on casual labour, gleaning, begging, and other irregular sources of income; typically, their income was essential to household survival. The remaining 10 percent of women were in households mainly in the professional, trading, or large-scale landowning categories, and they usually did not work outside the home.

The economic contribution of women was substantial but largely unacknowledged. Women in rural areas were responsible for most of the post-harvest work, which was done in the chula, and for keeping livestock, poultry, and small gardens. Women in cities relied on domestic and traditional jobs, but in the 1980s they increasingly worked in manufacturing jobs, especially in the readymade garment industry. Those with more education worked in government, health care, and teaching, but their numbers remained very small. Continuing high rates of population growth and the declining availability of work based in the chula meant that more women sought employment outside the home. Accordingly, the female labour force participation rate doubled between 1974 and 1984, when it reached nearly 8 percent. Female wage rates in the 1980s were low, typically ranging between 20 and 30 percent of male wage rates.

In 2019 Bangladesh's highest court ruled that on marriage registration forms, a word used to describe unmarried women that can also mean "virgin" must be replaced with a word that only means "an unmarried woman".[9]

The official religion of Bangladesh is Islam and 90% of the population being Muslim.[10][11]

Education and economic development

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Education

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Further information: Education in Bangladesh
Azimpur Girls' School in Bangladesh

The literacy rate in Bangladesh is lower for females (55.1%) compared to males (62.5%) – 2012 estimates for population aged 15 and over.[12]

During the past decades, Bangladesh has improved its education policies; and the access of girls to education has increased. In the 1990s, girls' enrolment in primary school has increased rapidly. Although there is now gender parity in enrolments at the primary and lower secondary school level, the percentage of girls drops in the later secondary school years.[13]

Workforce participation

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Women in Bangladesh are engaged in many work activities, from domestic work inside the home, to outside paid work. Women's work are often undervalued and under-reported.[14] The Bangladeshi government has set aside a substantial annual budget of around $100 million to promote the advancement of women in various areas. In particular, the Readymade Garments (RMG) sector, which employs approximately 4 million women and plays a crucial role in the nation's economy, receives considerable attention. To further support women's entrepreneurial endeavors, Bangladesh Bank offers collateral-free loans, extending financial assistance to millions of aspiring women entrepreneurs. This dedicated focus on empowering women economically showcases the government's commitment to fostering gender equality and women's empowerment.[citation needed]

Land and property rights

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Women's inheritance rights are poor: discriminatory laws and patriarchal social norms make it difficult for many women to have access to land.[15] Most women inherit according to the local interpretations of Sharia Law.[15]

Engagement in public life

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Bangladesh has continuously had a female prime minister for 30 years. This is the longest unbroken tenure for a democratically elected female head of government in the world. 21% of MPs in the Jatiya Sangsad are women, the highest proportion in South Asia.[16][17]

Crimes against women

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Rape

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See also: Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict and Persecution of Buddhists

Bengali settlers and soldiers in the Chittagong Hill Tracts have raped native Jumma (Chakma) women "with impunity" with the Bangladeshi security forces doing little to protect the Jummas and instead assisting the rapists and settlers.[18]

The indigenous Buddhist and Hindu Jummas of Sino-Tibetan background have been targeted by the Bangladeshi government with massive amounts of violence and genocidal policies as ethnic Bengali settlers swarmed into Jumma lands, seized control and massacred them with the Bangladeshi military engaging in mass rape of women, massacres of entire villages and attacks on Hindu and Buddhist religious sites with deliberate targeting of monks and nuns.[19]

Child marriage

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Bangladesh has one of the highest rates of child marriage in the world.[20] The practice of dowry, although illegal, contributes to this phenomenon.[21] 29% of girls get married before age 15 and 65% before the age of 18.[22] Government action has had little effect, and has been contradictory: although the government has pledged to end child marriage by 2041, the Prime Minister in 2015 attempted to lower the age of marriage for girls from 18 to 16.[22] An exception to the law was instituted so that marriage at 16 is permitted with parental consent.[23]

Domestic violence

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In 2010, Bangladesh enacted the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act, 2010.[24] Domestic violence (DV) is accepted by a significant percentage of the population: in the 2011 DHS survey, 32.5% of women said that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife for specific reasons (the most common reason given was if the wife "argues with him" – at 22.4%).[25] In recent years violence towards women, committed by men, has decreased significantly and is considerably low compared to south Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Nepal, and India.[26]

Dowry

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Dowry violence is a problem in Bangladesh. The country has taken action against the practice of dowry through laws such as Dowry Prohibition Act, 1980; Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Ordinance, 1982; and Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Ordinance, 1986. However, abuses regarding dowry continue, with the legal enforcement against dowry being weak.[27]

Sexual harassment

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See also: Sexuality in Bangladesh

"Eve teasing" is a euphemism used in South Asia for public sexual harassment (often known as "street harassment") of women by men. Examples include wolf-whistling, obscene gestures, threats of abduction, stalking, groping, and rubbing against women.[28][29] Eve likely alludes to the first woman in the Biblical creation story.[30] As of 2010, according to the Bangladesh National Women Lawyers' Association, nearly 90% of Bangladeshi girls aged 10-18 had been subjected to eve teasing.[28][31]

Other concerns

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Freedom of movement

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Bangladesh Railway female coach
Bangladesh Railway female coach

Some urban Bangladeshi women have freedom of movement because of their financial position and social class, but many others are afforded significantly less liberty. Historically, the patriarchal society restricted rural women to their homes. Freedom to travel has improved, but most women are still confined to their village. All women still need their husband's permission to visit public spaces.[32]

Health

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The maternal mortality rate in Bangladesh is 240 deaths/100,000 live births (as of 2010).[33] Sexually transmitted infections are relatively common,[34] although the rate of HIV/AIDS is low.[35] A 2014 study found that Bangladeshi women' knowledge about different diseases is very poor.[36] Bangladesh has recently expanded training programs of midwives to improve reproductive health and outcomes.[37]

Family planning

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Already in the 1990s, family planning was recognised as very important in Bangladesh.[38] The total fertility rate (TFR) is 2.45 children born/woman (estimates as of 2014).[39]

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See also

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References

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  1. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2022.
  2. ^ "Global Gender Gap Report 2022" (PDF). World Economic Forum. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 July 2022. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
  3. ^ "The Empowerment of Women in Bangladesh: Not Just Rhetoric". Institute of South Asian Studies. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2023.
  4. ^ a b "Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina's Commitment Gender Equality and Women Empowerment" (PDF). Ministry of Women and Children Affairs. May 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 July 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  5. ^ "The Empowerment of Women in Bangladesh: Not Just Rhetoric". Institute of South Asian Studies, National University of Singapore. 12 August 2020. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
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  7. ^ "What milestones have Bangladesh crossed in 50 years". Centre for Research and Information. 26 March 2021. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
  8. ^ Meredith Borthwick (8 December 2015). The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849-1905. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400843909. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  9. ^ "Bangladesh: Court removes 'virgin' word from marriage form". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 September 2019. Retrieved 7 September 2019.
  10. ^ "Official Census Results 2011 page xiii" (PDF). Bangladesh Government. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 March 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
  11. ^ "Bangladesh court upholds Islam as religion of the state". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 2 December 2018. Retrieved 8 June 2017.
  12. ^ "The World Factbook". cia.gov. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
  13. ^ "UNICEF Bangladesh – Girls' Education – Girls' Education Strategy for Bangladesh". unicef.org. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
  14. ^ Science, London School of Economics and Political. "Department of Gender Studies" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
  15. ^ a b "Land and Property Rights of Rural Women in Bangladesh" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  16. ^ "Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments (%) - Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
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  19. ^ Iqbal, Jamil M. (2 November 2009). "The fate of the Chittagong Hill Tracts tribes of Bangladesh". In Defence of Marxism. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
  20. ^ "Child Marriage is a Death Sentence for Many Young Girls" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  21. ^ Early marriage, UNICEF, archived from the original on 22 January 2017, retrieved 27 August 2015
  22. ^ a b Bangladesh: Girls Damaged by Child Marriage: Stop Plan to Lower Marriage Age to 16, Human Rights Watch, 9 June 2015, archived from the original on 23 December 2020, retrieved 27 August 2015
  23. ^ Mansura Hossain (7 March 2015), Age of marriage 18, but 16 with parental consent, Prothom Alo, archived from the original on 24 December 2017, retrieved 27 August 2015
  24. ^ "English Version of the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act, 2010" (PDF). Protecting Human Rights. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 November 2013.
  25. ^ "Demographic and Health Survey 2011" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
  26. ^ "57% of boys, 53% of girls think wife beating is justified". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 23 November 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
  27. ^ "Dowry violence continues unabated". IRIN News. 11 September 2009. Archived from the original on 8 August 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
  28. ^ a b Nahar, Papreen; van Reeuwijk, Miranda; Reis, Ria (January 2013). "Contextualising sexual harassment of adolescent girls in Bangladesh". Reproductive Health Matters. 21 (41): 78–79. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(13)41696-8. PMID 23684190.
  29. ^ Talboys, Sharon L.; Kaur, Manmeet; VanDerslice, James; Gren, Lisa H.; Bhattacharya, Haimanti; Alder, Stephen C. (January–March 2017). "What Is Eve Teasing? A Mixed Methods Study of Sexual Harassment of Young Women in the Rural Indian Context". SAGE Open. 7 (1): 1. doi:10.1177/2158244017697168.
  30. ^ Barrett, Grant (2006). "Eve Teasing". The Official Dictionary of Unofficial English. McGraw-Hill. p. 109. ISBN 0-07-145804-2.
  31. ^ "When sexual harassment leads to suicide". IRIN News. 13 December 2010. Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
  32. ^ Nawaz, Faraha (April 2020). "The Impact of Non-Government Organizations on Women's Mobility in Public Life: An Empirical Study in Rural Bangladesh". Journal of International Women's Studies. 21 (2): 94–113.
  33. ^ "The World Factbook". cia.gov. Archived from the original on 30 October 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
  34. ^ Gibney, L; Macaluso, M; Kirk, K; Hassan, MS; Schwebke, J; Vermund, SH; Choudhury, P (2001). "Prevalence of infectious diseases in Bangladeshi women living adjacent to a truck stand: HIV/STD/hepatitis/genital tract infections". Sex Transm Infect. 77 (5): 344–50. doi:10.1136/sti.77.5.344. PMC 1744386. PMID 11588280.
  35. ^ "The World Factbook". cia.gov. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
  36. ^ Hossain, Mosharaf; Mani, Kulanthayan KC; Sidik, Sherina Mohd; Shahar, Hayati Kadir; Islam, Rafiqul (December 2014). "Knowledge and awareness about STDs among women in Bangladesh". BMC Public Health. 14 (1): 775. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-775. ISSN 1471-2458. PMC 4246425. PMID 25081860.
  37. ^ "WHO – Bangladesh expands training of midwives to improve maternal and neonatal health". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 6 June 2014.
  38. ^ Barkat-e-Khuda; Stoeckel, John; Piet-Pelon, Nancy (April 1997). Bangladesh Family Planning Programme: Lessons learned and Directions for the Future (PDF). International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh. ISBN 984-551-091-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2013.
  39. ^ "The World Factbook". cia.gov. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 2 August 2016.
  40. ^ Bangladesh (Report). Bureau of International Labor Affairs. Archived from the original on 19 February 2004.

Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division.

Further reading

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  • Nasreen, Taslima (1998). "The contest over gender in Bangladesh". In Herbert L. Bodman; Nayereh E. Tohidi. Women in Muslim Societies: Diversity Within Unity. Lynne Rienner. ISBN 978-1-55587-578-7.
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