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Klamath Lake AFA

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Klamath Lake AFA
Upper Klamath Lake AFA
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Cyanobacteria
Class: Cyanophyceae
Order: Nostocales
Family: Aphanizomenonaceae
Genus: Aphanizomenon
Species:
A. flos-aquae
Binomial name
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae

Klamath Lake AFA, also called Klamath Lake Blue Green Algae and Klamath AFA (Aphanizomenon flos-aquae MDT14a), is a strain of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. Small amounts of this cyanobacteria can be found in bodies of water worldwide,[1] but it is notable for growing prolifically in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon. Klamath AFA is a blue-green algae that has been harvested wild from Upper Klamath Lake since the 1980s and used as a dietary supplement.[2][3]

Genome sequencing distinguished and named this isolate as Aphanizomenon flos-aquae MDT14a,[4][5] distinct from other varieties of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. Aphanizomenon flos-aquae was historically treated as a single homogeneous species, but genetic technology reveals significant diversity within the group, with at least 18 separate genomes[6] identified and potentially over 100 awaiting classification.[7]

Taxonomy and distinctions between toxic and non-toxic strains

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The classification of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae has undergone significant taxonomic revision in light of recent genetic studies. Genome sequencing has revealed substantial genetic variability, leading to the identification of distinct strains found around the world, such as strains like AFA FACHB-1287[8], AFA FACHB-1265[9], AFA NRERC-008[10], isolates like AFA KM1D3_PB,[11] AFA UKL13-PB,[12] and others.[13]

These advancements have clarified a longstanding misconception regarding toxin production in AFA samples from Upper Klamath Lake. Earlier studies attributed the presence of cyanotoxins such as microcystin and cylindrospermopsin directly to endogenous production by AFA. However, research employing genetic sequencing and species-specific analysis has revealed that these toxins were not capable of being produced by Klamath AFA itself[14][15][16] but were instead the result of cross-contamination from co-occurring toxin-producing cyanobacteria inhabiting the same environment.

Habitat and distribution

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Upper Klamath Lake (also called Klamath Lake) in the Cascade Range of south-central Oregon hosts a viable and harvestable population of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae MDT14a.[17][18] While this subspecies has been detected in other water bodies,[19] these populations are either too sparse or are mixed with other aquatic species, making harvesting impractical.

Klamath Lake's high levels of dissolved minerals, large surface area, shallow depths, and other nutritional and environmental factors create suitable conditions for the proliferation of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae MDT14a.[20] Some of these factors are the lake's high 4,100 feet (1,259 m) elevation,[21] eutrophic nutrient levels,[22] high alkalinity (8.5 pH or higher),[23] a large surface area of 96 square miles with an average depth of 8 feet,[24] and large number of sunny days (130[25] to 300[26])throughout the year.

Controversies

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Klamath AFA has been proven to be incapable of endogenously producing microcystins or other toxins.[14] However, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae species typically cohabit with other cyanobacteria, most commonly with the Microcystis species.[27]

Cross-contamination of products containing Klamath AFA have occurred in the past. From 2018 to 2020, the FDA did three product recalls, all by the same original harvesting company.[28][29][30] Each recall found higher levels of microcystin than suggested by the WHO and EFA provisional guidelines,[31] which is less than 1 microgram per gram. These investigations led to Class 2 voluntary recalls of the affected products. The products were all linked to several batches of AFA harvested by the company between 2015 and 2017. From these recalls, the FDA started working with harvesting companies to outline new industry practices and testing procedures for harvesting AFA.[32] These now include:

  1. At the time of harvest, examining AFA at the harvesting site for contaminating cyanobacteria.
  2. At the time of harvest, testing the water and AFA for microcystins.
  3. After harvest, testing the AFA slurry for microcystins.
  4. Before selling AFA products, testing each lot or batch for microcystins.
  5. Using more than one test method to confirm results.
  6. Using a test method that can detect multiple variant forms of microcystins.
  7. Using certified testing laboratories and validated methods.
  8. Providing a certificate of analysis to purchasers for each lot or batch sold.

Since these guidelines were developed, no product recalls have occurred. As of 2024, the FDA states that wild-harvested blue-green algae is safe to eat.[33]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Scoglio, Gabriel D.; Jackson, Harry O.; Purton, Saul (2024-08-01). "The commercial potential of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, a nitrogen-fixing edible cyanobacterium". Journal of Applied Phycology. 36 (4): 1593–1617. Bibcode:2024JAPco..36.1593S. doi:10.1007/s10811-024-03214-0. ISSN 1573-5176. 122 different AFA strains have been reported based on morphological and phylogenetic analyses, and have been isolated from sites around the world... North America, Asia, and all across Europe, from Portugal and Spain to the Baltic Sea and Scandinavia.
  2. ^ "Import Health Standard: Stored Plant Products for Human Consumption". Plant Imports and Biosecurity of New Zealand. Ministry for Primary Industries, New Zealand. 2023-05-25. p. 31. 5.14 Algal therapeutic supplement live preparations for Aphanizomenon flos-aquae;
  3. ^ "Licensed Klamath Lake AFA health products registered in Canada". Health-Products.Canada.ca.
  4. ^ Driscoll, Connor B. Comparative Genomics of Freshwater Bloom-Forming Cyanobacteria and Associated Organisms. ir.library.oregonstate.edu (Ph.D. thesis). Retrieved 2024-12-02.
  5. ^ Underwood, Jennifer C; Hall, Natalie C; Mumford, Adam C; Harvey, Ronald W (2024-05-01). "Relation between the relative abundance and collapse of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and microbial antagonism in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 100 (5): fiae043. doi:10.1093/femsec/fiae043. PMC 11022654. PMID 38533659.
  6. ^ "Genome". NCBI.
  7. ^ "Taxonomy browser (Aphanizomenon flos-aquae)". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
  8. ^ "Aphanizomenon flos-aquae FACHB-1287". NCBI. Retrieved 2024-12-02.
  9. ^ "Aphanizomenon flos-aquae FACHB-1265". NCBI. Retrieved 2024-12-02.
  10. ^ "Aphanizomenon flos-aquae NRERC-008". NCBI. Retrieved 2024-12-02.
  11. ^ "Aphanizomenon flos-aquae KM1D3_PB". NCBI. Retrieved 2024-12-02.
  12. ^ "Aphanizomenon flos-aquae UKL13-PB". NCBI. Retrieved 2024-12-02.
  13. ^ "NCBI Complete Taxonomic List of 130+ Aphanizomenon flos-aquae Varieties". NCBI Taxonomy Browser.
  14. ^ a b Burdick, S. M. (July 2020). "Effects of harmful algal blooms and associated water-quality on endangered Lost River and shortnose suckers". Harmful Algae. 97: 101847. Bibcode:2020HAlga..9701847B. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2020.101847. PMID 32732045.
  15. ^ Driscoll, C.B.; Meyer, K.A.; Sulcius, S.; Brown, N.M.; Dick, G.J.; Cao, H.; Gasiunas, G.; Timinskas, A.; Yin, Y.; Landy, Z.C.; Otten, T.G.; Davis, T.W.; Watson, S.B.; Dreher, T.W. (2018). "A closely-related clade of globally distributed bloom-forming cyano-bacteria within the Nostocales". Harmful Algae. 77: 93–107. Bibcode:2018HAlga..77...93D. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2018.05.009. PMID 30005805 – via Elsevier.
  16. ^ Carmichael, W.W.; Drapeau, C.; Anderson, D.M. (2000-12-01). "Harvesting of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae Ralfs ex Born. & Flah. var. os-aquae (Cyanobacteria) from Klamath Lake for human dietary use". Journal of Applied Phycology. 12 (6): 585–595. Bibcode:2000JAPco..12..585C. doi:10.1023/A:1026506713560 – via Springer Nature.
  17. ^ Scoglio, Gabriel D.; Jackson, Harry O.; Purton, Saul (2024-08-01). "The commercial potential of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, a nitrogen-fixing edible cyanobacterium". Journal of Applied Phycology. 36 (4): 1593–1617. Bibcode:2024JAPco..36.1593S. doi:10.1007/s10811-024-03214-0. ISSN 1573-5176. The AFA biomass used for commercial products is exclusively harvested from the wild; specifically from Klamath Lake in Oregon, USA.
  18. ^ Scoglio, Gabriel D.; Jackson, Harry O.; Purton, Saul (2024-08-01). "The commercial potential of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, a nitrogen-fixing edible cyanobacterium". Journal of Applied Phycology. 36 (4): 1593–1617. Bibcode:2024JAPco..36.1593S. doi:10.1007/s10811-024-03214-0. ISSN 1573-5176.
  19. ^ Aavad, Jacobsen Bodil (1994-09-01). "Bloom formation of Gloeotrichia echinulata and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae in a shallow, eutrophic, Danish lake". Hydrobiologia. 289 (1): 193–197. Bibcode:1994HyBio.289..193A. doi:10.1007/BF00007420. ISSN 1573-5117.
  20. ^ Baker, J.P. "Water Quality Conditions in Upper Klamath and Agency Lakes, Oregon, 2006". pubs.usgs.gov. U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2024-12-06. The lake's large surface area and shallow depths contribute to its high nutrient concentrations, fostering AFA blooms.
  21. ^ "Upper Klamath Lake: The Largest Lake in Oregon". Elevation: 1259 meters
  22. ^ "Causes and Effects of Nutrient Conditions in the Upper Klamath River" (PDF). PacifiCorp. November 2006. The extreme abundance of chlorophyll, and the growth of phytoplankton are a natural consequence of the occurrence of excess nutrients...
  23. ^ "Water and Endangered Fish in the Klamath River Basin". Oregon Water Science Center. 2023-01-01. Retrieved 2016-12-20. High pH values observed in Upper Klamath Lake have been associated with algal photosynthesis during the rapid early growth phase of the A. flos-aquae blooms...often greater than 9.5.
  24. ^ "Upper Klamath Lake: The Largest Lake In Oregon". Lakepedia. Average depth: 2.3 meters (7.59 feet)
  25. ^ "City". myperfectweather.com.
  26. ^ "History of Klamath Falls | Klamath Falls, OR".
  27. ^ Scoglio, Gabriel D.; Jackson, Harry O.; Purton, Saul (2024-08-01). "The commercial potential of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, a nitrogen-fixing edible cyanobacterium". Journal of Applied Phycology. 36 (4): 1593–1617. Bibcode:2024JAPco..36.1593S. doi:10.1007/s10811-024-03214-0. ISSN 1573-5176. Aphanizomenon flos-aquae typically cohabits with other cyanobacteria, most commonly Microcystis species: mainly M. aeruginosa, Dolichospermum/Anabaena flos-aquae and Gloeotrichia echinulate.
  28. ^ "Beverage with AFA Product Recall". FDA. 2020-12-10.
  29. ^ "AFA Supplement Capsules Recalled". FDA. 2018-08-07.
  30. ^ "AFA Capsules Supplement, Product Recall". FDA. 2018-07-27.
  31. ^ Schaeffer, David J.; Malpas, Phyllis B.; Barton, Larry L. (1999-09-01). "Risk Assessment of Microcystin in Dietary Aphanizomenon flos-aquae". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 44 (1): 73–80. Bibcode:1999EcoES..44...73S. doi:10.1006/eesa.1999.1816. ISSN 0147-6513. PMID 10499991.
  32. ^ Program, Human Foods (2024-09-09). "Blue-Green Algae Products and Microcystins". FDA.
  33. ^ "Natural Toxins in Food". US Food and Drug Administration. 26 September 2024. Retrieved 6 December 2024.
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