International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia

International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia

UNESCO brochure on the anniversary of the campaign
The relocated monuments were from Lower Nubia, roughly between Aswan and Wadi Halfa. The area was entirely submerged by the creation of Lake Nasser
Location	Aswan Governorate, Egypt
Region	Nubia
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae
Type	Cultural
Criteria	i, iii, vi
Designated	1979 (3rd session)
Reference no.	88
Region	Arab States

The International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia was the effort to relocate 22 monuments in Lower Nubia, in Southern Egypt and northern Sudan, between 1960 and 1980. This was done in order to make way for the building of the Aswan Dam, at the Nile's first cataract (shallow rapids), a project launched following the 1952 Egyptian Revolution. This project was undertaken under UNESCO leadership and a coalition of fifty countries. This process led to the creation of the World Heritage Convention in 1972, and thus the system of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The construction of the Aswan Dam was a key objective of the new regime the Free Officers movement of 1952 in order to better control flooding, provide increased water storage for irrigation and generate hydroelectricity, all of which were seen as pivotal for the industrialization of Egypt.

The building of the dam was to result in the creation of Lake Nasser, which would submerge the banks of the Nile along its entire 479 km (298 mi) length south of the dam – flooding the entire area of historical Lower Nubia. This region was home to 22 critical historical sites, including but not limited to the Abu Simbel temples; as well as the temples at Philae, Kalabsha and Amada.

It was described in the UNESCO Courier as "the greatest archaeological rescue operation of all time".

In April 1979, the monuments were inscribed on the World Heritage List as the Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae, as one of the second group of properties added to the list (the first 12 had been added in 1978).

History

The UNESCO division of the UN logo

In 1954, UNESCO founded the CEDAE (Centre d'Étude et de Documentation sur l'Ancienne Égypte, in English the Documentation and Study Centre for the History of the Art and Civilization of Ancient Egypt) in Cairo under the direction of Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, who was a French Egyptologist at the Louvre. The Study Centre worked on documenting over 400 private tombs, primarily through photography and photogrammetry. By September of 1955, field expeditions under Dr. Ahmed Badawi were undertaken in Nubia with UNESCO permission.

By 1959, Tharwat Okasha, the Egyptian Minister of Culture sought to work alongside UNESCO to safeguard and preserve Nubian monuments. He met with the Assistant Director-General of UNESCO, René Maheu to submit his appeal, which was quickly reassured to be responded to by Director-General Vittorino Veronese. A proposal was submitted to the Executive Board of UNESCO, which would later mount the International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia.

This was officially began after Vittorino Veronese's appeal to the Executive Board of UNESCO on March 8, 1960. During the proposal, he described it: "It is not easy to choose between a heritage of the past and the present well-being of a people, living in need in the shadow of one of history's most splendid legacies, it is not easy to choose between temples and crops." Doing so, he pointed out various concerns regarding the need to preserve Nubian cultural heritage sites in Egypt and Sudan while promoting the welfare of Egypt in relation to the proposed Aswan Dam.

The proposal was accepted, by the participation of many member states of UNESCO, though with the rule that 50% of finds would be relocated to museums in participating countries. The intention of the campaign became to perform a massive archeological survey of the region, and the second was to rescue temples and sites through feats of engineering. The level of fieldwork for the project had not been previous undertaken on equivalent scale or length of time, leaving many to praise the campaign as a feat of the field of archeology.

Wadi es-Sebua, or Valley of the Lions

Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, who remained in charge of the CEDAE (Centre d'Étude et de Documentation sur l'Ancienne Égypte, in English the Documentation and Study Centre for the History of the Art and Civilization of Ancient Egypt) in Cairo, held a leading role within the archeological survey aspect of the campaign. She was tasked with the manner in which notes would be circulated during the project, suggesting that archaeological missions working in Nubia would be required to hand over copies publications and notes produced during the project to the Centre, and abiding by the Centre's publication techniques. Excavations from Egypt would be only required to send over copies of notes, without requiring copies of publications or oversight into said publications. This is theorized to be related to the post-colonial desire to fortify Egyptian identity in a cultural history following the 1952 Egyptian Revolution.

The statue of Ramses the Great at the Great Temple of Abu Simbel is reassembled after having been moved in 1967 to save it from flooding.

The removal of temples was a project of greater difficulty. 18 of the 25 temples in the area affected by the Aswan Dam were rescued in whole or in part during the project. Sites were prioritized by importance, including the most expensive site excavated being Abu Simbel.

A honorary committee was first founded by King Gustav VI Adolf of Sweden to create international support for the campaign, with various world political leaders and UNESCO members as participants. An official International Action Committee was established after under the UNESCO Director General in order to secure funding, service, and equipment from participating member states. They decided that UNESCO would be in charge of planning the program of operations, coordination of labor, and the collection of funding. The intention was for them to serve as an intermediaries between donors and the nations of Egypt and Sudan.

Egyptians contested the oversight of UNESCO, insisting that they could meet demands of donors without UNESCO involvement. Despite this, UNESCO continued a significant amount of oversight throughout the duration of the campaign.

The construction of Lake Nasser, as well as the excavations required in the Nubia campaign, involved the relocation of many Nubians native to the region. First in 1902 due to the construction of the Aswan Lower Dam, then in both 1912 and 1933 due to the rising water levels, and a fourth time after the creation of the Aswan High Dam. The forced relocation stripped many native Nubians of their ancestral homelands, with the compensation of unsuitable homes for living and agriculture. This forced many Nubians to immigrate to cities in Egypt and later Sudan.

Timeline

A timeline of the key dates of the campaign is shown below:

	Diplomacy	Relocation work	Aswan Dam
6 April 1959	Egypt appeals to UNESCO
24 October 1959	Sudan appeals to UNESCO
9 January 1960			Work on the Aswan High Dam officially begun
8 March 1960	Director-General of Unesco appeals to the international community
Summer 1960		Temples of Taffeh, Dabod and Kertassi dismantled by the Egyptian Antiquities Service
Nov. Dec. 1962	Unesco's General Conference creates Executive Committee for the International Campaign
1962–63		Temple of Kalabsha dismantled, transferred and re-erected
Spring 1964		Work begins on transfer of Abu Simbel temples
14 May 1964			Diversion of Nile to feed the turbines of the High Dam
September 1964			Lake Nasser begins to fill
22 September 1968		Completion of the Abu Simbel operation
6 November 1968	UNESCO launches International Campaign to save the Temples of Philae
1970			Construction of Aswan High Dam completed
1972		Work begins on Philae rescue operation; monuments to be transferred to nearby island of Agilkia
May 1974		Cofferdam around the island of Philae is completed and water is pumped out
April 1977		Foundations of the Philae monuments ready on the island of Agilkia and reconstruction work begins
August 1979		Completed at Agilkia
10 March 1980		Overall project completion

Overview of Campaign

The campaign was primarily led by Tharwat Okasha, the Egyptian Minister of Culture, René Maheu, Assistant Director-General of UNESCO, and Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, French Egyptologist at the Louvre.

The number of relocated monuments have been stated as 22 or 24 depending on how an individual site is defined. Only one archaeological site in Lower Nubia, Qasr Ibrim, remains in its original location and above water; previously a cliff-top settlement, it was transformed into an island. The relocated sites can be grouped as follows:

• Two temple groups moved nearby to nearly identical sites
• Eleven temples rebuilt and grouped in three oases overlooking Lake Nasser
• Seven temples placed in two museums
• Five sent to Western museums as "grants-in-return" for technical and financial assistance

The list of relocated monuments is as follows:

	Historical				Relocation			Current
Monument	Image	Location	Period		Date	Led by		Image	Location
Abu Simbel (two temples)		65m below current location	13th century BCE		1964–68	Coalition			65m above historical location, in artificial hill
Philae temple complex		Philae Island	300 BCE – 100 AD		1972–79	Coalition			Agilkia Island
Temple of Amada		Amada	1400s BCE			France			New Amada
Temple of Derr		Derr	1200s BCE			Egypt
Tomb of Pennut at Aniba		Aniba				Egypt
Temple of Kalabsha (except gate, see below)		Kalabsha	30 BCE		1962–63	Germany			New Kalabsha
Temple of Gerf Hussein		Gerf Hussein	1200s BCE			Egypt
Kiosk of Qertassi		Qertassi	0 – 100 AD		1960	Egypt
Temple of Beit el-Wali		Beit el-Wali	1200s BCE			Egypt
Temple of Dakka		Dakka	200 BCE – 100 AD			Egypt			New Wadi es-Sebua
Temple of Maharraqa		Maharraqa	0 – 100 AD			Egypt
Temples of Wadi es-Sebua		Wadi es-Sebua	1400–1200 BCE			Egypt
Horemheb Temple at Abu Oda		Abu Oda							Nubian Museum, Aswan
Temple of Aksha		Aksha	1200s BCE						National Museum of Sudan
The temples in the fortified town of Buhen		Buhen	1800s BCE
The temples at Semna East and West fortresses		Semna	1900s BCE
Temple of Debod		Debod	100s BCE		1960	Spain			Madrid, Spain
Temple of Dendur		Dendur	23 BCE			United States			Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, United States
Temple of Taffeh		Taffeh	25 BCE – 14 CE		1960	Netherlands			Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden, the Netherlands
Temple of Ellesyia		Ellesyia	1400s BCE			Italy			Museo Egizio, Turin, Italy
Kalabsha Gate		Kalabsha	30 BCE		1962–63	Germany			Egyptian Museum of Berlin, Germany – part of the Temple of Kalabsha

Historical images, monuments in situ

• 
  Qasr Ibrim (1840s)
• 
  Qasr Ibrim today
• 
  Ruins of Bigeh (1840s)
• 
  Bigeh ruins today

Description and Contributions

Abu Simbel

A scale model showing the original and current location of the temple (with respect to the water level) at the Nubian Museum, in Aswan

One scheme to save the Abu Simbel temples was based on an idea by William MacQuitty to build a clear freshwater dam around the temples, with the water inside kept at the same height as the Nile. There were to be underwater viewing chambers. In 1962 the idea was made into a proposal by architects Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry and civil engineer Ove Arup. They considered that raising the temples ignored the effect of erosion of the sandstone by desert winds. However, the proposal, though acknowledged to be extremely elegant, was rejected.

The salvage of the Abu Simbel temples began in 1964 by a multinational team of archeologists, engineers and skilled heavy equipment operators working together under the UNESCO banner; it cost some US$40 million (equivalent to $632 million in 2024). Between 1964 and 1968, the entire site was carefully cut into large blocks (up to 30 tons, averaging 20 tons), dismantled, lifted and reassembled in a new location 65 metres higher and 200 metres back from the river, in one of the greatest challenges of archaeological engineering in history. Some structures were even saved from under the waters of Lake Nasser.

Philae

Philae flooded by the Aswan Low Dam in 1906.

In 1902, the Aswan Low Dam was completed on the Nile River by the British. This threatened to submerge many ancient landmarks, including the temple complex of Philae. The height of the dam was raised twice, from 1907 to 1912 and from 1929 to 1934, and the island of Philae was nearly always flooded. In fact, the only times that the complex was not underwater was when the dam's sluices were open from July to October. During this period it was proposed that the temples be relocated, piece by piece, to nearby islands, such as Bigeh or Elephantine. However, the temples' foundations and other architectural supporting structures were strengthened instead. Although the buildings were physically secure, the island's attractive vegetation and the colors of the temples' reliefs were washed away. Also, the bricks of the Philae temples soon became encrusted with silt and other debris carried by the Nile. With each inundation the situation worsened and in the 1960s the island was submerged up to a third of the buildings all year round.

The work began in 1972, and in 1974 a large coffer dam was built, constructed of two rows of steel plates between which a 1 million cubic metres (35 million cubic feet) of sand was tipped. Any water that seeped through was pumped away. Next the monuments were cleaned and measured, by using photogrammetry, a method that enables the exact reconstruction of the original size of the building blocks that were used by the ancients. Then every building was dismantled into about 40,000 units from 2 to 25 tons, and then transported to the nearby Island of Agilkia, situated on higher ground some 500 metres (1,600 ft) away. Foundations of the Philae monuments were ready on Agilkia by April 1977, and the transfer itself took place between 1977 and 1980.

Individual Egyptian campaigns

The Temple of Dendur at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York

In addition to participating directly in the high profile salvage operations of Abu Simbel and Philae, the Egyptian Antiquities Organization carried out the rescue of many smaller temples and monuments alone using their own financial and technical means. As early as 1960 Egypt had started to rescue the temples of Taffeh (or Taffa), Debod and Qertassi, followed by Dakka and Maharraqa in 1961 and Dendur in 1962. The temples of Wadi es-Sebua and Beit el Wali and the rock tomb of Pennut at Aniba were moved in 1964 with the support of a US grant, whilst the subsequent re-erection was carried out with Egyptian resources. The Temple of Derr was rescued in 1965, and the temples of Gerf Husein, the chapel of Abu Oda (cut out of rock), the chapels of Qasr Ibrim (the rest of which has remained in situ), and many rock inscriptions and drawings, were also saved.

West German operation at Kalabsha

Early in the campaign, the West German authorities offered to dismantle and re-erect the Temple of Kalabsha, the largest temple in all of Lower Nubia, with costs paid by West Germany. Germany's interest in making a significant contribution stemmed from its Egyptological heritage, including Lepsius' milestone work Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien, as more specifically the work of Franz Christian Gau who had documented Kalabsha as early as 1819.

French operation at Amada

In addition to the work of French archaeologists at Abu Simbel, the French government provided significant technical and financial support for the removal of the Temple of Amada. In 1964, the front portion of the temple was dismantled and transported on rails by the U.A.R. Antiquities Service. French archeologists then excavated the rest of the temple with the same railway system.

Amada was considered "one of the most distinctive and best preserved examples of the art of the 18th dynasty."

Wider archaeological campaign

Given the impending flooding of a wide area, Egypt and Sudan encouraged archaeological teams from across the world to carry out work as broadly as possible. Approximately 40 teams from across the world came to the region, to explore an area of approximately 500 km in length.

In addition to the relocation operations, many countries participated in excavation and preservation work. Some of this work took place at the CEDAE (Centre d'Étude et de Documentation sur l'Ancienne Égypte, in English the Documentation and Study Centre for the History of the Art and Civilization of Ancient Egypt), founded in Cairo in 1955 to coordinate the academic efforts:

• Egypt: Five campaigns by the University of Cairo at Aniba. One campaign by the University of Alexandria at Gebel Adda. Eight excavation campaigns by the Antiquities Service on various sites. Three campaigns by the Antiquities Service for cutting out rock drawings. Removal of eight monuments, work in two others, dismantling of the front part of the temple of Amada and financial contribution to the work for saving this temple and those of Wadi es-Sebua, Beit el-Wali and Aniba.
• Sudan: Since 1960, successive expeditions by the Antiquities Service, led by a UNESCO expert, for a general survey of Sudanese Nubia; excavations at some of the most important sites.
• Argentina: Three archaeological campaigns in the Sudan by the National University of La Plata
• Austria: Six archaeological campaigns in Egypt by the University of Vienna, in Egypt. Sending of an epigraphist to the CEDAE.
• Belgium: Sending of three experts to the CEDAE. Photogrammetric and epigraphic records of five monuments in the Sudan. Contribution to the cost of transferring the temple of Semna, Sudan.
• Canada: One archaeological campaign in Egypt by the Royal Ontario Museum
• Czechoslovakia: Five expeditions in Egypt by the Institute of Classical Archaeology of Charles University
• Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden: Four campaigns in Sudan by a joint mission. Finland alone: General surveying to the south of Gemai (near Wadi Halfa in Sudan).
• France: Six campaigns in Egypt by the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. Two campaigns in Egypt by the University of Strasbourg. Photogrammetric study. Sending of nine experts to the CEDAE. Removal and reconstruction of the Temple of Amada, together with Egypt. Seven campaigns in Sudan by the Commission Nationale des Fouilles". Payment of the costs involved in transferring the temple of Aksha, Sudan
• West Germany: Three campaigns by the German Archaeological Institute
• East Germany: Expeditions by the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina to record the rock inscriptions and drawings and the ground-plan of the ruins of Attiri, Sudan.
• Ghana: Three campaigns in the Sudan by the University of Ghana
• Hungary: One campaign in Egypt by Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest)
• India: One campaign in Egypt by the Archaeological Survey of India
• Italy: Six campaigns in Egypt by the University of Milan, as well as the sending of three experts to the CEDAE. One campaign in Egypt by the Sapienza University of Rome. Three campaigns in Egypt by Museo Egizio (Turin), including financial contribution from city and museum for cutting out of the chapel of the Temple of Ellesyia. Experimental work with sounding methods by the Fondazione Lerici.
• Netherlands: Two campaigns by the National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden, in Egypt: excavations of Abdallah Nirqi (early Christian village, church with painted decoration) and of Shokan (late Meroitic village). Preliminary studies for saving the Island of Philae. Contribution to the cost of saving the temple of Kumna (Sudan).
• Poland: One campaign in Egypt and four in Sudan by the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University of Warsaw. Sending of four architects to the CEDAE.
• Spain: Four excavation campaigns and four campaigns to record and cut out rock inscriptions, in Egypt. Three excavation campaigns, in the Sudan.
• Switzerland: Two excavation campaigns in Egypt by the Schweizerisches Institut für Ägyptische Bauforschung und Altertumskunde in Cairo, one in co-operation with the University of Chicago, and one in co-operation with the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. Architectural records of a temple and leadership of the Antiquities service expedition to cut out rock inscriptions in 1964. Sending of an expert to the CEDAE by the Swiss National Science Foundation.
• United Kingdom: Four campaigns in Egypt and two in Sudan by the Egypt Exploration Society. Two campaigns by the Egypt Exploration Society and the University of London for the general survey of Nubia. Sending of two experts to the CEDAE. Sending of an epigraphist (in co-operation with Brown University). Contribution to the dismantling of the temple of Buhen.
• United States: In Egypt: Four campaigns by the University of Chicago in Egypt, including one in co-operation with the Swiss Institute of Architectural Research. Complete surveying and recording of a temple by the University of Chicago. Four campaigns by Yale and Pennsylvania Universities. Pre-history research on the Abu Simbel site by Columbia University. Four campaigns by Yale University. Sending of an epigraphist by Brown University (Provi-dence) in collaboration with the Egypt Exploration Society. Four campaigns by the Museum of New Mexico (pre-history survey). Four campaigns by the American Research Centre. Contribution by the United States Government for saving the temples of Beit el- Wali, Wadi es-Sebua and Aniba. In Sudan: Three excavation campaigns by the University of Chicago. One pre-history survey campaign by Columbia University. Three pre-history survey campaigns by the Museum of New Mexico. Two excavation campaigns and one architectural survey campaign by the University of California. Sending of an epigraphist by Brown University (Providence). Three pre-history investigation campaigns by the University of Colorado Museum. Contribution by the United States Government for the transfer and re-erection of the temple of Buhen.
• Soviet Union: One survey and excavation campaign, in Egypt. General surveying and recording of rock inscriptions, in Egypt.
• Yugoslavia: Sending of two architects to the CEDAE. Removal of Christian wall paintings (two experts), in Egypt. Removal of Christian wall paintings (two experts), in the Sudan.

Financial contributions

The table below summarizes the contributions towards the project by the global coalition of nations. The vast majority of these contributions funded the operations at Abu Simbel and Philae.

Contributor	USD (thousands)	Notes
Afghanistan	2	Government contribution
Algeria	105
Austria	37
Belgium	82
China	2
Cuba	160
Cyprus	5
Denmark	15
France	1,268
West Germany	678
Ghana	49
Greece	30
Holy See	35
Indonesia	10
Iraq	63
Italy	1,176
Japan	190
Cambodia	5
Kuwait	105
Lebanon	40
Libya	26
Luxembourg	2
Malaysia	14
Mali	2
Malta	0.2
Monaco	10
Morocco	4
Nepal	1
Netherlands	557
Nigeria	128
Pakistan	130
Philippines	10
Qatar	60
Saudi Arabia	8
Sierra Leone	3
Spain	525
Sri Lanka	1
Sudan	2
Sweden	500
Switzerland	332
Syria	152
Togo	1
Turkey	3
Uganda	6
United Kingdom	213
United States	18,501
Yugoslavia	226
India (in kind)	415
Romania (in kind)	5
Total Government contribution	25,893
Miscellaneous private contributions	36	Private contributions
American Committee for the Preservation of Abu Simbel	1,251
African Emergency Programme	21
Belgium exhibition proceeds	154
Canada exhibition proceeds	4
France exhibition proceeds	459
West Germany exhibition proceeds	1,208
Japan exhibition proceeds	1,089
Norway exhibition proceeds	6
Sweden exhibition proceeds	29
UK exhibition proceeds	1,601
USSR exhibition proceeds	1,602
Sovereign Order of Malta	1
Egypt Tourist Tax	1,879	Other Income
Interest and exchange adjustments	1,408
World Food Programme	3,518
Philatelic revenue and income from Philae Medals	113
Grand total	40,273

World Heritage Site

In April 1979, the monuments were inscribed on the World Heritage List as the "Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae". The inscribed area includes ten sites, five of which were relocated (all south of the city of Aswan), and five of which remain in their original position (near to the city of Aswan):

Relocated sites, south of the Aswan Low Dam

The relocated Abu Simbel monuments

• Abu Simbel
• New Amada
• New Wadi Sebua
• New Kalabsha
• Philae temple complex (Agilkia Island)

Sites in their original location, north of the Aswan Low Dam – although these five sites are grouped within the "Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae", they are neither Nubian, nor between Abu Simbel and Philae

• Qubbet el-Hawa (Old and Middle Kingdom Tombs)
• Ruins of town of Elephantine
• Stone quarries and Unfinished obelisk, Aswan
• Monastery of St. Simeon, Aswan
• Fatimid Cemetery of Aswan

Gallery

• 
  Egyptian Government offer to gift monuments overseas in the 1960 UNESCO Courier
• 
  Egyptian and Sudanese declarations in the 1960 UNESCO Courier
• 
  List of monuments at risk in the 1960 UNESCO Courier
• 
  List of monuments relocated in the 1980 UNESCO Courier
• 
  Philae Island in the 1961 UNESCO Courier
• 
  List of sites excavated in addition to the monuments relocated in the 1980 UNESCO Courier
• 
  Abu Simbel in the 1961 UNESCO Courier
• 
  1961 UNESCO Courier
• 
  List of Monuments to be Relocated in the 1961 UNESCO Courier

Bibliography

UNESCO publications

• A Common trust: the preservation of the ancient monuments of Nubia, 1960, UNESCO CUA.60/D.22/A
• Save the treasures of Nubia: UNESCO launches a world appeal, 1960, UNESCO Courier
• Abu Simbel: now or never, 1961, UNESCO Courier
• Nubia's sands reveal their last secrets, 1964, UNESCO Courier
• Victory in Nubia: the greatest archaeological rescue operation of all time, 1980, UNESCO Courier
• Säve-Söderbergh, Torgny (1987). Temples and Tombs of Ancient Nubia: The International Rescue Campaign at Abu Simbel, Philae and Other Sites. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-92-3-102383-5. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
• Success stories, 2019, UNESCO

Other publications

• Desroches-Noblecourt, Christiane (1993). La Grande Nubiade ou Le parcours d'une égyptologue. Le Livre de poche (in French). Stock. ISBN 978-2-253-06366-7. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
• Larson, J.A. (2006). Lost Nubia: A Centennial Exhibit of Photographs from the 1905–1907 Egyptian Expedition of the University of Chicago (PDF). Oriental Institute Museum publications. Oriental Institute. ISBN 978-1-885923-45-5. Retrieved 11 November 2022.
• Zurinaga Fernández-Toribio, Salomé (6 January 2017). "Rescue Archaeology and Spanish Journalism: The Abu Simbel Operation". AP: Online Journal in Public Archaeology. 3. JAS Arqueologia: 46. doi:10.23914/ap.v3i0.29. ISSN 2171-6315.
• Allais, Lucia (2012). "The Design of the Nubian Desert: Monuments, Mobility, and the Space of Global Culture". Governing by Design: Architecture, Economy, and Politics in the Twentieth Century. The Aggregate Architectural History Collaborative. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 179ff. ISBN 978-0-8229-7789-6. Retrieved 12 October 2022. See also: [1]

See also

• Tabqa Dam § Rescue excavations in the Lake Assad region

External links

• Video on YouTube
• Video on YouTube
• Video on YouTube