Southern Esoteric Buddhism

Southern Esoteric Buddhism and Borān kammaṭṭhāna ("former practices") are terms used to refer to a collection of esoteric practices, views, and texts within Theravada Buddhism. Often known as Esoteric Theravada or Tantric Theravada, these labels highlight its parallel with tantric traditions—though it does not employ actual tantras—and it is also sometimes referred to as Traditional Theravada Meditation. In essence, Southern Esoteric Buddhism comprises a range of practices derived from the Pali Tipitaka that extend beyond the explicit teachings of the suttas, incorporating ritual, symbolic, and meditative elements that have been transmitted through local and esoteric traditions.

L.S. Cousins defines this phenomenon as "a type of Southern Buddhism which links magical and ritual practices to a theoretical systematisation of the Buddhist path itself." One notable strand within these traditions is the Yogāvacara system. Historically, Yogāvacara was a major current in Southeast Asia and is most widely practiced today in Cambodia and Laos, where it has preserved many unique ritualistic and meditative practices.

Over the past two centuries, the Boran tradition has been marginalized by colonial governments and by the "Protestant Buddhist" movement—reformers who promote a strict "Pali Tipitaka only" sola scriptura approach and dismiss local practices as deviations from orthodox scriptural teachings.

In the West, the study of Southern Esoteric Buddhism was pioneered by professor François Bizot and his colleagues at the École française d'Extrême-Orient. Their research, especially focusing on material discovered at Angkor, has been instrumental in revealing the complex interplay between orthodox Theravada doctrines and these esoteric practices.

History

Sri Lankan Beginnings

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  Jetavanaramaya Stupa in Anuradhapura
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  Abhayagiri Dagoba at Anuradhapura built in the 2nd Century BC
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  Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara

Historically, the Buddhists of the Abhayagiri vihāra and Jetavanaramaya in Sri Lanka are known to have applied the Bodhisattva practices and Tantra and this might have had an influence on Southeast Asia through their missionary work in Java. According to Cousins, it is possible that Southern Esoteric Buddhism developed within the "orthodox" Mahavihara tradition of Sri Lanka, citing the 5th century Buddhist scholar Buddhaghosa's mention of secret texts (gulhagantham), those being texts that can only transmitted through a guru-disciple relationship, as well as other textual evidence from the Pali commentaries. This shows that esotericism was prevalent in Theravada prior the 5th century AD.

One can also trace the tradition of paritta chanting in Lanka to tantric traditions practiced by mendicants of the Abhayagiri Vihara.

Cousins concludes that "It is quite possible that present-day Southern Esoteric Buddhism contains ideas and practices deriving from more than one of these sources. Nevertheless it is certainly premature to assume that it has its origins in unorthodox circles."

Among the last mendicants to be initiated into the Boran Kammatthana tradition in Sri Lanka was Doratiyāveye Thera who lived around 1900.

Southeast Asian Influences

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  Thunderbolt (Vajra) – LACMA M.91.232.5
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  Cambodia, reign of Jayavarman 7th – Hevajra (2011.143) – Cleveland Museum of Art

Ari Buddhism was a form of Buddhism practiced in the Bagan kingdom of Burma which also contained Tantric elements borrowed from India and local Nat (spirit) and Nāga worship. In many of Bizot's works there is some suggestion that the Buddhism of the Mon may have influenced the later Yogāvacara tradition. Southeast Asian Theravada was heavily influenced by the practice of Vajrayana Buddhism which flourished in the region during the time of the Khmer Empire and Srivijaya, but it's most likely that Vedic esoteric practices may have already been present in these regions due to the Indianization of Southeast Asia.

Growth

The Yogāvacara tradition was a mainstream Buddhist tradition in Cambodia, Laos and Thailand well into the modern era. An inscription from Northern Thailand with esoteric elements has been dated to the Sukhothai Kingdom of the 16th century. Kate Crosby notes that this attestation makes the esoteric tradition earlier than “any other living meditation tradition in the contemporary Theravada world.”

During the reign of Rama I, the Thai Yogāvacara master Kai Thuean (1733-1823) was invited to Bangkok to be head of the meditation tradition there and was later made Sangharaja (head of the religious community) by Rama II of Siam in 1820. In Sri Lanka, a revival of Buddhist meditation in the 1750s saw a proliferation of Yogāvacara teachings and texts by Thai monks from the Ayutthaya Kingdom, one of which is the Yogāvacara's manual.

After the re-establishment of the Sri Lankan sangha by the venerable Upali Thera, Monks of the Siam Nikaya practiced and spread these teachings, establishing several monasteries around Kandy. As late as the 1970s, Yogāvacara practices such as the rapid repetition of Araham were recorded in Sri Lanka.

Decline (19th-20th century)

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  Seal of the Dhammayuttika Nikaya monastic order
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  King Mongkut in the white robes of a lay renunciant
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  Flag of Democratic Kampuchea

The decline of Southern Esoteric Buddhism began in the 19th century with the rise of reformed Buddhism, particularly the establishment of the Dhammayuttika Nikaya by King Rama IV (1851–1868) of the Thai Rattanakosin Kingdom in 1833. This reform movement emphasized the Pali Canon as the main authority for monastic practices and sought to eliminate superstitious and folk religious elements. The Dhammayuttika Nikaya was later introduced into Cambodia, then a protectorate of the Thai kingdom, further contributing to the decline of esoteric traditions.

The textual foundation of this reform movement was rooted in the Sri Lankan Mahavihara school, which had undergone its own reforms in the 12th century under Parakramabahu I. This school, heavily influenced by the works of the 5th-century scholar Buddhaghosa, was regarded as the orthodox interpretation of Theravāda Buddhism and viewed other Buddhist practices as unorthodox. The reforms reinforced monastic discipline, leading to a decline in esoteric Buddhist practices and the production of non-canonical texts.

Further suppression occurred under the French colonial empire, which ruled Cambodia and continued the policy of marginalizing pre-reform Cambodian Buddhism. Despite these efforts, traditional esoteric practices persisted in rural areas. However, the devastation caused by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia and religious repression in Communist Laos inflicted additional damage on these traditions.

Legacy

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  Logo of the Samatha Trust
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  Logo of the Dhammakaya movement
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  Offering ceremony at Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen

Southern Esoteric Buddhist influences may be present in the practices and views of the modern Thai Dhammakaya movement. As well as their mother temple, Wat Paknam. Though Wat Dhammakaya's claims of an "inner, true self" existing in the Dhammakaya are their own and do not come from any historical esoteric lineage.

Among the practitioners of Boran Kammatthana in the West are Samatha Trust, an organization dedicated to promoting the older Samatha tradition of meditation.

Practices

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  Buddhist prayer beads used for mantra recitation.
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  Cambodian Hevajra Yantra

Esoteric Theravāda Lineage Chart

Unlike Vajrayana traditions, *Boran Kammatthana* lacks tantra but retains extensive meditation manuals and esoteric practices. Cousins describes Southern Esoteric Buddhism as "tantro-kabbalistic" mysticism, characterized by mapping inner and outer worlds through elaborate correspondences—linking the human body, cosmos, and higher knowledge. This system integrates magic, sound and number symbolism, sacred gestures, and structured ritual patterns.

Key features of *Yogāvacara* and *Boran Kammatthana* practice include:

• **Paritta Chanting** – Recitation of parittas for protection and blessings.
• **Energy Centers & Channels** – Concepts such as cakra/marma and nadi.
• **Esoteric Interpretation** – Use of encoded language and symbolic meanings in Buddhist words, objects, myths, numbers, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• **Samaya Initiation** – Essential guru-disciple transmission in Yogāvacara practice.
• **Embryology Symbolism & Dhammakaya Meditation** – Visualization of a ‘Buddha within’, culminating in Dhammakaya realization.
• **Alchemy & Purification** – Spiritual refinement modeled on mercury purification techniques.
• **Magical Practices** – Use of mantras, rituals, and spells for healing, longevity, and protection.
• **Yantras & Sacred Scripts** – Symbolic diagrams, Khom Thai script, and amulets used in rituals.
• **Puja (Buddhism) & Sādhanā** – Worship and ritual devotion to Buddhas, Devas, and spirits.
• **Right-Hand & Left-Hand Paths** – Internal and external applications of esoteric techniques.
• **Monastic & Lay Participation** – A path accessible to all practitioners, both monastics and laypersons.
• The use of **protective tattoos and amulets**
• The singing of **protective Gathas**
• Thai **astrology**
• The **invocation of spirits and ghosts**, including Somdej Toh and Mae Nak

These practices are most commonly associated with Cambodian Buddhism but have historical roots in various Theravāda traditions across Southeast Asia. It also contains South Asian religious elements like protective tattoos, astrological practices, spirit invocation, and meditative visualization of sacred lights and syllables within the body.

Bizot’s research highlights a rebirthing ritual involving a cave-as-womb metaphor, leading to the Dhammakaya transformation. Several studies by Bizot have examined certain "rebirthing" rituals that were common in pre-modern Cambodia. These rituals incorporated symbolic sacred syllables, meditation on embryonic development, and the belief that this practice would allow one's body to be reborn as the Dhammakaya.

Another practice studied by Bizot was the use of yantras or sacred diagrams, which were made with Pali words and phrases and used as tattoos and on clothing. These esoteric traditions also include visualization practices featuring colored lights paired with sacred syllables located throughout the body, culminating in visions of the Buddha and a stupa at the top of Mount Sumeru.

Mantras and Sacred Sound

Among the sacred mantras in *Yogāvacara* texts, *Namo Buddhaya* ("Homage to the Buddha") and *Araham* ("Worthy One") are widely used. The recitation of these sacred phrases was employed as a meditation practice.

The esoteric interpretation of *Namo Buddhaya* assigns mystical values to its syllables, linking them to familial and societal virtues:

• **NA** – the twelve virtues of the mother
• **MO** – the twenty-one virtues of the father
• **BU** – the six virtues of the king
• **DDHA** – the seven virtues of the family
• **YA** – the ten virtues of the teacher

Robert Percival, who was in Ceylon from 1796 to 1800, described Buddhist mantra meditation as follows: "To their girdles they wear suspended strings of beads made of a brownish or black wood; and mutter prayers as they go along."

The *Saddavimala*, a widely circulated *Yogāvacara* text, describes how practitioners rebuild themselves spiritually by internalizing Dhamma as bodily components, forming a new, immortal spiritual body that replaces the physical form at death. These esoteric practices, collectively termed *Boran Kammatthana* (former practices), remain most prevalent in Cambodian Buddhism, where they integrate elements of Theravada and esoteric Buddhist traditions.

Regional Variations and Related Traditions

In Cambodia and Laos, these methods are prevalent among forest monks and magicians, who are believed to possess supernormal abilities, including the divine eye and communication with spirits.

The practices of the Burmese Buddhist Weizza ("Wizards"), who follow an esoteric system of occult practices (such as recitation of spells, samatha and alchemy) believed to lead to supernormal powers and even immortality, might also be related to Southern Esoteric Buddhism.

Today, practitioners using these techniques are most prevalent along the banks of the Mekong in Cambodia and Laos. These monks and magicians are believed to have the divine eye and the ability to communicate with spirits. They practice Kasina meditation, mantra recitation, and ascetic practices (dhutanga).

Thai forest monks such as Ajahn Lee Dhammadharo were also influenced by esoteric practices, as exemplified by his text *The Divine Mantra*.

In one text studied by Bizot, meditation includes visualization of colored lights paired with sacred syllables within the body, along with visions of the Buddha and a stupa atop Mount Sumeru. Another text, the *Ratanamala*, uses the *itipi so* formula for various purposes, including:

• **Spiritual protection**
• **Magical 'worldly' applications** ("left-hand path")
• **Transformation of the body into a *kayasiddhi***, a spiritual body
• **The pursuit of nirvana** ("right-hand path")

Thus, while *Boran Kammatthana* lacks a direct tantric framework, it retains complex esoteric practices that align with other forms of Buddhist mysticism. The integration of mantra recitation, sacred symbolism, visualization, and ritual purification methods demonstrates its unique position within the broader landscape of Theravāda esotericism.

Thus, while *Boran Kammatthana* lacks a direct tantric framework, it retains complex esoteric practices that align with other forms of Buddhist mysticism. The integration of mantra recitation, sacred symbolism, visualization, and ritual purification methods demonstrates its unique position within the broader landscape of Theravāda esotericism.

Texts

Texts in the Boran Kammatthana tradition include:

• The Divine Mantra
• Dhammānudhammapaṭipatti
• Yogāvacara's manual
• Saddavimala
• Ratanamala
• Piruwana Poth Wahanse
• Saddhammopāyana
• Saddharmarathnakaraya
• Amatākaravaṇṇanā (c. 18th century) - According to Kate Crosby, this is one of the most extensive manuals of Esoteric Theravada meditation and was compiled by Kandyan Sinhalese students of Thai esoteric meditation masters.
• Uṇhissavijaya sutta
• Mahādibbamanta
• Jinapañjara gatha
• Dhammakāyānussati gathā

Major Figures in Borān kammaṭṭhāna

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  Statue of Bo Bo Aung. A famous Weizza.
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  The Kyaikhtisaung Sayadaw teaching Dhamma.

• Bo Bo Aung
• Bo Min Gaung
• Kyaikhtisaung Sayadaw
• Linn Nhyo Taryar
• Setkya Min
• Shin Iza Gawna
• U Khandi
• Phra Malai
• Upali Thera
• Luang Pu Thuat
• Kai Thuean
• Somdej Toh
• Khruba Siwichai
• Phra Khuva Boonchum
• Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro
• Ajahn Lee Dhammadaro

Southern Esoteric Traditions

• Thai Forest Tradition
• Weizza
• Rishi

See also

• Buddhism in Myanmar
• Buddhism in Cambodia
• Buddhism in Thailand
• Buddhism in Laos
• Vajrayana
• Tantra
• Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism
• Azhaliism

Sources

• Mettanando Bhikkhu (1999), Meditation and Healing in the Theravada Buddhist Order of Thailand and Laos, Hamburg (Ph.D. thesis).
• Woodward, EL. (1916), Manual of a Mystic being a translation from the Pali and Sinhalese Work entitled The Yogavachara's Manual, Pali Text Society, London, reprint 1982, ISBN 0-86013-003-7.
• Bernon, Olivier de (2000). Le manuel des maîtres de kammaṭṭhān : étude et présentation de rituels de méditation dans la tradition du bouddhisme khmer (Ph.D. thesis)
• Bizot F (1976). Le figuier à cinq branches, Recherches sur le bouddhisme khmer I, PEFEO, vol.CVI1, park
• Bizot F (1980), 'La grotte de la naissance', Recherches sur le bouddhisme khmer II, BEFEO, vol.LXVI1: 222-73, Paris.
• Bizot F (1981a). Le don de soi-même, Recherches sur le bouddhisme khmer III, PEFEO, vol.CXXX, Paris. ISBN 2-85539-730-8.
• Bizot F (1988), Les traditions de la pabbajja en Asie du Sud-Est, Recherches sur le bouddhisme khmer IV, Gijttingen. ISBN 3-525- 82454-8.
• Bizot F (1992). Le Chemin de Lankā, Textes bouddhiques du Cambodge no.f4, Collection de Ecole francaise de Extreme-Orient, Paris. ISSN 1150-2177, ISBN 2-85539-301-9.
• Bizot, F & E Lagirarde (1996). La pureté par les mots (Saddavimālā), Ecole francaise de Extreme-Orient, Paris, Chiang Mai. ISSN 1150-2177. ISBN 9782855 393049.
• Crosby,Kate (2013) Traditional Theravada Meditation and its Modern-Era Suppression Hong Kong: Buddha Dharma Centre of Hong Kong ISBN 9881682029
• Crosby, Kate (2019). Abhidhamma and Nimitta in Eighteenth-century Meditation Manuscripts from Sri Lanka: a Consideration of Orthodoxy and Heteropraxy in Boran Kammaṭṭhāna.
• Davids, Thomas William Rhys ed. (1896), The Yogavacara's manual of Indian mysticism as practised by Buddhists, London: PTS, Oxford University Press
• Foxeus, N. (2013). Esoteric Theravada Buddhism in Burma/Myanmar. Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis, 25, 55–79. https://doi.org/10.30674/scripta.67433
• Foxeus, N. (2016). "I am the Buddha, the Buddha is Me": Concentration Meditation and Esoteric Modern Buddhism in Burma/Myanmar. Numen, 63(4), 411-445
• Skilton, Andrew & Choompolpaisal, Phibul (2016). The Ancient Theravāda Meditation System, Borān Kammaṭṭhāna: Ānāpānasati or ‘Mindfulness of The Breath’ in Kammatthan Majjima Baeb Lamdub.

External links

• Esoteric Theravada | Southern Esoteric Buddhism
• Abhayagiri Monastery
• Samatha Trust
• Itipiso.org
• Buddho Foundation
• The Thai Occult
• Suvaco Bhikkhu
• Meditation 101 On-Line Dhammakaya Meditation Center
• Saengthai
• Saiyasat
• Lersi Thai Hermit Path
• Buddha Magic
• Dharma Thai
• Dhammayut Amulet