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'''States of matter ''' aren't really that interesting. You're wasting your time if you're reading this page.
'''States of matter ''' are the distinct forms that different [[phase (matter)|phases]] of [[matter]] take on. [[Solid]], [[liquid]] and [[gas]] are the most common states of matter on Earth. However, much of the [[baryonic matter]] of the universe is in the form of hot [[plasma (physics)|plasma]], both as rarefied [[interstellar medium]] and as dense [[star]]s.

Historically, the distinction is made based on qualitative differences in bulk properties. Solid is the state in which matter maintains a fixed volume and shape; liquid is the state in which matter maintains a fixed volume but adapts to the shape of its container; and gas is the state in which matter expands to occupy whatever volume is available. yayyy im on the internet

{{wide image|Physics matter state transition 1 en.svg|800px|This diagram shows the nomenclature for the different phase transitions.}}

The state or ''phase'' of a given set of matter can change depending on [[pressure]] and [[temperature]] conditions, transitioning to other phases as these conditions change to favor their existence; for example, solid transitions to liquid with an increase in temperature.

States of matter may also be defined in terms of [[phase diagram|phase transitions]]. A phase transition indicates a change in structure and can be recognized by an abrupt change in properties. By this definition, a distinct state of matter is any set of [[thermodynamic state|states]] distinguished from any other set of states by a [[phase diagram|phase transition]]. Water can be said to have several distinct solid states.<ref>
{{Cite web
|author=M. Chaplin
|date=20 August 2009
|title=Water phase Diagram
|url=http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/phase.html
|work=Water Structure and Science
|accessdate=2010-02-23
}}</ref> The appearance of superconductivity is associated with a phase transition, so there are [[superconductivity|superconductive]] states. Likewise, [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] states are demarcated by phase transitions and have distinctive properties.
When the change of state occurs in stages the intermediate steps are called [[mesophase]]s. Such phases have been exploited by the introduction of [[liquid crystal]] technology.

More recently, distinctions between states have been based on differences in molecular interrelationships. Solid is the state in which intermolecular attractions keep the molecules in fixed spatial relationships. Liquid is the state in which intermolecular attractions keep molecules in proximity, but do not keep the molecules in fixed relationships. Gas is that state in which the molecules are comparatively separated and intermolecular attractions have relatively little effect on their respective motions. [[Plasma (physics)|Plasma]] is a highly ionized gas that occurs at high temperatures. The intermolecular forces created by ionic attractions and repulsions give these compositions distinct properties, for which reason plasma is described as a fourth state of matter.<ref>
{{Cite book
|author=D.L. Goodstein
|year=1985
|title=States of Matter
|pages=
|publisher=[[Dover Publications|Dover Phoenix]]
|isbn=978-0486495064
}}</ref><ref>
{{Cite book
|author=A.P. Sutton
|year=1993
|title=Electronic Structure of Materials
|pages=10–12
|publisher=Oxford Science Publications
|isbn=978-0198517542
}}</ref>

Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by different forces can also be considered different states of matter. [[Superfluids]] (like [[Fermionic condensate]]) and the [[quark–gluon plasma]] are examples.

== The three classical states ==

Each of the classical states of matter, unlike plasma for example, can transition directly into any of the other classical states.

===Solid===

[[Image:Stohrem.jpg|thumb|right|A crystalline solid: atomic resolution image of [[strontium titanate]]. Brighter atoms are [[Strontium|Sr]] and darker ones are [[Titanium|Ti]].]]

{{Main|Solid}}

The particles (ions, atoms or molecules) are packed closely together. The [[Bonding in solids|forces between particles]] are strong enough so that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume. Solids can only change their shape by force, as when broken or cut.

In [[crystal|crystalline solids]], the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern. There are many different [[crystal structure]]s, and the same substance can have more than one structure (or solid phase). For example, [[iron]] has a [[cubic crystal system|body-centred cubic]] structure at temperatures below 912 °C, and a [[cubic crystal system|face-centred cubic]] structure between 912 and 1394 °C. [[Ice]] has fifteen known crystal structures, or fifteen solid phases, which exist at various temperatures and pressures.<ref>
{{Cite book
|author=M.A. Wahab
|year=2005
|title=Solid State Physics: Structure and Properties of Materials
|publisher=Alpha Science
|pages=1–3
|isbn=1842652184
}}</ref>

[[Glass]]es and other non-crystalline, [[amorphous solid]]s without [[order and disorder (physics)|long-range order]] are not thermal equilibrium ground states; therefore they are described below as nonclassical states of matter.

Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be transformed into solids by freezing. Solids can also change directly into gases through the process of [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimation]].

===Liquid===
[[Image:Teilchenmodell Fluessigkeit.svg|thumb|Structure of a classical monatomic liquid. Atoms have many nearest neighbors in contact, yet no long-range order is present.]]‎
{{Main|Liquid}}
A liquid is a nearly incompressible [[fluid]] that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure. The volume is definite if the [[temperature]] and [[pressure]] are constant. When a solid is heated above its [[melting point]], it becomes liquid, given that the pressure is higher than the [[triple point]] of the substance. Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic) forces are still important, but the molecules have enough energy to move relative to each other and the structure is mobile. This means that the shape of a liquid is not definite but is determined by its container. The volume is usually greater than that of the corresponding solid, the most well known exception being water, H<sub>2</sub>O. The highest temperature at which a given liquid can exist is its [[critical temperature]].<ref name=White>
{{Cite book
|author=F. White
|year=2003
|title=Fluid Mechanics
|page=4
|publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]]
|isbn=0-07-240217-2
}}</ref>

===Gas===

[[File:Gas molecules.gif|thumb|right|The spaces between gas molecules are very big. Gas molecules have very weak or no bonds at all. The molecules in "gas" can move freely and fast.]]

{{Main|Gas}}
A gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its container but it will also expand to fill the container.

In a gas, the molecules have enough [[kinetic energy]] so that the effect of intermolecular forces is small (or zero for an [[ideal gas]]), and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is much greater than the molecular size. A gas has no definite shape or volume, but occupies the entire container in which it is confined. A liquid may be converted to a gas by heating at constant pressure to the [[boiling point]], or else by reducing the pressure at constant temperature.

At temperatures below its [[critical temperature]], a gas is also called a [[vapor]], and can be liquefied by compression alone without cooling. A vapor can exist in equilibrium with a liquid (or solid), in which case the gas pressure equals the [[vapor pressure]] of the liquid (or solid).

A [[supercritical fluid]] (SCF) is a gas whose temperature and pressure are above the critical temperature and [[critical temperature|critical pressure]] respectively. In this state, the distinction between liquid and gas disappears. A supercritical fluid has the physical properties of a gas, but its high density confers solvent properties in some cases, which leads to useful applications. For example, [[supercritical carbon dioxide]] is used to [[supercritical fluid extraction|extract]] [[caffeine]] in the manufacture of [[decaffeination|decaffeinated]] coffee.<ref name=Turrell>
{{Cite book
|author=G. Turrell
|year=1997
|title=Gas Dynamics: Theory and Applications
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=-6qF7TKfiNIC&pg=PA3
|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]
|pages=3–5
|isbn=0471975737
}}</ref>

== Non classical states ==
=== Glass ===
{{Main|Glass}}

{{multiple image
| image1 = Silica.svg
| alt1 = Atoms of Si and O; each atom has the same number of bonds, but the overall arrangement of the atoms is random.
| width1 = 200
| image2 = SiO² Quartz.svg
| alt2 = Regular hexagonal pattern of Si and O atoms, with a Si atom at each corner and the O atoms at the centre of each side.
| width2 = 200
| footer = Schematic representation of a random-network glassy form (left) and ordered crystalline lattice (right) of identical chemical composition.
}}

[[Glass]] is a non-crystalline or [[amorphous solid]] material that exhibits a [[glass transition]] when heated towards the liquid state. Glasses can be made of quite different classes of materials: inorganic networks (such as window glass, made of [[silicate]] plus additives), metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers.
Thermodynamically, a glass is in a [[metastable state]] with respect to its crystalline counterpart. The conversion rate, however, is practically zero.

=== Crystals with some degree of disorder ===

A [[plastic crystal]] is a molecular solid with long-range positional order but with constituent molecules retaining rotational freedom; in an [[orientational glass]] this degree of freedom is frozen in a [[order and disorder (physics)|quenched disordered]] state.

Similarly, in a [[spin glass]] magnetic disorder is frozen.

===Liquid crystal states===
{{Main|Liquid crystal}}

Liquid crystal states have properties intermediate between mobile liquids and ordered solids. Generally, they are able to flow like a liquid but exhibiting long-range order. For example, the [[Liquid crystal#Nematic phase|nematic phase]] consists of long rod-like molecules such as [[para-azoxyanisole]], which is nematic in the temperature range 118–136 °C.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Phase Transitions of Liquid Crystal PAA in Confined Geometries|author=Shao, Y.; Zerda, T. W.|journal=Journal of Physical Chemistry B|year=1998|volume=102|issue=18|pages=3387–3394|doi=10.1021/jp9734437}}</ref> In this state
the molecules flow as in a liquid, but they all point in the same direction (within each domain) and cannot rotate freely.

Other types of liquid crystals are described in the main article on these states. Several types have technological importance, for example, in [[liquid crystal display]]s.

===Magnetically ordered ===
[[Transition metal]] atoms often have [[magnetic moment]]s due to the net [[spin (physics)|spin]] of electrons that remain unpaired and do not form chemical bonds. In some solids the magnetic moments on different atoms are ordered and can form a ferromagnet, an antiferromagnet or a ferrimagnet.

In a [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnet]]—for instance, solid [[iron]]—the magnetic moment on each atom is aligned in the same direction (within a [[magnetic domains|magnetic domain]]). If the domains are also aligned, the solid is a permanent [[magnet]], which is magnetic even in the absence of an external [[magnetic field]]. The [[magnetization]] disappears when the magnet is heated to the [[Curie point]], which for iron is 768 °C.

An [[antiferromagnetism|antiferromagnet]] has two networks of equal and opposite magnetic moments, which cancel each other out so that the net magnetization is zero. For example, in [[nickel(II) oxide]] (NiO), half the nickel atoms have moments aligned in one direction and half in the opposite direction.

In a [[ferrimagnetism|ferrimagnet]], the two networks of magnetic moments are opposite but unequal, so that cancellation is incomplete and there is a non-zero net magnetization. An example is [[magnetite]] (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>), which contains Fe<sup>2+</sup> and Fe<sup>3+</sup> ions with different magnetic moments.

===Microphase-separated===
{{Main| Copolymer}}

[[File:Sbs block copolymer.jpg|thumb|right|SBS block copolymer in [[Transmission electron microscopy|TEM]]]] [[Copolymers]] can undergo microphase separation to form a diverse array of periodic nanostructures, as shown in the example of the [[Kraton (polymer)|styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer]] shown at right. Microphase separation can be understood by analogy to the phase separation between [[oil]] and [[water]]. Due to chemical incompatibility between the blocks, block copolymers undergo a similar phase separation. However, because the blocks are [[covalent bond|covalently bonded]] to each other, they cannot demix macroscopically as water and oil can, and so instead the blocks form [[nanometer]]-sized structures. Depending on the relative lengths of each block and the overall block topology of the polymer, many morphologies can be obtained, each its own phase of matter.

==Low-temperature states==
===Superfluids===
[[Image:Liquid helium Rollin film.jpg|thumb|Liquid [[helium]] in a superfluid phase creeps up on the walls of the cup in a [[Rollin film]], eventually dripping out from the cup.]]
{{Main|Superfluid}}
Close to absolute zero, some liquids form a second liquid state described as '''superfluid''' because it has zero [[viscosity]] (or infinite fluidity; i.e., flowing without friction). This was discovered in 1937 for [[helium]], which forms a superfluid below the [[lambda point|lambda temperature]] of 2.17 K. In this state it will attempt to "climb" out of its container.<ref>
{{Cite web
|author=J.R. Minkel
|date=20 February 2009
|title=Strange but True: Superfluid Helium Can Climb Walls
|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=superfluid-can-climb-walls
|work=[[Scientific American]]
|accessdate=2010-02-23
}}</ref> It also has infinite [[thermal conductivity]] so that no [[temperature gradient]] can form in a superfluid. Placing a super fluid in a spinning container will result in [[quantum vortex|quantized vortices]].

These properties are explained by the theory that the common isotope [[helium-4]] forms a [[Bose–Einstein condensate]] (see next section) in the superfluid state. More recently, [[Fermionic condensate]] superfluids have been formed at even lower temperatures by the rare isotope [[helium-3]] and by [[Isotopes of lithium|lithium-6]].<ref>
{{Cite web
|author=L. Valigra
|date=22 June 2005
|url=http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2005/matter.html
|title=MIT physicists create new form of matter
|publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT News]]
|accessdate=2010-02-23
}}</ref>

===Bose-Einstein condensates===
[[Image:Bose Einstein condensate.png|right|thumb|Velocity in a gas of [[rubidium]] as it is cooled: the starting material is on the left, and Bose–Einstein condensate is on the right.]]
{{Main|Bose-Einstein condensate}}
In 1924, [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] predicted the "Bose-Einstein condensate," (BEC) sometimes referred to as the fifth state of matter. In a BEC, matter stops behaving as independent particles, and collapses into a single quantum state that can be described with a single, uniform wavefunction.

In the gas phase, the Bose-Einstein condensate remained an unverified theoretical prediction for many years. In 1995 the research groups of [[Eric Cornell]] and [[Carl Wieman]], of [[JILA]] at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]], produced the first such condensate experimentally. A Bose-Einstein condensate is "colder" than a solid. It may occur when atoms have very similar (or the same) [[quantum level]]s, at temperatures very close to [[absolute zero]] (−273.15 °C).

===Fermionic condensates===
{{main|Fermionic condensate}}
A ''fermionic condensate'' is similar to the Bose-Einstein condensate but composed of [[fermion]]s. The [[Pauli exclusion principle]] prevents fermions from entering the same quantum state, but a pair of fermions can behave as a boson, and multiple such pairs can then enter the same quantum state without restriction.

===Rydberg molecules===
One of the [[metastable state]]s of strongly non-ideal plasma is [[Rydberg matter]], which forms upon condensation of [[excited state|excited atom]]s. These atoms can also turn into [[ion]]s and [[electron]]s if they reach a certain temperature. In April 2009, ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' reported the creation of Rydberg molecules from a Rydberg atom and a [[ground state]] atom,<ref>
{{cite journal
|author=V. Bendkowsky ''et al''.
|year=2009
|title=Observation of Ultralong-Range Rydberg Molecules
|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]
|volume=458 |page=1005
|doi=10.1038/nature07945
|pmid=19396141
|issue=7241
|bibcode = 2009Natur.458.1005B }}</ref> confirming that such a state of matter could exist.<ref>
{{Cite web
|author=V. Gill
|date=23 April 2009
|title=World First for Strange Molecule
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8013343.stm
|publisher=[[BBC News]]
|accessdate=2010-02-23
}}</ref> The experiment was performed using ultracold [[rubidium]] atoms.

===Quantum Hall states===
{{main|Quantum Hall effect}}
A ''quantum Hall state'' gives rise to quantized [[Hall voltage]] measured in the direction perpendicular to the current flow. A ''[[Quantum spin Hall effect|quantum spin Hall state]]'' is a theoretical phase that may pave the way for the development of electronic devices that dissipate less energy and generate less heat. This is a derivation of the Quantum Hall state of matter.

===Strange matter===
{{main|Strange matter}}
Strange matter is a type of [[quark matter]] that may exist inside some neutron stars close to the [[Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit]] (approximately 2–3 [[solar mass]]es). May be stable at lower energy states once formed.

==High-energy states==
===Plasma (ionized gas)===
{{Main|Plasma (physics)}}
Plasmas or ionized gases can exist at temperatures starting at several thousand degrees Celsius, where they consist of free charged particles, usually in equal numbers, such as ions and electrons. Plasma, like gas, is a state of matter that does not have definite shape or volume. Unlike gases, plasmas may self-generate magnetic fields and electric currents, and respond strongly and collectively to electromagnetic forces. The particles that make up plasmas have electric charges, so plasma can conduct electricity. Two examples of plasma are the charged air produced by [[lightning]], and a [[star]] such as our own [[sun]].

As a gas is heated, electrons begin to leave the atoms, resulting in the presence of free electrons, which are not bound to nuclei, and ions, which are [[chemical species]] that contain unequal number of electrons and protons, and therefore possess an electrical charge. The free electric charges make the plasma electrically conductive so that it responds strongly to electromagnetic fields. At very high temperatures, such as those present in stars, it is assumed that essentially all electrons are "free," and that a very high-energy plasma is essentially bare nuclei swimming in a sea of electrons. Plasma is the most common state of non-[[dark matter]] in the universe.

A plasma can be considered as a gas of highly ionized particles, but the powerful interionic forces lead to distinctly different properties, so that it is usually considered as a different phase or state of matter.

===Quark-gluon plasma===
{{Main|Quark-gluon plasma}}
Quark-gluon plasma is a phase in which [[quark]]s become free and able to move independently (rather than being perpetually bound into particles) in a sea of [[gluon]]s (subatomic particles that transmit the [[strong interaction|strong force]] that binds quarks together); this is similar to splitting molecules into atoms. This state may be briefly attainable in [[particle accelerator]]s, and allows scientists to observe the properties of individual quarks, and not just theorize. See also [[Strangeness production]].

Weakly symmetric matter: for up to 10<sup>−12</sup> seconds after the Big Bang the strong, weak and electromagnetic forces were unified. [[Strongly symmetric matter]]: for up to 10<sup>−36</sup> seconds after the [[Big Bang]] the energy density of the universe was so high that the [[fundamental interaction|four forces of nature]] — [[strong interaction|strong]], [[weak interaction|weak]], [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic]], and [[gravitation]]al — are thought to have been unified into one single force. As the universe expanded, the temperature and density dropped and the gravitational force separated, a process called [[symmetry breaking]].

Quark-gluon plasma was discovered at [[CERN]] in 2000.

==Very high energy states==
The '''[[gravitational singularity]]''' predicted by [[general relativity]] to exist at the center of a [[black hole]] is ''not'' a phase of matter;{{Citation needed|reason=please provide citation. Also please clarify. The horizon of a black hole can be treated as a thermodynamic object.|date=June 2009}} it is not a material object at all (although the mass-energy of matter contributed to its creation) but rather a property of [[spacetime]] at a location.

==Other proposed states==
===Degenerate matter===
{{Main|Degenerate matter}}
Under extremely high pressure, ordinary matter undergoes a transition to a series of exotic states of matter collectively known as [[degenerate matter]]. In these conditions, the structure of matter is supported by the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]. These are of great interest to [[astrophysicists]], because these high-pressure conditions are believed to exist inside [[star]]s that have used up their [[nuclear fusion]] "fuel", such as [[white dwarf]]s and [[neutron star]]s.

[[Degenerate matter|Electron-degenerate matter]] is found inside [[white dwarf]] stars. Electrons remain bound to atoms but are able to transfer to adjacent atoms. [[Degenerate matter|Neutron-degenerate matter]] is found in [[neutron star]]s. Vast gravitational pressure compresses atoms so strongly that the electrons are forced to combine with protons via inverse beta-decay, resulting in a superdense conglomeration of neutrons. (Normally [[Neutron|free neutrons]] outside an atomic nucleus will [[Radioactive decay|decay]] with a half life of just under 15 minutes, but in a neutron star, as in the nucleus of an atom, other effects stabilize the neutrons.)

===Supersolid===
{{Main|Supersolid}}
A supersolid is a spatially ordered material (that is, a solid or crystal) with superfluid properties. Similar to a superfluid, a supersolid is able to move without friction but retains a rigid shape. Although a supersolid is a solid, it exhibits so many characteristic properties different from other solids that many argue it is another state of matter.<ref>
{{cite journal
|author=G. Murthy ''et al''.
|year=1997
|title=Superfluids and Supersolids on Frustrated Two-Dimensional Lattices
|journal=[[Physical Review B]]
|volume=55
|issue=5 |page=3104
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.55.3104
|arxiv = cond-mat/9607217 |bibcode = 1997PhRvB..55.3104M }}</ref>

===String-net liquid===
{{main|String-net liquid}}
In a string-net liquid, atoms have apparently unstable arrangement, like a liquid, but are still consistent in overall pattern, like a solid. When in a normal solid state, the atoms of matter align themselves in a grid pattern, so that the spin of any electron is the opposite of the spin of all electrons touching it. But in a string-net liquid, atoms are arranged in some pattern that requires some electrons to have neighbors with the same spin. This gives rise to curious properties, as well as supporting some unusual proposals about the fundamental conditions of the universe itself.

===Superglass===
{{Main|Superglass}}
A superglass is a phase of matter characterized, at the same time, by [[superfluid]]ity and a frozen amorphous structure.

==See also==
* [[Condensed matter physics]]
* [[Cooling curve]]
* [[Phase (matter)]]
* [[Supercooling]]
* [[Superheating]]
* [[Enthalpy]]

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|State of aggregation}}
* [http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2005/matter.html 2005-06-22, MIT News: MIT physicists create new form of matter] Citat: "... They have become the first to create a new type of matter, a gas of atoms that shows high-temperature superfluidity."
* [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/10/031010075634.htm 2003-10-10, Science Daily: Metallic Phase For Bosons Implies New State Of Matter]
* [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/01/040115074553.htm 2004-01-15, ScienceDaily: Probable Discovery Of A New, Supersolid, Phase Of Matter] Citat: "...We apparently have observed, for the first time, a solid material with the characteristics of a superfluid...but because all its particles are in the identical quantum state, it remains a solid even though its component particles are continually flowing..."
* [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/01/040129073547.htm 2004-01-29, ScienceDaily: NIST/University Of Colorado Scientists Create New Form Of Matter: A Fermionic Condensate]
* [http://vega.org.uk/video/subseries/30 Short videos demonstrating of States of Matter, solids, liquids and gases by Prof. J M Murrell, University of Sussex]

{{State of matter}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:State Of Matter}}
[[Category:Condensed matter physics]]
[[Category:Chemical engineering]]
[[Category:Phases of matter| ]]
[[Category:Physics lists|States of matter]]

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States of matter aren't really that interesting. You're wasting your time if you're reading this page.

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