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Somalia is a horrible country.
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{{Infobox Country
|native_name = {{lang|so|''Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya''}}<br />{{rtl-lang|ar|جمهورية الصومال}}<br />{{rtl-lang|ar|''Jumhūriyyat as-Sūmāl''}}
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Somalia
|common_name = Somalia
|image_flag = Flag of Somalia.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Somalia.png
|image_map = Somalia (orthographic projection)-Blue version.svg
|national_anthem = {{lang|so|''[[Somalia, Wake Up|Soomaaliyeey Toosoow]]''}}<br />Somalia, Wake Up
|official_languages = [[Somali language|Somali]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]]<ref name="Charter"/><ref name=2009factbook/>
|demonym = Somali
|ethnic_groups = [[Somali people|Somalis]] (85%), [[Benadiri people|Benadiri]], [[Somali Bantu|Bantus]] and other non-Somalis (15%)<ref name=2009factbook/>
|government_type = [[Coalition government]]
|leader_title1 = [[President of Somalia|President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Sharif Ahmed]]
|leader_title2 = <small>[[Prime Minister of Somalia|Acting Prime Minister]]</small>
|leader_name2 = <small>[[Abdiwahid Elmi Gonjeh]]</small>
|capital = [[Mogadishu]]
|latd=2 |latm=02 |latNS=N |longd=45 |longm=21 |longEW=E
|largest_city = Mogadishu
|area_km2 = 637,657
|area_sq_mi = 246,200 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|area_rank = 43rd
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|percent_water =
|population_estimate = 9,359,000<ref name=UNPP>[http://esa.un.org/unpp/index.asp?panel=1 United Nations World Population Prospects (2008 revision)]: Estimate for mid-2010</ref>
|population_estimate_year = 2010
|population_estimate_rank = 87th
|population_density_km2 =
|population_density_sq_mi = <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|population_density_rank =
|GDP_PPP_year = 2009
|GDP_PPP = $5.731 billion<ref name=2009factbook/>
|GDP_PPP_rank = <small>155th</small>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $600<ref name=2009factbook/>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = <small>224th</small>
|HDI_year = 2009
|HDI = N/A
|HDI_rank = Not ranked
|HDI_category =
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Somalia|Formation]]
|established_event1 = [[Warsangali Sultanate]]
|established_date1 = 13th century
|established_event2 = [[Adal Sultanate]]
|established_date2 = 14th century
|established_event3 = [[Ajuuraan Empire]]
|established_date3 = 15th century
|established_event4 = [[Gobroon Dynasty]]
|established_date4 = 17th century
|established_event5 = [[Sultanate of Hobyo]]
|established_date5 = 19th century
|established_event6 = [[Dervish State]]
|established_date6 = 20th century
|established_event7 = Union of [[British Somaliland|protectorate]] and [[United Nations Trust Territories#Trust territories (and administering powers)|trust territory]]
|established_date7 = 1 July 1960
|drives_on = right
|cctld = [[.so]]
|calling_code = 252
|time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]]
|utc_offset = +3
|time_zone_DST = not observed
|utc_offset_DST = +3
|currency = [[Somali shilling]]
|currency_code = SOS
|footnote1 = [[Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic]]
|footnote2 =
|footnote3 =
}}

'''Somalia''' ({{pron-en|soʊˈmɑːliə}} {{respell|soh|MAH|lee-ə}}; {{lang-so|''Soomaaliya''}}; {{lang-ar|الصومال}} {{transl|ar|''aṣ-Ṣūmāl''}}), officially the '''Republic of Somalia''' ({{lang-so|''Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya''}}, {{lang-ar|جمهورية الصومال}} {{transl|ar|''Jumhūriyyat aṣ-Ṣūmāl''}}) and formerly known as the [[Somali Democratic Republic]] under communist rule, is a country located in the [[Horn of Africa]]. It is bordered by [[Djibouti]] to the northwest, [[Kenya]] to the southwest, the [[Gulf of Aden]] with [[Yemen]] to the north, the [[Indian Ocean]] to the east, and [[Ethiopia]] to the west. With the longest coastline on the continent,<ref name="ITN1996">International Traffic Network, ''The world trade in sharks: a compendium of Traffic's regional studies'', (Traffic International: 1996), p.25.</ref> its terrain consists mainly of [[plateau]]s, [[plain]]s and [[Highland (geography)|highlands]].<ref name=2009factbook>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html|title=Somalia|accessdate=2009-05-31|date=2009-05-14|work=[[World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref>

In antiquity, Somalia was an important center for commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Its sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of [[frankincense]], [[myrrh]] and [[spice]]s, items which were considered valuable luxuries by the [[Ancient Egypt]]ians, [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaeans]] and [[Babylon]]ians with whom the [[Somali people]] traded.<ref>John Kenrick, ''Phoenicia'', (B. Fellowes: 1855), p.199.</ref><ref>Jeanne Rose, John Hulburd, ''The aromatherapy book: applications & inhalations'', (North Atlantic Books: 1992), p.94.</ref> According to most scholars, Somalia is most likely where the ancient [[Land of Punt|Kingdom of Punt]] was situated.<ref name="Mahdy">Christine El Mahdy, ''Egypt : 3000 Years of Civilization Brought to Life'', (Raincoast Books: 2005), p.297.</ref><ref name="SGoodwin">Stefan Goodwin, ''Africa's legacies of urbanization: unfolding saga of a continent'', (Lexington Books: 2006), p.48.</ref> The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with [[Pharaoh|Pharaonic Egypt]] during the times of [[Pharaoh]] [[Sahure]] and [[Queen regnant|Queen]] [[Hatshepsut]]. The [[Architecture of Somalia|pyramidal structures]], [[temples]] and ancient houses of [[masonry|dressed stone]] littered around the country are said to date from this period.<ref name="MGC">John G. Jackson, J. Hampden Jackson, ''Man, God and Civilization'', (Citadel Press: 1972), p.216.</ref> During the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the [[Ajuuraan State]], the [[Adal Sultanate|Sultanate of Adal]], the [[Warsangali Sultanate]] and the [[Gobroon Dynasty]].

Somalia was never formally colonized.<ref>David D. Laitin, ''Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience'', (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), p. 135</ref><ref name="Hoyberry">Don R. Hoy, Leonard Berry, ''Essentials of geography and development: concepts and processes'', (C.E. Merrill Pub. Co.: 1984), p. 305.</ref> [[Muhammad Abdullah Hassan]]'s [[Dervish State]] successfully repulsed the [[British Empire]] four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region.<ref>Kevin Shillington, ''Encyclopedia of African history''‎, (CRC Press: 2005), p.1406.</ref> Due to these successful expeditions, the Dervish State was recognized as an ally by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[German Empire]]s. The [[Turkish people|Turks]] also named Hassan [[Emir]] of the Somali nation,<ref>I.M. Lewis, ''The modern history of Somaliland: from nation to state'', (Weidenfeld & Nicolson: 1965), p. 78</ref> and the [[German people|Germans]] promised to officially recognize any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.<ref>Thomas P. Ofcansky, Historical dictionary of Ethiopia, (The Scarecrow Press, Inc.: 2004), p.405</ref> After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy of [[Airstrike|aerial bombardment]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Samatar | first = Said Sheikh | title = Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1982 | pages = 131 & 135 | isbn = 0521238331}}</ref> As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a [[protectorate]] of Britain. [[Italy]] faced similar opposition from Somali [[Sultan]]s and armies, and did not acquire full control of parts of modern Somalia until the [[Fascist|Fascist era]] in late 1927. This occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[military administration]]. Northern Somalia would remain a [[protectorate]], while southern Somalia became a [[United Nations Trusteeship|trusteeship]]. The Union of the two regions in 1960 formed the Somali Republic. A civilian government was formed, and on July 20, 1961, through a popular [[referendum]], a new [[constitution]] that had first been drafted the year before was ratified.<ref>Greystone Press Staff, ''The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East'', (Greystone Press: 1967), p.338.</ref>

Due to its longstanding ties with the [[Arab world]], Somalia was accepted in 1974 as a member of the [[Arab League]].<ref name="Frankel">Benjamin Frankel, ''The Cold War, 1945-1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World'', (Gale Research: 1992), p.306.</ref> During the same year, the nation's former [[Socialism|socialist]] administration also chaired the [[Organization of African Unity]], the predecessor of the [[African Union]].<ref name="Yang">Oihe Yang, ''Africa South of the Sahara 2001'', 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p.1025.</ref> In 1991, the [[Somali Civil War]] broke out, which saw the collapse of the federal government. Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either [[Civil law (legal system)|secular]], [[religious law|Islamic]] or [[customary law]], with a provision for appeal of all sentences.<ref name=2009factbook/> As with other previously [[Nationalization|nationalized]] sectors, informal providers stepped in to fill the void and replaced the former government monopoly over healthcare, with access to facilities witnessing a significant increase and general living conditions improving.<ref name="Petletbet">{{cite web|url=http://www.peterleeson.com/Better_Off_Stateless.pdf |title=Better Off Stateless: Somalia Before and After Government Collapse|format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref><ref name="improvement">{{cite web|url=http://www.independent.org/pdf/working_papers/64_somalia.pdf|title=Somalia After State Collapse: Chaos or Improvement?|author=Benjamin Powell, Ryan Ford, Alex Nowrasteh|date=November 30, 2006}}</ref> Through similar grass-roots initiatives, many educational institutions were restored and newer ones were developed; several are now ranked among the 100 best universities in Africa.<ref name="Somtroap">{{cite web|author=The African Executive |url=http://www.africanexecutive.com/modules/magazine/article_print.php?article=4693 |title=Somalia: The Resilience of a People |publisher=Africanexecutive.com |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> Additionally, a [[Transitional Federal Government]] was created in 2004, which saw the restoration of numerous national institutions, including the [[Military of Somalia]]. While it still has room for improvement, the interim government continues to reach out to both Somali and international stakeholders to help grow the administrative capacity of the Transitional Federal Institutions and to work toward eventual national elections in 2011.<ref name=2009factbook/> According to the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and the recently re-established [[Central Bank of Somalia]], despite experiencing civil unrest, Somalia has also maintained a healthy informal economy, based mainly on [[livestock]], [[remittance]]/[[Wire transfer|money transfer]] companies, and [[telecommunication]]s.<ref name=2009factbook/><ref name="Cbsef">[http://www.somalbanca.org/economy-and-finance.html Central Bank of Somalia - Economy and Finance]</ref> [[Libertarianism|Libertarian]] economist [[Peter Leeson|Peter T. Leeson]] attributes this increased economic activity to the Somali traditional law (referred to as ''[[Xeer]]''), which provides a stable environment to conduct business in.<ref name="Petletbet"/>

==History==
{{Main|History of Somalia|Maritime history of Somalia}}
{{History_of_Somalia}}

===Prehistory===
[[File:LaasGeel.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Ancient [[rock art]] depicting a [[camel]].]]
Somalia has been inhabited by humans since the [[Paleolithic]] period. [[Cave painting]]s dating back as far as 9000 BC have been found in the northern part of the country. The most famous of these is the [[Laas Geel|Laas Geel complex]], which contains some of the earliest known rock art on the African continent. Inscriptions have been found beneath each of the rock paintings, but [[archaeologist]]s have so far been unable to decipher this form of ancient writing.<ref>Susan M. Hassig, Zawiah Abdul Latif, ''Somalia'', (Marshall Cavendish: 2007), p.22</ref> During the [[Stone age]], the Doian culture and the Hargeisan culture flourished here with their respective industries and factories.

The oldest evidence of [[burial]] customs in the [[Horn of Africa]] comes from [[Cemetery|cemeteries]] in Somalia dating back to the [[4th millennium BC]]. The [[Stone tool|stone implements]] from the ''Jalelo'' [[Archaeological site|site]] in northern Somalia are said to be the most important link in evidence of the universality in Paleolithic times between the East and the West.<ref>H. W. Seton-Karr, ''Man, Volumes 9-10'', "Prehistoric Implements from Somaliland", (Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 1909), pp.182-183.</ref>

===Antiquity and classical era===
{{Main|Architecture of Somalia}}
[[File:Silk route.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Silk Road]] extending from southern [[Europe]] through [[Arabia]], Somalia, [[Egypt]], [[Persia]], [[India]] and [[Java]] until it reaches [[China]].]]
Ancient [[architecture of Somalia|pyramidal structures]], [[tomb]]s, [[Lost cities|ruined cities]] and [[Drywall|stone walls]] such as the [[Wargaade Wall]] littered in Somalia are evidence of an ancient sophisticated civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula.<ref>''The Missionary review of the world‎'', Volume 23, (Funk & Wagnalls: 1900), p.132.</ref> The findings of archaeological excavations and research in Somalia show that this civilization had an ancient [[writing system]] that remains undeciphered,<ref>Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain), ''Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London'', Volume 22, "Mr. J. M. Hildebrandt on his Travels in East Africa", (Edward Stanford: 1878), p.447.</ref> and enjoyed a lucrative trading relationship with [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Mycenaean Greece]] since at least the second millennium BC, which supports evidence of Somalia being the ancient [[Land of Punt|Kingdom of Punt]].<ref>Neville Chittick, ''An Archaeological Reconnaissance of the Horn: The British-Somali Expedition 1975'', p.133.</ref> The Puntites "traded not only in their own produce of [[incense]], [[ebony]] and [[Shorthorn|short-horned cattle]], but also in goods from other neighboring regions, including [[gold]], [[ivory]] and [[Skin|animal skins.]]"<ref>Joyce A. Tyldesley, ''Hatchepsut: the female pharaoh'', (Penguin: 1998), p.147.</ref> According to the temple reliefs at [[Deir el-Bahari]], the Land of Punt was ruled at that time by King Parahu and Queen Ati.<ref>Bill Manley, ''The Penguin historical atlas of ancient Egypt'', (Penguin: 1996), p.59.</ref>

Ancient Somalis domesticated the [[camel]] somewhere between the [[third millennium]] and [[second millennium]] [[Before Christ|BC]] from where it spread to Ancient Egypt and [[North Africa]].<ref>Suzanne Richard, ''Near Eastern archaeology: a reader'', (EISENBRAUNS: 2003), p.120.</ref> In the [[Classical Greece|classical period]], the city states of [[Cape Guardafui|Mossylon]], [[Opone]], [[Berbera|Malao]], [[Zeila|Mundus]] and [[Tabae]] in Somalia developed a lucrative trade network connecting with merchants from [[Phoenicia]], [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic Egypt]], [[Greece]], [[Parthia|Parthian Persia]], [[Sabaeans|Saba]], [[Nabataeans|Nabataea]] and the [[Roman Empire]]. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the ''[[beden]]'' to transport their cargo.
[[File:Qableh1.JPG|thumb|left|Ruins of [[Qa’ableh]].]]
After the [[Nabatea#Roman annexation|Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire]] and the Roman naval presence at [[Aden]] to curb [[piracy]], [[Arab]] and [[Somali people|Somali]] merchants by agreement barred [[India]]n ships from trading in the free port cities of the [[Arabian peninsula]]<ref>Eric Herbert Warmington, ''The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India'', p.54.</ref> to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in the extremely lucrative ancient [[Red Sea]]–[[Mediterranean Sea]] commerce.<ref name="EHW">Eric Herbert Warmington, ''The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India'', p.229.</ref> However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the [[Somali peninsula]], which was free from Roman interference.<ref>Eric Herbert Warmington, ''The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India'', p.187.</ref>

The Indian merchants for centuries brought large quantities of [[cinnamon]] from [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Indonesia]] to Somalia and Arabia. This is said to have been the best kept secret of the Arab and Somali merchants in their trade with the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Greeks|Greek]] world. The Romans and Greeks believed the source of cinnamon to have been the Somali peninsula, but in reality, the highly valued product was brought to Somalia by way of Indian ships.<ref>Eric Herbert Warmington, ''The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India'', pp.185-186.</ref> Through collusive agreement by Somali and Arab traders, Indian/Chinese cinnamon was also exported for far higher prices to North Africa, the [[Near East]] and [[Europe]], which made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands large quantities were shipped across ancient sea and land routes.<ref name="EHW"/>

===Birth of Islam & the Middle Ages===
{{Main|Adal Sultanate|Ajuuraan State|Warsangali Sultanate}}
[[File:Zayla.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the [[Adal Sultanate]] in [[Zeila]].]]
The [[history of Islam]] in the [[Horn of Africa]] is as old as the religion itself. The early persecuted [[Muslim]]s fled to the [[Axumite]] port city of [[Zeila]] in modern day Somalia to seek protection from the [[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]] at the court of the [[Axumite Empire|Axumite Emperor]] in present day [[Ethiopia]]. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have settled in several parts of the Horn of Africa to promote the religion.

The victory of the Muslims over the [[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]] in the 7th century had a significant impact on Somalia's merchants and sailors, as their [[Arab]] trading partners had then all adopted [[Islam]], and the major trading routes in the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Red Sea]] came under the sway of the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Muslim Caliphs]]. Through commerce, Islam spread amongst the Somali population in the coastal cities of Somalia. Instability in the [[Arabian peninsula]] saw several migrations of Arab families to Somalia's coastal cities, who then contributed another significant element to the growing popularity of Islam in the [[Somali peninsula]].
[[File:Fakr Ud Din Mosque.jpg|thumb|left|13th century [[Fakr ad-Din mosque]]]]
[[Mogadishu]] became the center of Islam on the East African coast, and Somali merchants established a colony in [[Mozambique]] to extract gold from the [[Mutapa Kingdom|Monomopatan mines]] in [[Sofala]]. In northern Somalia, [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]] was in its early stages a small trading community established by the newly converted Horn African Muslim merchants, who were predominantly [[Somali people|Somali]] according to [[Arab]] and [[Somali literature|Somali chronicles]].

The century between 1150 and 1250 marked a decisive turn in the role of Islam in Somali history. [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]] and later [[Ibn Said al-Maghribi|Ibn Said]] noted that the Berbers (Somalis) were a prosperous Muslim nation during that period. The [[Adal Sultanate]] was now the center of a commercial empire stretching from [[Cape Guardafui]] to [[Hadiya]]. The Adalites then came under the influence of the expanding Horn African [[Ifat Sultanate]], and prospered under its patronage.

The capital of Ifat was [[Zeila]], situated in northern present-day Somalia, from where the Ifat army marched to conquer the ancient [[Shewa|Kingdom of Shoa]] in 1270. This conquest ignited a rivalry for supremacy between the [[Solomonic Dynasty|Christian Solomonids]] and the Muslim Ifatites that resulted in several devastating wars, and ultimately ended in a Solomonic victory over the Kingdom of Ifat after the death of the popular Sultan [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]] in Zeila by [[Dawit II]]. Sa'ad ad-Din II's family was subsequently given safe haven at the court of the [[King]] of [[Yemen]], where his sons regrouped and planned their revenge on the Solomonids.
[[File:Mogadishan ship.JPG|thumb|[[Model (physical)|Model]] of a medieval [[Mogadishu|Mogadishan]] [[ship]].]]
During the [[Ajuuraan State|Age of the Ajuuraans]], the sultanates and republics of [[Merca]], [[Mogadishu]], [[Barawa]], [[Hobyo]] and their respective ports flourished and had a lucrative foreign commerce, with ships sailing to and coming from [[Arabia]], [[India]], [[Venetia (region)|Venetia]],<ref>John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver, ''Journal of African History'', p.50.</ref> [[Persia]], [[Egypt]], [[Portugal]] and as far away as [[China]]. [[Vasco da Gama]], who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses several storeys high and large palaces in its centre, in addition to many mosques with cylindrical [[minaret]]s.<ref>Vasco Da Gama, Ernest George Ravenstein, ''A journal of the first voyage of Vasco da Gama, 1497-1499'', (Asian Educational Services: 1995), p.88.</ref>

In the 16th century, [[Duarte Barbosa]] noted that many ships from the [[Khambhat|Kingdom of Cambaya]] in modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with [[textile|cloth]] and [[spice]]s, for which they in return received [[gold]], [[wax]] and [[ivory]]. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of [[meat]], [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[horses]], and [[fruit]] on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.<ref>Sir Reginald Coupland, ''East Africa and its invaders: from the earliest times to the death of Seyyid Said in 1856'', (Russell & Russell: 1965), p.38.</ref> Mogadishu, the center of a thriving textile industry known as ''toob benadir'' (specialized for the markets in Egypt, among other places<ref>Edward A. Alpers, East Africa and the Indian Ocean, (Markus Wiener Publishers: 2009), p.79.</ref>), together with Merca and Barawa, also served as a transit stop for [[Swahili people|Swahili]] merchants from [[Mombasa]] and [[Malindi]] and for the gold trade from [[Kilwa Sultanate|Kilwa]].<ref>Nigel Harris, ''The return of Cosmopolitan Capital: Globalization, the State and War'', (I.B.Tauris: 2003), p.22.</ref> [[Jewish]] merchants from the [[Strait of Hormuz|Hormuz]] brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for [[grain]] and wood.<ref>R. J. Barendse, The Arabian seas: the Indian Ocean world of the seventeenth century /c R.J. Barendse, (M.E. Sharpe: 2002), p.343.</ref>

Trading relations were established with [[Malacca]] in the 15th century,<ref>Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p.30</ref> with cloth, [[ambergris]] and [[porcelain]] being the main commodities of the trade.<ref>Caroline Sassoon, ''Chinese porcelain marks from coastal sites in Kenya: aspects of trade in the Indian Ocean, XIV-XIX centuries'', Volumes 43-46, (British Archaeological Reports: 1978), p.2.</ref> Giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the [[Ming Empire]] of China, which established Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce between the Asia and Africa<ref>Sir Reginald Coupland, ''East Africa and its invaders: from the earliest times to the death of Seyyid Said in 1856'', (Russell & Russell: 1965), p.37.</ref> and influenced the Chinese language with the Somali language in the process. [[Hindu]] merchants from [[Surat]] and Southeast African merchants from [[Pate Island|Pate]], seeking to bypass both the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] blockade and [[Oman]]i meddling, used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference.<ref>Edward A. Alpers, ''East Africa and the Indian Ocean'', (Markus Wiener Publishers: 2009), p.21</ref>

===Early modern era & the Scramble for Africa===
{{Main|Dervish State|Gobroon Dynasty|Sultanate of Hobyo}}
[[File:Hafun, Somalia.jpg|thumb|17th century [[mosque]] in [[Hafun]], Somalia.]]
In the [[early modern]] period, successor states of the [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]] and [[Ajuuraan State|Ajuuraan]] [[empire]]s began to flourish in Somalia. These were the [[Warsangali Sultanate|Gerad Dynasty]], the [[Bari, Somalia|Bari Dynasties]] and the [[Gobroon Dynasty]]. They continued the tradition of castle-building and seaborne trade established by previous Somali empires.

[[Sultan]] [[Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim]], the third Sultan of the House of Gobroon, started the golden age of the Gobroon Dynasty. His army came out victorious during the Bardheere Jihad, which restored stability in the region and revitalized the East African [[ivory]] trade. He also received presents from and had cordial relations with the rulers of neighboring and distant kingdoms such as the [[Oman]]i, [[Witu]] and [[Yemen]]i Sultans.

Sultan Ibrahim's son [[Ahmed Yusuf(Gobroon)|Ahmed Yusuf]] succeeded him and was one of the most important figures in 19th century East Africa, receiving tribute from Omani governors and creating alliances with important Muslim families on the East African coast. In northern Somalia, the Gerad Dynasty conducted trade with [[Yemen]] and [[Persia]] and competed with the merchants of the Bari Dynasty. The Gerads and the Bari Sultans built impressive [[palace]]s, [[castle]]s and [[fortress]]es and had close relations with many different empires in the [[Near East]].
[[File:Somali warriors board British naval batilla.jpg|thumb|left|[[Somali people|Somali]] soldiers board a British naval batilla.]] In the late 19th century, after the [[Berlin conference]], European powers began the [[Scramble for Africa]], which inspired the [[Dervish State|Dervish]] leader [[Muhammad Abdullah Hassan]] to rally support from across the [[Horn of Africa]] and begin one of the longest colonial resistance wars ever. In several of his poems and speeches, Hassan emphasized that the British "have destroyed our religion and made our children their children" and that the [[Christian]] [[Ethiopia]]ns in league with the British were bent upon plundering the political and religious freedom of the Somali nation.<ref name="Touval">Saadia Touval, ''Somali nationalism: international politics and the drive for unity in the Horn of Africa'', (Harvard University Press: 1963), p.56.</ref> He soon emerged as "a champion of his country's political and religious freedom, defending it against all Christian invaders."<ref name="Shultz">Richard H. Shultz, Andrea J. Dew, ''Insurgents, terrorists, and militias: the warriors of contemporary combat'', (Columbia University Press: 2006), p.67.</ref>

Hassan issued a religious ordinance stipulating that any Somali national who did not accept the goal of unity of Somalia and would not fight under his leadership would be considered as [[kafir]] or ''gaal''. He soon acquired weapons from [[Turkey]], [[Sudan]], and other Islamic and/or Arabian countries, and appointed ministers and advisers to administer different areas or sectors of Somalia. In addition, he gave a clarion call for Somali unity and independence, in the process organizing his forces.

Hassan's Dervish movement had an essentially military character, and the Dervish state was fashioned on the model of a [[Salihiya]] brotherhood. It was characterized by a rigid hierarchy and centralization. Though Hassan threatened to drive the Christians into the sea, he executed the first attack by launching his first major military offensive with his 1500 Dervish equipped with 20 modern rifles on the British soldiers stationed in the region. [[File:Taleh Castle.jpg|thumb|[[Taleex]] was the capital of the [[Dervish State]].]] He repulsed the British in four expeditions and had relations with the [[Central Powers]] of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and the [[Germany|Germans]]. In 1920, the Dervish state collapsed after intensive aerial bombardments by [[United Kingdom|Britain]], and Dervish territories were subsequently turned into a [[protectorate]].

The dawn of [[fascism]] in the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for [[Italy]], as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries of ''La Grande Somalia'' according to the plan of Fascist Italy. With the arrival of Governor [[Cesare Maria De Vecchi]] on 15 December 1923, things began to change for that part of Somaliland known as [[Italian Somaliland]]. Italy had access to these areas under the successive protection treaties, but not direct rule.

The Fascist government had direct rule only over the [[Benadir]] territory. [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Fascist Italy]], under [[Benito Mussolini]], attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935, with an aim to colonize it. The invasion was condemned by the [[League of Nations]], but little was done to stop it or to liberate occupied Ethiopia. On August 3, 1940, Italian troops, including Somali colonial units, crossed from Ethiopia to [[Italian conquest of British Somaliland|invade British Somaliland]], and by August 14, succeeded in taking [[Berbera]] from the British.

A British force, including troops from several African countries, launched the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|campaign in January 1941]] from Kenya to liberate British Somaliland and Italian-occupied Ethiopia and conquer Italian Somaliland. By February, most of Italian Somaliland was captured and in March, British Somaliland was retaken from the sea. The [[British Empire]] forces operating in Somaliland comprised three divisions of South African, West and East African troops. They were assisted by Somali forces led by [[Abdulahi Hassan]] with Somalis of the [[Isaaq]], [[Dhulbahante]], and [[Warsangali]] clans prominently participating. After World War II, the number of the [[Italian Somalians|Italian colonists]] started to decrease; their numbers had dwindled to less than 10,000 in 1960.<ref>Tripodi, Paolo. ''The Colonial Legacy in Somalia''. St. Martin's Press. New York, 1999.</ref>

===Post-World War II===
{{Main|Greater Somalia}}
[[File:SYL-Freedom.jpg|thumb|right|[[Somali Youth League]] monument]]

Following [[World War II]], Britain retained control of both [[British Somaliland]] and [[Italian Somaliland]] as [[protectorate]]s. In November 1949, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, but only under close supervision and on the condition — first proposed by the [[Somali Youth League]] (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) (which later became Hizbia Dastur Mustaqbal Somali) and the Somali National League (SNL), that were then agitating for independence — that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.<ref name = "Zolberg"/><ref name=Gates1999>Gates, Henry Louis, ''Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience'', (Oxford University Press: 1999), p.1749</ref> British Somaliland remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.<ref name=Tripodi1999>Tripodi, Paolo. ''The Colonial Legacy in Somalia'' p. 68 New York, 1999.</ref>

To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali state, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts.<ref name=ChapinMetz>Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Somalia: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1992. http://countrystudies.us/somalia</ref>
[[File:Pres Adan Abdulle Osman.jpg|thumb|left|[[Aden Abdullah Osman Daar]], the first [[President of Somalia]].]]
Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis,<ref name="Federal">Federal Research Division, ''Somalia: A Country Study'', (Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 2004), p.38</ref> the British "returned" the [[Haud]] (an important Somali grazing area that was presumably 'protected' by British treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the [[Ogaden]] to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor [[Menelek II of Ethiopia|Menelik]] in exchange for his help against plundering by Somali clans.<ref name=Laitin1977>David D. Laitin, ''Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience'', (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), p.73</ref>

Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them.<ref name="Zolberg">Zolberg, Aristide R., et al., ''Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World'', (Oxford University Press: 1992), p.106</ref> This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over.<ref name="Zolberg"/> Britain also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited<ref>Francis Vallat, ''First report on succession of states in respect of treaties: International Law Commission twenty-sixth session 6 May-26 July 1974'', (United Nations: 1974), p.20</ref> [[Northern Frontier District]] (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists despite an informal [[plebiscite]] demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic.<ref>David D. Laitin, ''Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience'', (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), p.75</ref>

A referendum was held in neighboring [[Djibouti]] (then known as [[French Somaliland]]) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable [[Afar people|Afar]] ethnic group and resident Europeans. However, the majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by [[Mahmoud Harbi]], Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti finally gained its independence from [[France]] in 1977 and [[Hassan Gouled Aptidon]], a French-groomed Somali who campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991).<ref name=Barrington2006>Barrington, Lowell, ''After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States'', (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p.115</ref>
[[File:Abdirashid Ali Shermarke.jpg|thumb|right|[[Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke]], Somalia's second [[Prime Minister of Somalia|Prime Minister]] and [[List of Presidents of Somalia|President]].]]

British Somaliland became independent on June 26, 1960, and the former Italian Somaliland followed suit five days later.<ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica, ''The New Encyclopaedia Britannica'', (Encyclopaedia Britannica: 2002), p.835</ref> On July 1, 1960, the two territories united to form the Somali Republic, albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain.<ref name="buluugleey.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.buluugleey.com/warkiidanbe/Governance.htm |title=The dawn of the Somali nation-state in 1960 |publisher=Buluugleey.com |date= |accessdate=2009-02-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htwin/articles/20060809.aspx |title=The making of a Somalia state |publisher=Strategypage.com |date=2006-08-09 |accessdate=2009-02-25}}</ref> A government was formed by [[Abdullahi Issa]], with [[Aden Abdullah Osman Daar]] as [[List of Presidents of Somalia|President]] and [[Abdirashid Ali Shermarke]] as [[Prime Minister of Somalia|Prime Minister]], later to become President (from 1967–1969). On July 20, 1961 and through a popular [[referendum]], the Somali people ratified a new [[constitution]], which was first drafted in 1960.<ref>Greystone Press Staff, ''The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East'', (Greystone Press: 1967), p.338</ref> In 1967, [[Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal]] became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Egal would later become the President of the autonomous [[Somaliland]] region in northwestern Somalia.

In late 1969, following the assassination of President Shermarke, a military government assumed power in a [[coup d'état]] led by Major General [[Salaad Gabeyre Kediye]], General [[Siad Barre]] and Chief of Police [[Jama Korshel]]. Barre became President and Korshel vice-president. The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural [[literacy]] campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world, eventually joining the [[Arab League]] (AL) in 1974.<ref name="Frankel"/> That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU), the predecessor of the [[African Union]] (AU).<ref name="Yang"/>
[[File:Old Parliament Building in Mogadishu.jpg|thumb|left|The old parliament building in [[Mogadishu]]]]

In July 1976 the [[Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party]] (Xisbiga Hantiwadaagga Kacaanka Soomaaliyeed, XHKS) was founded. This party ruled Somalia until the fall of the military government in December 1990 – January 1991. It was violently overthrown by the combined armed revolt of the [[Somali Salvation Democratic Front]] (Jabhadda Diimuqraadiga Badbaadinta Soomaaliyeed, SSDF), [[United Somali Congress]] (USC), [[Somali National Movement]] (SNM), and the [[Somali Patriotic Movement]] (SPM) together with the non-violent political oppositions of the [[Somali Democratic Movement]] (SDM), the [[Factions in the Somali Civil War#Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA)|Somali Democratic Alliance]] (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG). The country was renamed the [[Somali Democratic Republic]].

In July 1977, the [[Ogaden War]] broke out after Barre's government sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited [[Ogaden]] region into a Pan-Somali [[Greater Somalia]]. In the first week of the conflict, Somali armed forces took southern and central Ogaden and for most of the war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian army and followed them as far as [[Sidamo Province|Sidamo]]. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as [[Jijiga]] and put heavy pressure on [[Dire Dawa]], threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of [[Harar]], a massive unprecedented Soviet intervention consisting of 20,000 [[Cuba]]n forces and several thousand Soviet experts came to the aid of Ethiopia's communist [[Derg]] regime. By 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on Russia's [[Cold War]] arch-rival, the [[United States]], which had been courting the Somali government for some time. All in all, Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.<ref name="Ramsbotham">Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse, ''Encyclopedia of international peacekeeping operations'', (ABC-CLIO: 1999), p.222.</ref>
[[File:Somali Military.JPG|thumb|The Somali-[[Soviet Union]] friendship and later partnership with the [[United States]] enabled Somalia to build the largest [[Military of Somalia|army]] in Africa.<ref name="Ramsbotham"/>]]
By 1978, the moral authority of Barre's government had collapsed. Many Somalis had become disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime was weakened further in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became increasingly [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]], and [[resistance movement]]s, encouraged by Ethiopia, sprang up across the country, eventually leading to the [[Somali Civil War]].

During 1990, in the capital city of Mogadishu, the residents were prohibited from gathering publicly in groups greater than three or four. Fuel shortages caused long lines of cars at petrol stations. Inflation had driven the price of pasta, (ordinary dry Italian noodles, a staple at that time), to five U.S. dollars per kilogram. The price of [[khat]], imported daily from [[Kenya]], was also five U.S. dollars per standard bunch. Paper currency notes were of such low value that several bundles were needed to pay for simple restaurant meals. Coins were scattered on the ground throughout the city being too low in value to be used.

A thriving black market existed in the centre of the city as banks experienced shortages of local currency for exchange. At night, the city of Mogadishu lay in darkness. The generators used to provide electricity to the city had been sold off by the government. Close monitoring of all visiting foreigners was in effect. Harsh [[exchange control]] regulations were introduced to prevent export of foreign currency and access to it was restricted to official banks, or one of three government-operated hotels.

Although no travel restrictions were placed on foreigners, photographing many locations was banned. During the day in Mogadishu, the appearance of any government military force was extremely rare. Alleged late-night operations by government authorities, however, included "disappearances" of individuals from their homes.

===Somali Civil War===
{{Main|Somali Civil War}}

1991 was a time of great change for Somalia. President Barre was ousted by combined northern and southern clan-based forces, all of whom were backed and armed by Ethiopia. And following a meeting of the [[Somali National Movement]] and northern clans' elders, the northern former British portion of the country declared its independence as Somaliland in May 1991; although de facto independent and relatively stable compared to the tumultuous south, it has not been recognized by any foreign government.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1367554.stm |title=Somaliland citizens ask to be recognized as a state |publisher=BBC News |date=2001-06-04 |accessdate=2009-02-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1361394.stm |title=Somaliland votes for independence |publisher=BBC News |date=2001-05-31 |accessdate=2009-02-25}}</ref>

In January 1991, President [[Ali Mahdi Muhammad]] was selected by the manifesto group as an interim state president until a conference between all stakeholders to be held in Djibouti the following month to select a national leader. However, [[United Somali Congress]] military leader General [[Mohamed Farrah Aidid]], the [[Somali National Movement]] leader [[Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur]] and the [[Somali Patriotic Movement]] leader [[Col Jess]] refused to recognize Mahdi as president.
[[File:Mogadishu.jpg|thumb|Prior to the civil war, [[Mogadishu]] was known as the ''"White pearl of the [[Indian Ocean]]"''.<ref>Africa Today(1975) by Al J. Venter pg 152</ref>]]
This caused a split between the SNM, USC and SPM and the armed groups Manifesto, [[Somali Democratic Movement]] (SDM) and [[Somali National Alliance]] (SNA) on the one hand and within the USC forces. This led efforts to remove Barre who still claimed to be the legitimate president of Somalia. He and his armed supporters remained in the south of the country until mid 1992, causing further escalation in violence, especially in the Gedo, Bay, Bakool, Lower Shabelle, Lower Juba, and Middle Juba regions. The armed conflict within the USC devastated the Mogadishu area.

The civil war disrupted agriculture and food distribution in southern Somalia. The basis of most of the conflicts was clan allegiances and competition for resources between the warring clans. James Bishop, the United States last ambassador to Somalia, explained that there is "competition for water, pasturage, and... cattle. It is a competition that used to be fought out with arrows and sabers... Now it is fought out with [[AK-47]]s."<ref>{{cite web|author=Friday |url=http://hprsite.squarespace.com/remember-somalia-112007/ |title=It is a competition that used to be fought out with arrows and sabers... Now it is fought out with AK-47s |publisher=Hprsite.squarespace.com |date=2007-11-16 |accessdate=2009-02-25}}</ref> The resulting [[famine]] (about 300,000 dead) caused the [[United Nations Security Council]] in 1992 to authorise the limited peacekeeping operation [[United Nations Operation in Somalia I]] (UNOSOM I).<ref>[http://www.awm.gov.au/units/unit_20244.asp United Nations Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM) 1992]. Australian War Memorial.</ref> UNOSOM's use of force was limited to self-defense and it was soon disregarded by the warring factions.

In reaction to the continued violence and the humanitarian disaster, the United States organized a military coalition with the purpose of creating a secure environment in southern Somalia for the conduct of humanitarian operations. This coalition, ([[Unified Task Force]] or UNITAF) entered Somalia in December 1992 on [[War in Somalia (1992–1993)|Operation Restore Hope]] and was successful in restoring order and alleviating the famine. In May 1993, most of the United States troops withdrew and UNITAF was replaced by the [[United Nations Operation in Somalia II]] (UNOSOM II).
[[File:USCandSNA.jpg|thumb|left|Propaganda leaflet depicting a white dove of peace being crushed by a fist labeled "USC/SNA" ("[[United Somali Congress]]/[[Somali National Alliance]]").]]
However, [[Mohamed Farrah Aidid]] saw UNOSOM II as a threat to his power and in June 1993 his militia attacked [[Pakistan Army]] troops, attached to UNOSOM II, (see [[UN peacekeeping missions involving Pakistan#Somalia (March 1992 to February 1996)|Somalia (March 1992 to February 1996)]]) in Mogadishu inflicting over 80 casualties. Fighting escalated until 19 American troops and more than 1,000 civilians and militia were killed in a [[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|raid in Mogadishu]] during October 1993.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite news|work=The Washington Post |author= Rick Atkinson| date= January 31, 1994}}</ref><ref name="red cross">{{cite news | last = red cross| first = red cross | coauthors = time magazine | title = Anatomy of a Disaster| work = | pages = | language = | publisher = Time Magazine | date = October 18, 1993 | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,979399-2,00.html | accessdate = January 19, 2008}}</ref> The UN withdrew [[Operation United Shield]] in 3 March 1995, having suffered significant casualties, and with the rule of government still not restored. In August 1996, Aidid was killed in Mogadishu.

Following the outbreak of the civil war, many of Somalia's residents left the country in search of asylum. At the end of 2009, about 678,000 were under the responsibility of the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]], constituting the third largest refugee group after war-afflicted [[Iraq]] and [[Afghanistan]], respectively. Due to renewed fighting in the southern half of the country, an estimated 132,000 people left in 2009, and another 300,000 were displaced internally.<ref>{{cite web|title=2009 Global Trends: Refugees, Asylum-seekers, Returnees, Internally Displaced and Stateless Persons|url=http://www.unhcr.org/4c11f0be9.html|publisher=[[UNHCR]]|accessdate=5 August 2010|date=15 June 2010}}</ref>

From 1800 to 1890, between 25,000–50,000 [[Somali Bantu|Bantu]] slaves from [[Mozambique]] and [[Tanzania]] are thought to have been sold from the slave market of [[Zanzibar]] to the Somali coast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cal.org/co/bantu/somali_bantu.pdf |title=somali bantu_03_15_03 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> Bantus are ethnically, physically, and culturally distinct from [[Somali people|Somalis]], and have remained marginalized ever since their arrival in Somalia.<ref>L. Randol Barker et al., ''Principles of Ambulatory Medicine'', 7 edition, (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: 2006), p.633</ref> The number of Bantu in Somalia before the civil war is thought to be about 900,000.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3020110.stm Tanzania accepts Somali Bantus]". BBC News. June 25, 2004.</ref> Since 2003, more than 12,000 Bantu refugees have been resettled in the [[United States]].<ref>"[http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2003/February/20030205164125sellis@pd.state.gov0.5013697.html Somali-Bantu Refugees to Find New Lives in United States]". America.gov. 02/05/2003.</ref> The Tanzanian government has also begun granting Bantus citizenship and land in areas of Tanzania where their ancestors are known to have been removed from.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/UNHCR/8ad8ca67e1bba9703647c92f12b7db6d.htm |title=Somali Bantus gain Tanzanian citizenship in their ancestral land |publisher=Alertnet.org |date=2009-06-03 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

A consequence of the collapse of governmental authority that accompanied the civil war has been the emergence of a significant problem with [[Piracy in Somalia|piracy]] in the waters off of the coast of Somalia.<ref>Biegon, Rubrick. Somali Piracy and the International Response 2009-01-29 Foreign Policy in Focus [http://www.fpif.org/articles/somali_piracy_and_the_international_response]. Retrieved 2010-02-08.</ref><ref>Piracy Off Coast Not Only Criminal, But Very Successful, Security Council Hears, AllAfrica.com, retrieved February 8, 2010 [http://allafrica.com/stories/200911191008.html]</ref> Piracy arose as a response by local fishermen from littoral towns such as [[Eyl]], [[Kismayo]] and [[Harardhere]] to illegal fishing by foreign trawlers.<ref>Tharoor, Ishaan. How Somalia’s fishermen became pirates. 2009-04-18 Time [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1892376,00.html]. Retrieved 2010-02-08.</ref><ref>Hartley, Aiden. What I learned from Somali pirates 2008-12-06 Spectator [http://www.spectator.co.uk/essays/all/3061246/part_2/what-i-learned-from-the-somali-pirates.thtml]. Retrieved 2010-02-08.</ref><ref name="Chitrib">[http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/chi-somalia-pirates_salopek1oct10,0,6155016.story Off the lawless coast of Somalia, questions of who is pirating who] [[Chicago Tribune]] October 10, 2008</ref> An upsurge in piracy in the [[Gulf of Aden]] and the [[Indian Ocean]] has also been attributed to the effects of the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|December 26, 2004 tsunami]] that devastated local fishing fleets and washed ashore containers filled with toxic waste that had been dumped by European fishing vessels.<ref name="Chitrib"/><ref>Lehr, Peter and Lehmann, Henrick, Violence at Sea: Piracy in the Age of Global Terrorism, p. 3</ref> In August 2008, a [[Combined Task Force 150|multinational coalition]] took on the task of combating the piracy by establishing a [[Maritime Security Patrol Area]] (MSPA) within the Gulf of Aden.<ref name=MSPA>{{cite web | title=Combined Task Force 150 Thwarts Criminal Activities | author=Commander, Combined Maritime Forces Public Affairs | publisher = US Africa Command | url=http://www.africom.mil/getArticle.asp?art=2137 | date=2008-09-29 | accessdate=2008-11-17}}</ref> Additionally, the regional [[Puntland]] government in northeastern Somalia committed itself to eradicating piracy and has so far made progress in its campaign, having apprehended numerous pirates in 2010, including a prominent leader.<ref name="Abcpulas">[http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=10697130 Pirate on US wanted list arrested in Somalia]</ref> The autonomous region's security forces also reportedly managed to force out the pirate gangs from their traditional safe havens such as Eyl and Gar'ad, with the pirates now operating from only one main town, Harardhere.<ref name="PPDGA">[http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Puntland_president_delineates_government_achievement.shtml Puntland president delineates government achievement]</ref> By the first half of 2010, these increased policing efforts by Puntland government authorities on land along with international naval vessels at sea reportedly contributed to a drop in pirate attacks in the Gulf of Aden from 86 a year prior to 33, forcing pirates to shift attention to other areas such as the [[Somali Basin]] and the wider Indian Ocean.<ref name="Abcpulas"/><ref>[http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-world/world-pirate-attacks-drop-18-20100715-10cld.html World pirate attacks drop 18%]</ref><ref name="Spfawp">[http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Puntland_forces_arrest_wanted_pirates_in_Garowe.shtml Somalia: Puntland forces arrest wanted pirates in Garowe]</ref>

==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Somalia}}

===Overview===
{{See also|Battle of Mogadishu (2006)|Rise of the Islamic Courts Union (2006)|War in Somalia (2006–2009)|War in Somalia (2009–)|2009 timeline of the War in Somalia}}
[[File:Somalia map states regions districts.png|thumb|170px|Current political situation in Somalia.]]
The [[Transitional Federal Government]] (TFG) is the current internationally recognized federal government of Somalia. It was established as one of the [[Transitional Federal Institutions]] (TFIs) of government as defined in the [[Transitional Federal Charter]] (TFC) adopted in [[November 2004]] by the [[Transitional Federal Parliament]] (TFP). The Charter outlines a five-year mandate leading toward the establishment of a new constitution and a transition to a representative government after national elections. The TFG is the most recent attempt to restore national institutions to Somalia after the 1991 collapse of the [[Siad Barre]] regime and the ensuing Somali Civil War.<ref name=2009factbook/>

In 2006, the [[Islamic Courts Union]] (ICU), an [[Islamism|Islamist]] organization, assumed control of much of the southern part of the country and promptly imposed [[Shari'a|Shari'a law]]. The Transitional Federal Government sought to reestablish its authority, and, with the assistance of [[Ethiopian National Defense Force|Ethiopian troops]], [[African Union]] peacekeepers and air support by the [[United States]], managed to drive out the rival ICU and solidify its rule.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/153/26334.html |title=Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia |publisher=Globalpolicy.org |date=2007-08-14 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

Following this defeat, the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions. Some of the more radical elements, including [[Al-Shabaab (Somalia)|Al-Shabaab]], regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. At the end of 2008, the group had captured [[Baidoa]] but not Mogadishu. By January 2009, Al-Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to withdraw from the country, leaving behind an under-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops.<ref>{{cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,USCIRF,,,4a4f272bc,0.html |title=USCIRF Annual Report 2009 - The Commission's Watch List: Somalia |publisher=Unhcr.org |date=2009-05-01 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

[[File:Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed 2.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]], one of the founders of the [[Transitional Federal Government]].]]
On December 29, 2008, [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]] announced before a united parliament in Baidoa his resignation as [[President of Somalia]]. In his speech, which was broadcast on national radio, Yusuf expressed regret at failing to end the country's seventeen year conflict as his government had mandated to do.<ref name=Resignation>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7802622.stm "Somalia's president quits office"], BBC News, December 29, 2008.</ref> He also blamed the international community for its failure to support the government, and said that the speaker of parliament would succeed him in office per the charter of the [[Transitional Federal Government]].<ref>[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a790e984-d590-11dd-a9cc-000077b07658.html "Somali President Yusuf resigns"], Reuters (FT.com), December 29, 2008.</ref>

Over the next few months, a new President was elected from amongst the more moderate Islamists,<ref>[http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=87&art_id=nw20090131134703757C181130 "Somalia swears in new president"], Sapa-AFP (''IOL''), January 31, 2009.</ref> and [[Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke]], the son of slain former President [[Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke]], was selected as the nation's new Prime Minister. The Transitional Federal Government, with the help of a small team of African Union troops, also began a [[War in Somalia (2009-)|counteroffensive]] in February 2009 to retake control of the southern half of the country. To solidify its control of southern Somalia, the TFG formed an alliance with the [[Islamic Courts Union]], other members of the [[Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia]], and [[Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a]], a moderate [[Sufism|Sufi]] militia.<ref>{{cite web|author=kamaal says: |url=http://horseedmedia.net/2010/05/un-boss-urges-support-for-somalia-ahead-of-istanbul-summit/ |title=UN boss urges support for Somalia ahead of Istanbul summit |publisher=Horseedmedia.net |date=2010-05-22 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> Furthermore, Al-Shabaab and [[Hizbul Islam]], the two main Islamist groups in opposition, began to fight amongst themselves in mid-2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8318798.stm |title=Islamists break Somali port truce |publisher=BBC News |date=2009-10-21 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

As a truce, in March 2009, Somalia's newly established coalition government announced that it would re-implement Shari'a as the nation's official judicial system.<ref name="Shariah in Somalia">[http://www.arabnews.com/?page=4&section=0&article=119757&d=1&m=3&y=2009 Shariah in Somalia] – ''[[Arab News]]''</ref> However, conflict continues in the southern and central parts of the country between government troops and extremist Islamist militants with links to [[al-Qaeda]].<ref>[[Yahoo! News]], 15 September 2009</ref>
[[File:Somalian embassy in Paris.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Embassy]] of Somalia in [[Paris]], [[France]].]]
In 2009, [[Transparency International]] ranked Somalia in last place on its annual [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] (CPI),<ref>{{cite web|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2009|url=http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2009/cpi_2009_table|publisher=Transparency International|accessdate=12 July 2010}}</ref> a metric that purports to show the prevalence of corruption in a country's public sector. In the decade since its launch, the CPI has drawn increasing [[Corruption Perceptions Index#Criticism|criticism]], specifically with regard to the methodologies it uses to obtain its averages; the varying definitions of corruption that are employed; the reliance on the views of a small number of people to obtain data; the inclusion of up to three years of data, which serve to obscure more recent reductions in corruption; the inability of the index to take into account recent anti-corruption reforms, the latter of which can take a while to take effect; and the reliability of the actual sources on which the CPI's rankings are based. These various shortcomings have significantly limited the usefulness and accuracy of the index, and lead to calls for it to be abandoned.<ref>Galtung, Fredrik (2006). "Measuring the Immeasurable: Boundaries and Functions of (Macro) Corruption Indices," in Measuring Corruption, Charles Sampford, Arthur Shacklock, Carmel Connors, and Fredrik Galtung, Eds. (Ashgate): 101–130.</ref><ref>Sik, Endre (2002). "The Bad, the Worse and the Worst: Guesstimating the Level of Corruption," in Political Corruption in Transition: A Skeptic's Handbook, Stephen Kotkin and Andras Sajo, Eds. (Budapest: Central European University Press): 91–113.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title= The Uses and Abuses of Governance Indicators |url=http://www.oecd.org/document/25/0,2340,en_2649_33935_37081881_1_1_1_1,00.html |publisher=OECD }}</ref><ref>[http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PSGLP/Resources/ShahThompsonTransparencyinternationalCPI.pdf Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index:Whose Perceptions Are They Anyway?]</ref>

In 2010, the UN International Monitoring Group (IMG) published a report accusing the Somali government's security forces of being ineffective and corrupt, and claimed that up to half of the food aid that was destined for the conflict-stricken parts of the country were being misdirected. It also accused Somali officials of collaborating with pirates, UN contractors of helping insurgents, and the [[Eritrea]]n government of still supporting rebel groups in southern Somalia despite earlier sanctions imposed on the former. Somalia's government and local businessmen, as well as [[United Nations]] officials and the Eritrean government all emphatically rejected the report's claims.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gettleman|first=Jeffrey|title=Somalia’s President Assails U.N. Report on Corruption|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/17/world/africa/17somalia.html?_r=1|accessdate=12 July 2010|newspaper=[[New York Times]]|date=March 16, 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/LDE62F297.htm Eritrea rejects UN report it backs Somali rebels]</ref> Additionally, the government of the autonomous [[Puntland]] region in northeastern Somalia indicated that the writers of the report drafted it without ever having actually traveled to the region, a fact which was also confirmed by the paper's authors.<ref name="SPLSUR"/> Puntland's president also stated that the report was "politically motivated" and an attempt "to discredit Puntland as a way of achieving another hidden goal" -- an apparent reference to the report's principal author who has familial ties with the dominant clan in [[Somaliland]], a secessionist region in northwestern Somalia for which the author is known to have actively sought diplomatic recognition.<ref name="SPLSUR">[http://allafrica.com/stories/201003230511.html Somalia: Puntland's Leader Says UN Report is 'Politically Motivated']</ref> This was echoed in an official press release by the region's Ministry of Information, Communication, Culture and Heritage, which indicated that the charges were "made by certain elements in the IMG" with a history of making such claims "in other organizations in the past but [who] now have infiltrated this UN mission (International Monitoring Group)." The Ministry also enumerated a number of reforms that Puntland's administration has recently enacted as a part of its officially declared anti-piracy campaign, including the arrest, trial and conviction of pirate gangs, as well as raids on suspected pirate hideouts and confiscation of weapons and equipment; ensuring the adequate coverage of the regional authority's anti-piracy efforts by both local and international media; sponsoring a social campaign led by Islamic scholars and community activists aimed at discrediting piracy and highlighting its negative effects; and partnering with the [[NATO]] alliance to combat pirates at sea.<ref>[http://www.puntland-gov.net/viewnews.asp?nwtype=PR&nid=PRPR202231312104753706 Somalia: Puntland Government Continues Anti-Piracy Campaign, Rejects Monitoring Group Accusations]</ref>

===Reforms===
Somalia's new coalition government has enacted numerous political [[reform]]s since taking office in 2009, with an emphasis on transparency and accountability. One of its first changes involved ensuring that all government institutions, which had previously been spread out in various areas throughout the country, were now based in [[Mogadishu]], the nation's capital. The [[Central Bank of Somalia]] was also re-established, and a national plan as well as an effective anti-corruption commission were put into place.<ref name="AfDB">[http://www.afdb.org/en/news-events/article/afdb-approves-a-2m-grant-for-somalia-5415/ AfDB approves a $2m grant for Somalia]</ref> In July 2009, Somalia's Transitional Federal Government hired [[Pricewaterhousecoopers]] (PwC), one of the world's largest [[professional services]] companies and the largest of the [[Big Four auditors|Big Four]] auditing firms, to monitor development funding, with PwC now serving as a trustee of an account in Mogadishu earmarked for the security, healthcare and education sectors.<ref>[http://www.camagonline.co.uk/News/2728.aspx PwC asked to monitor aid in Somalia]</ref> This was followed in November of that year with a $2 million agreement between the government and the [[African Development Bank]] (AfDB), which saw Somalia re-engage with the AfDB after nearly two decades of interruption. The grant is aimed at providing financial and technical assistance; specifically, to develop a sound legal framework for monetary and fiscal institutions and human and institutional capacity building, as well as to establish public financial systems that are transparent.<ref name="AfDB"/> While its institutions still have room for improvement, the Transitional Federal Government continues to reach out to both Somali and international stakeholders to help grow the administrative capacity of the Transitional Federal Institutions and to work toward eventual national elections in 2011, when the interim government's mandate expires.<ref name=2009factbook/>
[[File:PASWEevpo.jpg|thumb|upright||left|An event banner in [[Garowe]] for the Puntland Agency for Social Welfare (PASWE).]]
Similarly, the autonomous [[Puntland]] region's new administration, which took office in early 2009, has also implemented numerous reforms such as the expansion and improvement of its security and judicial sectors. According to [[Garowe Online]], to bolster the region's justice system, numerous new prosecutors, judges and other court personnel as well as additional prison guards were hired and trained. In July 2010, the Puntland Council of Ministers unanimously approved a new anti-terrorism law to more efficiently handle terror suspects and their accomplices; a special court is also expected to be established within the region's existing criminal courts system to facilitate the task.<ref name="Puntantel">[http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Puntland_Cabinet_approves_counterterrorism_law.shtml Somalia: Puntland Cabinet approves counterterrorism law]</ref> Fiscally, a transparent, [[Government budget|budget]]-based public finance system was established, which has reportedly helped increase public confidence in government. In addition, a new regional [[constitution]] was drafted and later passed on June 15, 2009, which is believed to represent a significant step toward the eventual introduction of a [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] political system to the region for the first time;<ref name="GARW">[http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Editorial_29/Somalia_President_Farole_the_Pride_of_Puntland_Editorial.shtml President Farole - the Pride of Puntland]</ref> such a system already exists in the adjacent [[Somaliland]] region.<ref>[http://www.afrol.com/articles/14904 Somaliland women prepare strategy for election]</ref> More modest reforms were also put into motion in the social sector, particularly in the education and healthcare fields. The regional government has hired more healthcare workers and teachers, with major plans underway for school and hospital renovations.<ref name="GARW"/> One of the most significant new reforms enacted by the incumbent Puntland administration is the launching in May 2009 of the Puntland Agency for Social Welfare (PASWE), the first organization of its kind in Somali history. The agency provides medical, educational and counseling support to vulnerable groups and individuals such as orphans, the disabled and the blind. PASWE is overseen by a Board of Directors, which consists of religious scholars (''[[Ulama|ulema]]''), businesspeople, intellectuals and traditional elders.<ref name="PASWE">[http://www.garoweonline.com/artman2/publish/Somalia_27/Somalia_Puntland_leader_launches_welfare_agency_printer.shtml Somalia: Puntland leader launches welfare agency]</ref>

==Law==
{{Main|Transitional Federal Government|Islamic Courts Union|Xeer}}

Following the outbreak of the civil war and the ensuing collapse of the central government, Somalia's residents reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, traditional or Islamic law, with a provision for appeal of all sentences. The legal structure in Somalia is thus divided along three lines: [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], [[religious law]] and [[Custom (law)|customary law]].<ref name=2009factbook/>

===Civil law===
While Somalia's formal judicial system was largely destroyed after the fall of the [[Siad Barre]] regime, it has been rebuilt and is now administered under different regional governments such as the autonomous [[Puntland]] and [[Somaliland]] macro-regions. In the case of the [[Transitional Federal Government]], a new interim judicial structure was formed through various international conferences.

Despite some significant political differences between them, all of these administrations share similar legal structures, much of which are predicated on the judicial systems of previous Somali administrations. These similarities in civil law include: a) a [[charter]] which affirms the primacy of [[Muslim]] shari'a or religious law, although in practice shari'a is applied mainly to matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, and civil issues. The charter guarantees respect for universal standards of [[human rights]] to all subjects of the law. It also assures the independence of the [[judiciary]], which in turn is protected by a judicial committee; b) a three-tier judicial system including a [[supreme court]], a [[court of appeal]]s, and courts of first instance (either divided between district and regional courts, or a single court per region); and c) the laws of the civilian government which were in effect prior to the military [[coup d'état]] that saw the Barre regime into power remain in force until the laws are amended.<ref name="SJS">
{{cite web
|title=Stateless Justice in Somalia
|url=http://www.hdcentre.org/files/Somalia%20report.pdf|date=2005-06-01
|author=Dr Andre Le Sage
|publisher=Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue
|accessdate=2009-06-26
}}</ref>

===Shari'a===
Islamic [[shari'a]] has traditionally played a significant part in Somali society. In theory, it has served as the basis for all national legislation in every Somali [[constitution]]. In practice, however, it only applied to common civil cases such as [[marriage]], [[divorce]], [[inheritance]] and family matters. This changed after the start of the civil war, when a number of new shari'a courts began to spring up in many different cities and towns across the country. These new shari'a courts serve three functions; namely, to pass rulings in both criminal and civil cases, to organize a militia capable of arresting criminals, and to keep convicted prisoners incarcerated.<ref name="SJS"/>

The shari'a courts, though structured along simple lines, feature a conventional hierarchy of a [[chairman]], [[vice-chairman]] and four [[judge]]s. A police force that reports to the court enforces the judges' rulings, but also helps settle community disputes and apprehend suspected criminals. In addition, the courts manage detention centers where criminals are kept. An independent finance committee is also assigned the task of collecting and managing [[tax]] revenue levied on regional merchants by the local authorities.<ref name="SJS"/>

In March 2009, Somalia's newly established coalition government announced that it would implement shari'a as the nation's official judicial system.<ref name="Shariah in Somalia"/>

===Xeer===
[[Somali people|Somalis]] have for centuries practiced a form of customary law, which they call ''[[Xeer]]''. Xeer is a [[polycentric law|polycentric]] legal system where there is no monopolistic institution or agent that determines what the law should be or how it should be interpreted.

The Xeer legal system is assumed to have developed exclusively in the [[Horn of Africa]] since approximately the 7th century. There is no evidence that it developed elsewhere or was greatly influenced by any foreign legal system. The fact that Somali legal terminology is practically devoid of [[Loanword|loan words]] from foreign languages suggests that Xeer is truly indigenous.<ref name="Mises">{{cite web|url=http://mises.org/story/2701 |title=The Rule of Law without the State - Spencer Heath MacCallum - Mises Daily |publisher=Mises.org |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

The Xeer legal system also requires a certain amount of [[division of labour|specialization]] of different functions within the legal framework. Thus, one can find ''odayal'' ([[judge]]s), ''xeer boggeyaal'' ([[jurist]]s), ''guurtiyaal'' ([[detective]]s), ''garxajiyaal'' ([[Lawyer|attorneys]]), ''murkhaatiyal'' ([[witnesses]]) and ''waranle'' ([[police officer]]s) to enforce the law.<ref name=HAblele>{{cite web|url=http://www.hiiraan.com/op2/2008/oct/back_to_somali_roots.aspx |title=Back to Somali roots |publisher=Hiiraan.com |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

Xeer is defined by a few fundamental tenets that are immutable and which closely approximate the principle of ''[[jus cogens]]'' in [[international law]]: These precepts include a) payment of [[Blood money (term)|blood money]] (locally referred to as ''[[Diyya|diya]]'') for libel, theft, physical harm, rape and death, as well as supplying assistance to relatives; b) assuring good inter-[[clan]] relations by treating women justly, negotiating with "peace emissaries" in good faith, and sparing the lives of socially protected groups (e.g. children, women, the pious, poets and guests); c) family obligations such as the payment of [[dowry]], and sanctions for eloping; d) rules pertaining to the management of resources such as the use of pasture land, water, and other natural resources; e) providing financial support to married female relatives and newlyweds; and f) donating livestock and other assets to the poor.<ref name="SJS"/>

==Cities==
{{Cities of Somalia}}

==Regions and districts==
{{Main|Regions and Districts of Somalia}}

Prior to the civil war, Somalia was divided into eighteen regions (''gobollada'', singular ''gobol''), which were in turn subdivided into districts. The regions are:
{{Columns
|width = 150px
|gap = 10px
|col1 = 1 [[Awdal]]<br />2 [[Bakool]]<br />3 [[Banaadir]]<br />4 [[Bari, Somalia|Bari]]<br />5 [[Bay, Somalia|Bay]]<br />6 [[Galguduud]]
|col2 = 7 [[Gedo]]<br />8 [[Hiiraan]]<br />9 [[Jubbada Dhexe]]<br />10 [[Jubbada Hoose]]<br />11 [[Mudug]]<br />12 [[Nugaal]]
|col3 = 13 [[Sanaag]]<br />14 [[Shabeellaha Dhexe]]<br />15 [[Shabeellaha Hoose]]<br />16 [[Sool]]<br />17 [[Togdheer]]<br />18 [[Woqooyi Galbeed]] }}

On a ''de facto'' basis, northern Somalia is now divided up among the quasi-independent states of [[Puntland]], [[Somaliland]], and [[Galmudug]]. The south is at least nominally controlled by the Transitional Federal Government, although it is in fact controlled by Islamist groups outside Mogadishu. Under the ''de facto'' arrangements there are now [[States and regions of Somalia|27 regions]].

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Somalia}}

===Location and habitat===
[[File:Almadow Overview.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The [[Cal Madow]] mountain range in northern Somalia features the nation's highest peak, [[Shimbiris]].]]
Somalia is bordered by [[Djibouti]] to the northwest, [[Kenya]] to the southwest, the [[Gulf of Aden]] with [[Yemen]] to the north, the [[Indian Ocean]] to the east, and [[Ethiopia]] to the west. Strategically located at the mouth of the [[Bab el Mandeb]] gateway to the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Suez Canal]], the country occupies the tip of a region that, due to its resemblance on the map to a [[rhinoceros]]' horn, is commonly referred to as the [[Horn of Africa]].<ref name=2009factbook/><ref name="Hadden">Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. [http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA464006 "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of Somalian Geology, Geography and Earth Science."] Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Topographic Engineering Center</ref>

Somalia has the longest coastline on the continent,<ref name="ITN1996"/> with a seaboard that stretches 3,025 kilometers.<ref name=2009factbook/> Its terrain consists mainly of [[plateau]]s, [[plain]]s and [[Highland (geography)|highlands]]. The nation has a total area of {{convert|637,657|km2|m2}}, {{convert|627,337|km2|m2}} of which constitutes land, with {{convert|10,320|km2|m2}} of water.<ref name=2009factbook/> Somalia's land boundaries extend to about {{convert|2,340|km|m}}; {{convert|58|km|m}} of that is shared with Djibouti, {{convert|682|km|m}} with Kenya, and {{convert|1,600|km|m}} with Ethiopia. Its maritime claims include [[territorial waters]] of {{convert|200|nmi|km mi}}.<ref name=2009factbook/>

In the north, a scrub-covered, semi-desert plain referred as the ''[[Guban]]'' lies parallel to the Gulf of Aden littoral. With a width of twelve kilometers in the west to as little as two kilometers in the east, the plain is bisected by watercourses that are essentially beds of dry sand except during the rainy seasons. When the rains arrive, the Guban's low bushes and grass clumps transform into lush vegetation.<ref name="Hadden"/> This coastal strip is part of the [[Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands]] [[ecoregion]].
[[File:Juba river downstream Jamaame.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The [[Jubba river]].]]
[[Cal Madow]] is a [[mountain range]] in the northeastern part of the country. Extending from several kilometers west of the city of [[Bosaso]] to the northwest of [[Erigavo]], it features Somalia's highest [[Summit (topography)|peak]], [[Shimbiris]], which sits at an elevation of about {{convert|2416|m|ft}}.<ref name=2009factbook/> The rugged east-west ranges of the Karkaar Mountains also lie to the interior of the Gulf of Aden littoral.<ref name="Hadden"/>

In the central regions, the country's northern mountain ranges give way to shallow plateaus and typically dry watercourses that are referred to locally as the ''Ogo''. The Ogo's western plateau, in turn, gradually merges into the [[Haud]], an important grazing area for livestock.<ref name="Hadden"/>

Somalia has only two permanent rivers, the [[Jubba River|Jubba]] and the [[Shabele River|Shabele]], both of which begin in the [[Ethiopian highlands]]. These rivers mainly flow southwards, with the Jubba River entering the [[Indian Ocean]] at [[Kismayo]]. The Shabele River at one time apparently used to enter the sea near [[Merca]], but now reaches a point just southwest of Mogadishu. After that, it consists of swamps and dry reaches before finally disappearing in the desert terrain east of [[Jilib]], near the Jubba River.<ref name="Hadden"/>

===Climate===
[[File:Horses3.jpg|thumb|right|[[Arabian horse]]s, referred to as ''faras'', seen here in the arid plains of [[Dhahar]].]]
Due to Somalia's proximity to the [[equator]], there is not much seasonal variation in its climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic [[monsoon]] winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from {{convert|30|to|40|°C|°F}}, except at higher elevations and along the eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. In Mogadishu, for instance, average afternoon highs range from {{convert|28|°C|°F}} to {{convert|32|°C|°F}} in April. Some of the highest mean annual temperatures in the world have been recorded in the country; [[Berbera]] on the northwestern coast has an afternoon high that averages more than {{convert|38|°C|°F}} from June through September. Nationally, mean daily minimums usually vary from about {{convert|15|to|30|°C|°F}}.<ref name="Hadden"/> The greatest range in climate occurs in northern Somalia, where temperatures sometimes surpass {{convert|45|°C|°F}} in July on the littoral plains and drop below the freezing point during December in the highlands.<ref name="Hadden"/><ref name="ClimateSom">{{cite news|url=http://countrystudies.us/somalia/34.htm|publisher =Countrystudies.us|title=Somalia - Climate|date=14 may 2009}}</ref> In this region, relative humidity ranges from about 40 percent in the mid-afternoon to 85 percent at night, changing somewhat according to the season.<ref name="Hadden"/>

Unlike the climates of most other countries at this latitude, conditions in Somalia range from [[arid]] in the northeastern and central regions to [[Semi-arid climate|semiarid]] in the northwest and south. In the northeast, annual rainfall is less than {{convert|4|in|mm}}; in the central plateaus, it is about {{convert|8|to|12|in|mm}}. The northwestern and southwestern parts of the nation, however, receive considerably more rain, with an average of {{convert|20|to|24|in|mm}} falling per year. Although the coastal regions are hot and humid throughout the year, the hinterland is typically dry and hot.<ref name="Hadden"/>

There are four main seasons around which pastoral and agricultural life revolve, and these are dictated by shifts in the wind patterns. From December to March is the ''Jilal'', the harshest dry season of the year. The main rainy season, referred to as the ''Gu'', lasts from April to June. This period is characterized by the southwest monsoons, which rejuvenate the pasture land, especially the central plateau, and briefly transform the desert into lush vegetation. From July to September is the second dry season, the ''Xagaa'' (pronounced "Hagaa"). The ''Dayr'', which is the shortest rainy season, lasts from October to December.<ref name="Hadden"/>

The ''tangambili'' periods that intervene between the two monsoons (October–November and March–May) are hot and humid.<ref name="Hadden"/>
{{Weather box
|location = Somalia
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan high C = 30
|Feb high C = 30
|Mar high C = 40
|Apr high C = 40
|May high C = 40
|Jun high C = 40
|Jul high C = 40
|Aug high C = 30
|Sep high C = 30
|Oct high C = 30
|Nov high C = 30
|Dec high C = 30
|year high C = 30
|Jan low C = 15
|Feb low C = 15
|Mar low C = 15
|Apr low C = 15
|May low C = 15
|Jun low C = 15
|Jul low C = 15
|Aug low C = 15
|Sep low C = 15
|Oct low C = 15
|Nov low C = 15
|Dec low C = 15
|year low C = 15
|Jan precipitation mm = 40
|Feb precipitation mm = 40
|Mar precipitation mm = 40
|Apr precipitation mm = 40
|May precipitation mm = 40
|Jun precipitation mm = 40
|Jul precipitation mm = 50
|Aug precipitation mm = 50
|Sep precipitation mm = 40
|Oct precipitation mm = 40
|Nov precipitation mm = 40
|Dec precipitation mm = 40
|year precipitation mm = 500
|source 1 = Country Studies - Somalia<ref name="ClimateSom"/>
|date=August 2010
}}

==Health==
Until the collapse of the federal government in 1991, the organizational and administrative structure of Somalia's [[healthcare]] sector was overseen by the Ministry of Health. Regional medical officials enjoyed some authority, but healthcare was largely centralized. The [[Socialism|socialist]] government of former President of Somalia [[Siad Barre]] had put an end to private medical practice in 1972.<ref name="MSB">Maxamed Siyaad Barre, ''My country and my people: the collected speeches of Major-General Mohamed Siad Barre'', President, the Supreme Revolutionary Council, Somali Democratic Republic, Volume 3, (Ministry of Information and National Guidance: 1970), p.141.</ref> Much of the national budget was devoted to military expenditure, leaving few resources for healthcare, among other services.<ref name="Petletbet"/>

[[File:Edna-adan-maternity-hospital-hargeisa.jpg|thumb|left|[[Edna Adan Maternity Hospital]] in [[Hargeisa]], one of Somalia's many new private healthcare facilities.]]
Although Somalia's public healthcare system was largely destroyed during the ensuing civil war, general living conditions have significantly improved in the intervening years, both in absolute terms and relative to other countries in Africa. As with other previously nationalized sectors, informal providers have filled the vacuum and replaced the former government monopoly over healthcare, with access to facilities witnessing a significant increase.<ref name="Petletbet"/><ref name="improvement"/> Many new healthcare centers, [[clinic]]s, [[hospital]]s and [[Pharmacy|pharmacies]] have in the process been established through home-grown Somali initiatives.<ref name="ANEITMIS">[http://www.scribd.com/doc/22522103/Svrger-2008-Vol-4 Entrepreneurship and Statelessness: A Natural Experiment in the Making in Somalia]</ref> While the state of medicine remains quite basic, medical consultations in these facilities are very affordable ($0.50/visit).<ref name="Petletbet"/>

Comparing the 2000–2005 period with the half-decade just prior to the outbreak of the conflict (1985–1990), [[life expectancy]] actually increased from 46 to 48.5 years;<ref name="Petletbet"/> by 2010, it had risen to 50 years on average.<ref name=2009factbook/> The number of one-year-olds fully immunized against [[measles]] rose 10% from 30% to 40%,<ref name="Petletbet"/> and for [[tuberculosis]], it grew nearly 20% from 31% to 50%.<ref name="Petletbet"/> In keeping with the trend, the number of infants with low birth weight fell from 16 per 1000 to 0.3 (almost none), a 15% drop in total.<ref name="Petletbet"/> Infant mortality per 1,000 births also fell from 152 to 114.9, a 24% improvement;<ref name="Petletbet"/> by 2010, it had plummeted to 107.42 deaths/1,000 live births.<ref name=2009factbook/> Significantly, maternal mortality per 100,000 births fell from 1,600 to 1,100, a drop of over 30%.<ref name="Petletbet"/> The number of physicians per 100,000 people also rose from 3.4 to 4.<ref name="Petletbet"/> Additionally, the percentage of the population with access to sanitation services increased 8% from 18% to 26%, and the percentage of the population with access to at least one health facility almost doubled from 28% to 54.8%.<ref name="Petletbet"/>
[[File:Somali boy receives a polio vaccination.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Somali people|Somali]] boy receiving a [[Polio vaccine|polio]] vaccination.]]
According to a 2005 World Health Organization estimate, about 97.9% of Somalia's women and girls have undergone [[Female genital cutting|female circumcision]],<ref>[http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/index.html Prevalence of FGM]</ref> a pre-marital custom mainly endemic to Northeast Africa and parts of the [[Near East]] that has its ultimate origins in [[Ancient Egypt]].<ref name="Rohayes">{{cite journal |author=Rose Oldfield Hayes |year=1975 |month=November |title=Female genital mutilation, fertility control, women's roles, and the patrilineage in modern Sudan: a functional analysis |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=617–633 |doi=10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030 |accessdate=14 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="Bodman">Herbert L. Bodman, Nayereh Esfahlani Tohidi, ''Women in Muslim societies: diversity within unity'', (Lynne Rienner Publishers: 1998), p. 41.</ref> Encouraged by women in the community, it is primarily intended to deter promiscuity and to offer protection from assault.<ref name="Frayser">Suzanne G. Frayser, Thomas J. Whitby, Studies in human sexuality: a selected guide, (Libraries Unlimited: 1995), p. 257.</ref> About 93% of Somalia's male population is also reportedly circumcised.<ref name="Ahuja">[http://www.cid.harvard.edu/neudc07/docs/neudc07_s1_p02_ahuja.pdf Male Circumcision and AIDS: The Macroeconomic Impact of a Health Crisis]</ref>

Somalia has one of the lowest [[HIV]] infection rates on the continent. This is attributed to the [[Muslim]] nature of Somali society and adherence of Somalis to Islamic morals.<ref name="RCTHIV">{{cite web|url=http://ams.ac.ir/aim/07104/0012.pdf |title=Religious and cultural traits in HIV/AIDS epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> While the estimated HIV prevalence rate in Somalia in 1987 (the first case report year) was 1% of adults,<ref name="RCTHIV"/> a more recent estimate from 2007 now places it at only 0.5% of the nation's adult population despite the ongoing civil strife.<ref name="2009factbook"/>

Although healthcare is now largely concentrated in the private sector, the country's public healthcare system is in the process of being rebuilt, and is overseen by the Ministry of Health. The current Minister of Health is Qamar Adan Ali.<ref>[http://www.emro.who.int/EMROInfo/moh/somalia.htm WHO EMRO – THE REGIONAL OFFICE AND ITS PARTNERS – Somalia]</ref> The autonomous [[Puntland]] region maintains its own Ministry of Health, which is headed by Dr. Mohamed Bashir Ali Bihi,<ref>[http://health.puntlandgovt.com/ Ministry of Health - Puntland State of Somalia]</ref> as does the [[Somaliland]] region in northwestern Somalia, with its Ministry of Health led by Osman Bile Ali.<ref>[http://www.somalilandgov.com/government.htm Somaliland - Government Ministries]</ref>

Some of the prominent healthcare facilities in the country are [[East Bardera Mothers and Children's Hospital]], [[Abudwak Maternity and Children's Hospital]], [[Edna Adan Maternity Hospital]] and [[West Bardera Maternity Unit]].

==Education==
{{Main|Education in Somalia}}
[[File:Mogadishu university.jpg|thumb|left|New [[Mogadishu University]] campus]]
Following the outbreak of the civil war in 1991, the task of running schools in Somalia was initially taken up by community education committees established in 94% of the local schools.<ref>{{cite web
| last =Ihebuzor
| first =Noel
| title =EC and UNICEF join hands to support education in Somalia
| publisher =United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
| date = 2005 01 31
| url =http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/VBOL-696HBA?OpenDocument
| accessdate = 2007-02-09 }}</ref> Numerous problems had arisen with regard to access to education in rural areas and along gender lines, quality of educational provisions, responsiveness of school curricula, educational standards and controls, management and planning capacity, and financing. To address these concerns, educational policies are being developed which are aimed at guiding the scholastic process as the nation embarks on the path of reconstruction and economic development. In the autonomous [[Puntland]] region, the latter includes a gender sensitive national education policy compliant with world standards, such as those outlined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).<ref>[http://education.puntlandgovt.com/education.php Puntland State of Somalia - Ministry of Education - Education]</ref> Examples of this and other educational measures at work are the regional government's enactment of legislation aimed at securing the educational interests of girls,<ref>[http://education.puntlandgovt.com/girlseducation.php Puntland State of Somalia - Ministry of Education - Girls' education]</ref> promoting the growth of an [[Early childhood education|Early Childhood Development]] (ECD) program designed to reach parents and care-givers in their homes as well as in the ECD centers for 0-5 year old children,<ref>[http://education.puntlandgovt.com/child.php Puntland State of Somalia - Ministry of Education - Children's education]</ref> and introducing incentive packages to encourage teachers to work in remote rural areas.<ref>[http://education.puntlandgovt.com/nomads.php Puntland State of Somalia - Ministry of Education - Rural education]</ref>
[[File:Hammar Jab Jab School.jpeg|thumb|250px|right|The Hammar Jab Jab School in [[Mogadishu]].]]
The Ministry of Education is officially responsible for education in Somalia, and oversees the nation's [[Primary education|primary]], [[Secondary education|secondary]], [[Vocational education|technical and vocational]] schools, as well as primary and technical [[Teacher education|teacher training]] and [[Nonformal learning|non-formal education]]. About 15% of the government's budget is allocated toward scholastic instruction.<ref name="Soedov">[http://www.wes.org/ca/wedb/somalia/soedov.htm Somalia - Education Overview]</ref> The autonomous Puntland and [[Somaliland]] macro-regions maintain their own Ministries of Education.

In 2006, Puntland was the second territory in Somalia after Somaliland to introduce free primary schools, with teachers now receiving their salaries from the Puntland administration.<ref>{{cite web
| last =Staff writer
| first =Staff writer
| title =Puntland (Somalia) to introduce free primary schools
| publisher =Afrol News
| date = 2006 04 06
| url =http://www.afrol.com/articles/16083
| accessdate = 2007-02-09 }}</ref> From 2005/2006 to 2006/2007, there was a significant increase in the number of schools in Puntland, up 137 institutions from just one year prior. During the same period, the number of classes in the region increased by 504, with 762 more teachers also offering their services.<ref name="Basic education survey">{{cite web|url=http://education.puntlandgovt.com/BES_presentation2007.pdf |title=Basic education survey|format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> Total student enrollment increased by 27% over the previous year, with girls lagging only slightly behind boys in attendance in most regions. The highest class enrollment was observed in the northernmost [[Bari, Somalia|Bari]] region, and the lowest was observed in the under-populated [[Ayn, Somalia|Ayn]] region. The distribution of classrooms was almost evenly split between urban and rural areas, with marginally more pupils attending and instructors teaching classes in urban areas.<ref name="Basic education survey"/>
[[File:Amoud University.jpg|thumb|left|Entrance to [[Amoud University]] in [[Borama]].]]
Higher education in Somalia is now largely private. Several universities in the country, including [[Mogadishu University]], have been scored among the 100 best universities in Africa in spite of the harsh environment, which has been hailed as a triumph for [[grass-roots]] initiatives.<ref name="Somtroap"/> Other universities also offering higher education in the south include [[Benadir University]], the [[Somalia National University]], [[Kismayo University]] and the [[University of Gedo]]. In Puntland, higher education is provided by the [[Puntland State University]] and East Africa University. In Somaliland, it is provided by [[Amoud University]], the [[University of Hargeisa]], [[Somaliland University of Technology]] and [[Burao University]].

[[Madrasah|Qu'ranic schools]] (also known as ''duqsi'') remain the basic system of traditional religious instruction in Somalia. They provide Islamic education for children, thereby filling a clear religious and social role in the country. Known as the most stable local, non-formal system of education providing basic religious and moral instruction, their strength rests on community support and their use of locally made and widely available teaching materials. The Qu'ranic system, which teaches the greatest number of students relative to other educational sub-sectors, is often the only system accessible to Somalis in nomadic as compared to urban areas. A study from 1993 found, among other things, that about 40% of pupils in Qur'anic schools were girls. To address shortcomings in religious instruction, the Somali government on its own part also subsequently established the Ministry of Endowment and Islamic Affairs, under which Qur'anic education is now regulated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pitt.edu/~ginie/somalia/pdf/koran.pdf |title=Koranic School Project|format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Somalia}}
[[File:Air Somalia Tupolev Tu-154.jpg|thumb|[[Air Somalia]] Tupolev Tu-154 in [[Sharjah (city)|Sharjah]], [[United Arab Emirates]]. Somalia today has a thriving private airline industry.]]
According to the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and the [[Central Bank of Somalia]], despite experiencing civil unrest, Somalia has maintained a healthy informal [[economy]], based mainly on [[livestock]], [[remittance]]/[[Wire transfer|money transfer]] companies and [[telecommunication]]s.<ref name=2009factbook/><ref name="Cbsef"/> Due to a dearth of formal government statistics and the recent [[Somali Civil War|civil war]], it is difficult to gauge the size or growth of the economy. For 1994, the CIA estimated the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] at $3.3 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps35389/1995/wf950219.htm |title=CIA World Factbook: Somalia (1995) |publisher=Permanent.access.gpo.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> In 2001, it was estimated to be $4.1 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/151/so.html#Economy |title=CIA World Factbook: Somalia (2003) |publisher=Bartleby.com |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> By 2009, the CIA estimated that the GDP had grown to $5.731 billion, with a projected real growth rate of 2.6%.<ref name=2009factbook/> According to a 2007 [[British Chambers of Commerce]] report, the private sector also grew, particularly in the service sector. Unlike the pre-civil war period when most services and the industrial sector were government-run, there has been substantial, albeit unmeasured, private investment in commercial activities; this has been largely financed by the [[Somali diaspora]], and includes trade and marketing, money transfer services, transportation, communications, fishery equipment, airlines, telecommunications, education, health, construction and hotels.<ref name="Brcc">{{cite web |url=http://www.google.ca/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CCAQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fviewer.zmags.com%2FgetMagPdf.php%3Fmid%3Ddqrpw&rct=j&q=%22GDP%20per%20capita%20increased%22%20Somalia%20MOgadishu&ei=BvluTOnMJoKKlwfN1f2gDQ&usg=AFQjCNEBTg0ia7HCQJIk7RZRYpCJkBnd9Q&cad=rja |title=Guide to African Markets |year=2007 |publisher=[[British Chambers of Commerce]] |accessdate=20 August 2010}}</ref> [[Libertarianism|Libertarian]] economist [[Peter Leeson|Peter T. Leeson]] attributes this increased economic activity to the Somali [[customary law]] (referred to as ''[[Xeer]]''), which he suggests provides a stable environment to conduct business in.<ref name="Petletbet"/>

The Central Bank of Somalia indicates that the country's GDP per capita is $333, which is lower than that of [[Kenya]] at $350, but better than that of [[Tanzania]] at $280 as well as [[Eritrea]] at $190 and [[Ethiopia]] at $100. About 43% of the population live on less than 1 US dollar a day, with about 24% of those found in urban areas and 54% living in rural areas.<ref name="Cbsef"/>
[[Image:Laasqoray30.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Cans of ''Las Qoray'' brand tuna fish made in [[Las Khorey]].]]
As with neighboring countries, Somalia's economy consists of both traditional and modern production, with a gradual shift in favor of modern industrial techniques taking root. According to the Central Bank of Somalia, about 80% of the population are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists, who keep goats, sheep, camels and cattle. The nomads also gather resins and gums to supplement their income.<ref name="Cbsef"/>

Agriculture is the most important economic sector. It accounts for about 65% of the GDP and employs 65% of the workforce.<ref name="Brcc"/> Livestock contributes about 40% to GDP and more than 50% of export earnings.<ref name=2009factbook/> Other principal exports include [[fish]], [[charcoal]] and [[banana]]s; [[sugar]], [[sorghum]] and [[Maize|corn]] are products for the domestic market.<ref name="CIA2008">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html#Econ CIA - The World Factbook - Somalia (2008)]</ref> According to the Central Bank of Somalia, imports of goods total about $460 million per year, and have recovered and even surpassed aggregate imports prior to the start of the civil war in 1991. Exports, which total about $270 million annually, have also surpassed pre-war aggregate export levels but still lead to a trade account deficit of about $190 million US dollars per year. However, this trade deficit is far exceeded by remittances sent by Somalis in the diaspora, which have helped sustain the import level.<ref name="Cbsef"/>

With the advantage of being located near the [[Arabian Peninsula]], Somali traders have increasingly begun to challenge [[Australia]]'s traditional dominance over the Gulf Arab livestock and meat market, offering quality animals at very low prices. In response, Gulf Arab states have started to make strategic investments in the country, with [[Saudi Arabia]] building livestock export infrastructure and the [[United Arab Emirates]] purchasing large farmlands.<ref name="Acdasl">[http://www.meattradenewsdaily.co.uk/news/230810/australia___the_gulf_demand_for_australian_sheep_and_lamb.aspx The Arab countries demand Australian sheep and lamb] - ''Farmonline''</ref> Somalia is also a major world supplier of [[frankincense]] and [[myrrh]].<ref name="Eifinkoal">[http://www.elmt-relpa.org/FCKeditor/UserFiles/File/elmt/201004/Final%20Report%20Annex%203%20-%20sector%20profiles%20-%20logos.pdf Expanding Investment Finance in Northern Kenya and Other Arid Lands]</ref>
[[File:Bosaso port.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bosaso]] port.]]
The modest [[Secondary sector of the economy|industrial sector]], based on the processing of agricultural products, accounts for 10% of Somalia's GDP.<ref name=2009factbook/> Up to 14 private [[airline]] firms operating 62 aircraft now also offer commercial flights to international locations, including [[Daallo Airlines]]. With competitively priced flight tickets, these companies have helped buttress Somalia's bustling trade networks.<ref name="Somtroap"/>

Prior to the outbreak of the civil war in 1991, the roughly 53 state-owned small, medium and large manufacturing firms were foundering, with the ensuing conflict destroying many of the remaining industries. However, primarily as a result of substantial local investment by the Somali diaspora, many of these small-scale plants have re-opened and newer ones have been created. The latter include fish-canning and meat-processing plants in the northern regions, as well as about 25 factories in the [[Mogadishu]] area, which manufacture [[pasta]], [[mineral water]], [[Confectionery|confections]], [[plastic bag]]s, [[Textile|fabric]], hides and skins, [[detergent]] and [[soap]], [[aluminum]], foam [[mattress]]es and [[pillow]]s, fishing [[boat]]s, carry out packaging, and [[Stonemasonry|stone processing]].<ref name="Somtroap">[http://www.africanexecutive.com/modules/magazine/article_print.php?article=4693 Somalia: The Resilience of a People]</ref> In 2004, an $8.3 million [[Coca-Cola]] bottling plant also opened in the city, with investors hailing from various constituencies in Somalia.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/10/world/africa/10iht-journal.2166680.html Amid Somalia's troubles, Coca-Cola hangs on – Africa & Middle East] – ''[[International Herald Tribune]]''</ref> The robust private sector has also attracted [[Foreign direct investment|foreign investment]] from the likes of [[General Motors]] and [[Dole Food Company|Dole Fruit]].<ref name="Petdlit">Peter D. Little, Somalia: Economy without State. (Indiana University Press: 2003), p.4.</ref>

===Payment system===
{{Main|Central Bank of Somalia|Somali shilling}}
The [[Central Bank of Somalia]] is the official [[Central bank|monetary authority]] of Somalia.<ref name="Cbsef"/> In terms of financial management, it is in the process of assuming the task of both formulating and implementing [[monetary policy]].<ref name="Monpol">[http://www.somalbanca.org/monetary-policy.html Central Bank of Somalia - Monetary policy]</ref>
[[File:Dahabshiil.jpg|thumb|right|210px|A [[Dahabshiil]] franchise outlet in [[Columbus, Ohio]].]]
Owing to a lack of confidence in the local currency, the [[United States dollar|US dollar]] is widely accepted as a medium of exchange alongside the [[Somali shilling]]. [[Dollarization]] notwithstanding, the large issuance of the Somali shilling has increasingly fueled price hikes, especially for low value transactions. This inflationary environment, however, is expected to come to an end as soon as the Central Bank assumes full control of monetary policy and replaces the presently circulating currency introduced by the private sector.<ref name="Monpol"/>

Although Somalia has had no central monetary authority for upwards of 15 years between the outbreak of the civil war in 1991 and the subsequent re-establishment of the Central Bank of Somalia in 2009, the nation's payment system is actually fairly advanced due primarily to the widespread existence of private [[Economy of Somalia#Finance|money transfer operators]] (MTO) that have acted as informal banking networks.<ref name="Paysys">[http://www.somalbanca.org/payment-system.html Central Bank of Somalia - Payment system]</ref>

These remittance firms (''[[hawala]]s'') have become a large industry in Somalia, with an estimated $1.6 billion USD annually remitted to the region by [[Somali people|Somalis]] in the diaspora via money transfer companies.<ref name="2009factbook"/> Most are credentialed members of the Somali Money Transfer Association (SOMTA), an umbrella organization that regulates the community's money transfer sector, or its predecessor, the Somali Financial Services Association (SFSA).<ref name="UKSRS">[http://www.diaspora-centre.org/DOCS/UK_Somali_Remittan.pdf UK Somali Remittances Survey]</ref><ref name="Towhamrec">{{cite web|url=http://www.threcorder.co.uk/content/towerhamlets/recorder/news/story.aspx?brand=REConline&category=newsTowerHam&tBrand=northlondon24&tCategory=newstower&itemid=WeED13%20Apr%202010%2010%3A02%3A08%3A730|title=Decades of community service recognised with award|publisher=Tower Hamlets Recorder|date=13 April 2007|accessdate=3 June 2010}}</ref> The largest of the Somali MTOs is [[Dahabshiil]], a Somali-owned firm employing more than 2000 people across 144 countries with branches in [[London]] and [[Dubai]].<ref name="Towhamrec">{{cite web|url=http://www.threcorder.co.uk/content/towerhamlets/recorder/news/story.aspx?brand=REConline&category=newsTowerHam&tBrand=northlondon24&tCategory=newstower&itemid=WeED13%20Apr%202010%2010%3A02%3A08%3A730|title=Decades of community service recognized with award|publisher=Tower Hamlets Recorder|date=13 April 2007|accessdate=3 June 2010}}</ref><ref name="Forbes">{{cite web|url=http://www.forbescustom.com/EmergingMarketsPgs/AbdirashidDualeInterviewP1.html |title=Freeing Finance: If money makes the world go round, Dahabshiil CEO Abdirashid Duale makes sure it goes to the right people |publisher=Forbescustom.com |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

As the reconstituted Central Bank of Somalia fully assumes its monetary policy responsibilities, some of the existing money transfer companies are expected in the near future to seek licenses so as to develop into full-fledged commercial banks. This will serve to expand the national payments system to include formal cheques, which in turn is expected to reinforce the efficacy of the use of monetary policy in domestic [[Macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] management.<ref name="Paysys"/>

===Energy===
The World Bank reports that [[electricity]] is now in large part supplied by local businesses, using generators purchased abroad. By dividing Somalia's cities into specific quarters, the private sector has found a manageable method of providing cities with electricity. A customer is given a menu of choices for electricity tailored to his or her needs, such as evenings only, daytime only, 24 hour-supply or charge per lightbulb.<ref name="Brcc"/>
[[Image:Puntland oil.png|thumb|right|250px|Oil blocks in [[Puntland]].]]
Somalia has untapped reserves of numerous natural resources, including [[uranium]], [[iron ore]], [[tin]], [[gypsum]], [[bauxite]], [[copper]], [[salt]] and [[natural gas]].<ref name=2009factbook/> Due to its proximity to the oil-rich [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Gulf Arab]] states such as [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Yemen]], the nation is also believed to contain substantial unexploited reserves of oil. A survey of Northeast Africa by the [[World Bank]] and [[United Nations|U.N.]] ranked Somalia second only to [[Sudan]] as the top prospective producer.<ref>{{cite web|author=Reuters May 21, 2008 |url=http://www.theepochtimes.com/news/8-5-21/70884.html |title=Canada's Africa Oil Starts Somalia Seismic Survey |publisher=Theepochtimes.com |date=2008-05-21 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> [[United States|America]]n, [[Australia]]n and [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] [[Petroleum industry|oil companies]], in particular, are excited about the prospect of finding [[petroleum]] and other natural resources in the country. An oil group listed in [[Sydney]], [[Range Resources]], anticipates that the [[Puntland]] province in the north has the potential to produce 5 billion to 10 billion barrels of oil.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oilmarketer.co.uk/2007/07/18/exploration-rights-in-somalia-for-chinese-oil-giant-cnooc/ |title=Exploration rights in Somalia for Chinese oil giant CNOOC |publisher=Oilmarketer.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2009-02-25}}</ref> As a result of these developments, the [[Somali Petroleum Company]] was created by the federal government.

According to surveys, uranium is also found in large quantities in the [[Buurhakaba]] region. A [[Brazil]]ian company in the 1980s had invested $300 million for a uranium mine in central Somalia, but no long-term [[mining]] took place.<ref>Surficial Deposits of Uraniam in the Galmudug State of Somalia – Developments in mining the uranium of Somalia</ref>

Additionally, the Puntland region under the [[Abdirahman Mohamud Farole|Farole]] administration has since sought to refine the province's existing oil deal with Range Resources. The Australian oil firm, for its part, indicated that it looked forward to establishing a mutually beneficial and profitable working relationship with the region's new government.<ref name="TheAgePU">{{cite web |url= http://www.theage.com.au/business/youre-not-sacked-youve-been-realigned-20090203-7wud.html|title= You're not sacked, you've been realigned|author= Mark Hawthorne|date= February 4, 2009|work= |publisher= [[The Age]]|accessdate=November 10, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tradingmarkets.com/.site/news/Stock |title=News/2150990/ RANGE RESOURCES LTD – 2nd Quarter Activities |publisher=Tradingmarkets.com |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

In mid-2010, Somalia's business community also pledged to invest $1 billion in the national [[gas]] and [[electricity]] industries over the following five years. Abdullahi Hussein, the director of the just-formed [[Trans-National Industrial Electricity and Gas Company]], predicted that the investment strategy would create 100,000 jobs, with the net effect of stimulating the local economy and discouraging unemployed youngsters from turning to vice. The new firm was established through the merger of five Somali companies from the [[Commerce|trade]], [[finance]], [[security]] and [[telecommunication]]s sectors. The first phase of the project is scheduled to start within six months of the establishment of the company, and will train youth to supply electricity to economic areas and communities. The second phase, which is slated to begin in mid-to-late 2011, will see the construction of factories in specially designated economic zones for the fishing, agriculture, livestock and mining industries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE64M0AX20100523 |title=Somalia business keen to join forces for peace |publisher=Af.reuters.com |date=2010-05-23 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://world.globaltimes.cn/africa/2010-05/534697.html |title=Newly-found Somali company to bring peace to country |publisher=World.globaltimes.cn |date=2010-05-24 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

According to the Central Bank of Somalia, as the nation embarks on the path of reconstruction, the economy is expected to not only match its pre-civil war levels, but also to accelerate in growth and development due to Somalia's untapped natural resources.<ref name="Cbsef"/>

==Telecommunications and media==
[[File:Hormuud.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Hormuud Telecom]] building in [[Mogadishu]].]]
Somalia now offers some of the most technologically advanced and competitively priced [[telecommunication]]s and [[internet]] services in the world.<ref name="Forbes"/> After the start of the civil war, various new telecommunications companies began to spring up and compete to provide missing infrastructure. Funded by Somali entrepreneurs and backed by expertise from [[China]], [[Korea]] and [[Europe]], these nascent telecommunications firms offer affordable [[mobile phone]] and internet services that are not available in many other parts of the continent. Customers can conduct [[Electronic funds transfer|money transfers]] and other [[bank]]ing activities via [[mobile phone]]s, as well as easily gain wireless internet access.<ref name="Telfirm">[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704608104575220570113266984.html Telecom Firms Thrive in Somalia Despite War, Shattered Economy] – ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''</ref>

After forming partnerships with multinational corporations such as [[Sprint Nextel|Sprint]], [[ITT Corporation|ITT]] and [[Telenor]], these firms now offer the cheapest and clearest phone calls in Africa.<ref name="Petletbet"/> Installation time for a [[landline]] is just three days, while in [[Kenya]] to the south, waiting lists are many years long.<ref name="improvement"/> These Somali telecommunication companies also provide services to every city, town and hamlet in Somalia. There are presently around 25 mainlines per 1,000 persons, and the local availability of telephone lines (''tele-density'') is higher than in neighboring countries; three times greater than in adjacent [[Ethiopia]].<ref name="Somtroap"/> Prominent Somali telecommunications companies include [[Golis Telecom Somalia|Golis Telecom Group]], [[Hormuud Telecom]], [[Somafone]], [[NationLink Telecom|Nationlink]], [[Netco (Somalia)|Netco]], [[Telcom]] and [[Somali Telecom Group]]. Hormuud Telecom alone grosses about $40 million a year. Despite their rivalry, several of these companies signed an interconnectivity deal in 2005 that allows them to set prices, maintain and expand their networks, and ensure that competition does not get out of control.<ref name="Telfirm"/>

Investment in the telecom industry is one of the clearest signs that Somalia's economy has continued to grow despite the ongoing civil strife in parts of the southern half of the country.<ref name="Telfirm"/> Although in need of some regulation, the sector provides invaluable communication services, and in the process, greatly facilitates job creation and income generation.<ref name="Somtroap"/>

As of 2005, there were also 20 privately-owned Somali [[newspaper]]s, 12 [[radio]] and [[television]] stations, and numerous internet sites offering information to the public. Several local [[Satellite television|satellite]]-based television services transmit international news stations, such as [[CNN]].<ref name="Petletbet"/> In addition, one of Somalia's upstart media firms recently established a partnership with the [[BBC]].<ref name="Petletbet"/>

==Military==
{{Main|Military of Somalia}}
[[File:P12.jpg|thumb|upright|A Spoon Rest A (P-12) [[early warning radar]] unit, part of radar installation operated by [[Military of Somalia|Somali troops]] at the [[Berbera]] airport.]]
Prior to the outbreak of the civil war in 1991 and the subsequent disintegration of the Armed Forces, Somalia's friendship with the [[Soviet Union]] and later partnership with the [[United States]] enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.<ref name="Ramsbotham"/> The creation of the [[Transitional Federal Government]] in 2004 saw the re-establishment of the [[Military of Somalia]], which now maintains a force of 10,000 troops.

The [[Ministry of Defense (Somalia)|Ministry of Defense]] is responsible for the Armed Forces. The [[Somali Navy]] is also being re-established, with 500 Marines currently training in Mogadishu out of an expected 5,000-strong force.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shanghaidaily.com/sp/article/2009/200906/20090614/article_404089.htm |title=Somalia gets new navy force after years of absence |publisher=Shanghaidaily.com |date=2009-06-14 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> In addition, there are plans for the re-establishment of the [[Somali Air Force]], with six combat and six transport planes already purchased. A new [[Somali Police Force|police force]] was also formed to maintain law and order, with the first police academy to be built in Somalia for several years opening on December 20, 2005 at Armo, 100&nbsp;kilometers south of [[Bosaso]], the commercial capital of the northeastern [[Puntland]] region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.undp.org/go/newsroom/2005/december/police-academy-somalia201205.en?categoryID=349450&lang=en |title=New Police Academy Opens in Somalia |publisher=Content.undp.org |date=2005-12-10 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> Additionally, construction began in May 2010 on a new naval base in the town of Bandar Siyada, located 25&nbsp;km west of Bosaso. The new naval base is funded by the Puntland administration in conjunction with Saracen International, a UK-based security company. It will include a center for training recruits, and a command post for the naval force.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://horseedmedia.net/2010/05/somalia-puntland-to-start-construction-of-new-navy-base/ |title=SOMALIA: Puntland to start construction of new Navy base |publisher=Horseedmedia.net |date=2010-05-31 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

==Environment==
[[File:Somcoralreef.jpg|thumb|right|Somalia's [[coral reef]]s, ecological parks and protected areas.]]
Somalia is a [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] country with about 1.64% [[arable land]].<ref name=2009factbook/> The first local environmental organizations were ECOTERRA Somalia and the Somali Ecological Society, both of which helped promote awareness about ecological concerns and mobilized environmental programs in all governmental sectors as well as in civil society. From 1971 onwards, a massive tree-planting campaign on a nationwide scale was introduced by the Siad Barre government to halt the advance of thousands of acres of wind-driven [[sand dune]]s that threatened to engulf towns, roads and farm land.<ref name="Natgeosoc159">National Geographic Society (U.S.), ''National Geographic'', Volume 159, (National Geographic Society: 1981), p.765.</ref> By 1988, 265 hectares of a projected 336 hectares had been treated, with 39 range reserve sites and 36 forestry plantation sites established.<ref name="Hadden"/> In 1986, the Wildlife Rescue, Research and Monitoring Centre was established by ECOTERRA Intl., with the goal of sensitizing the public to ecological issues. This educational effort led in 1989 to the so-called "Somalia proposal" and a decision by the Somali government to adhere to the [[CITES|Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]] (CITES), which established for the first time a worldwide ban on the trade of elephant [[ivory]].

Later, [[Fatima Jibrell]], a prominent Somali environmental activist, mounted a successful campaign to salvage old-growth forests of [[acacia]] trees in the northeastern part of Somalia.<ref name="Gilbert"/> These trees, which can grow up to 500 years old, were being cut down to make charcoal since this so-called "black gold" is highly in demand in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], where the region's [[Bedouin]] tribes believe the acacia to be sacred.<ref name="Gilbert">Geoffrey Gilbert, ''World poverty'', (ABC-CLIO: 2004), p.111</ref><ref name=horngoldman>{{cite web|url=http://www.hornrelief.org/goldman-prize-2002.htm |title=Goldman Prize |publisher=Horn Relief |date=2002-04-22 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref><ref name="IWD">{{cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/women_env/w_details.asp?w_id=397 |title=International Women's Day – 8 March 2006 – Fatima Jibrell |publisher=Unep.org |date=2006-03-08 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> However, while being a relatively inexpensive fuel that meets a user's needs, the production of charcoal often leads to [[deforestation]] and [[desertification]].<ref name="IWD"/> As a way of addressing this problem, Jibrell and the Horn of Africa Relief and Development Organization (Horn Relief), an organization of which she is a co-founder and Executive Director, trained a group of adolescents to educate the public on the permanent damage that producing charcoal can create. In 1999, Horn Relief coordinated a peace march in the northeastern [[Puntland]] region of Somalia to put an end to the so-called "charcoal wars." As a result of Jibrell's lobbying and education efforts, the Puntland government in 2000 prohibited the exportation of charcoal. The government has also since enforced the ban, which has reportedly led to an 80% drop in exports of the product.<ref name="Goldman">{{cite web|author=Goldman Environmental Prize |url=http://www.goldmanprize.org/node/113 |title=Fatima Jibrell |publisher=Goldman Prize |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> Jibrell was awarded the [[Goldman Environmental Prize]] in 2002 for her efforts against environmental degradation and desertification.<ref name="Goldman" /> In 2008, she also won the [[National Geographic Society]]/[[Buffett Foundation]] Award for Leadership in Conservation.<ref name="NatGeo">{{cite web|url=http://blogs.nationalgeographic.com/blogs/news/chiefeditor/2008/12/conservation-heroes.html |title=Conservation Heroes Honored by National Geographic, Buffett Foundation |publisher=Blogs.nationalgeographic.com |date=2008-12-11 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>
[[File:Fatima Jibrell.jpg|thumb|left|Environmentalist [[Fatima Jibrell]].]]

Following the massive [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|tsunami of December 2004]], there have also emerged allegations that after the outbreak of the [[Somali Civil War]] in the late 1980s, Somalia's long, remote shoreline was used as a dump site for the disposal of toxic waste. The huge waves which battered northern Somalia after the tsunami are believed to have stirred up tonnes of nuclear and toxic waste that was illegally dumped in the country by several European firms.<ref name="Toxic">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article418665.ece |title=Somalia's secret dumps of toxic waste washed ashore by tsunami |publisher=Timesonline.co.uk |date= 2005-03-04|accessdate=2009-02-25 | location=London | first=Jonathan | last=Clayton}}</ref>

The [[European Green Party]] followed up these revelations by presenting before the press and the [[European Parliament]] in [[Strasbourg]] copies of contracts signed by two European companies — the Italian Swiss firm, Achair Partners, and an Italian waste broker, Progresso — and representatives of the then "President" of Somalia, the faction leader [[Ali Mahdi Mohamed]], to accept 10 million tonnes of toxic waste in exchange for $80 million (then about £60 million).<ref name="Toxic"/>

According to reports by the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP), the waste has resulted in far higher than normal cases of respiratory infections, mouth ulcers and bleeding, abdominal haemorrhages and unusual skin infections among many inhabitants of the areas around the northeastern towns of [[Hobyo]] and [[Benadir]] on the [[Indian Ocean]] coast — diseases consistent with [[radiation]] sickness. UNEP adds that the current situation along the Somali coastline poses a very serious environmental hazard not only in Somalia, but also in the eastern Africa sub-region.<ref name="Toxic"/>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Somalia}}
[[File:Little Somali girl.jpeg|right|170px|thumb|A [[Somali people|Somali]] girl.]]

Somalia has a population of around 10,112,453 inhabitants, about 85% of whom are [[Somali people|ethnic Somalis]].<ref name=2009factbook/> [[Somali Civil War|Civil strife]] in the early 1990s greatly increased the size of the [[Somali diaspora]], as many of the best educated Somalis left for the [[Middle East]], [[Europe]] and [[North America]].<ref>[http://www.innercitypress.com/UNPOSstrategy.doc Somali Diaspora] – ''[[Inner City Press]]''</ref>

Non-Somali ethnic minority groups make up the remainder of the nation's population, and are largely concentrated in the southern regions.<ref>Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, ''Culture and Customs of Somalia'', (Greenwood Press: 2001), pp.10-11.</ref> They include [[Benadiri people|Benadiri]], [[Bravanese people|Bravanese]], [[Somali Bantu|Bantus]], [[Bajuni people|Bajuni]], [[Ethiopia]]ns, [[India]]ns, [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Italian Somalians|Italians]] and [[British people|Britons]]. Most Europeans left after independence.

The country's population is expanding at a growth rate of 2.809% per annum and a birth rate of 43.33 births/1,000 people.<ref name=2009factbook/> Most local residents are young, with a median age of 17.6 years; about 45% of the population is between the ages of 0–14 years, 52.5% is between the ages of 15–64 years, and only 2.5% is 65 years of age or older.<ref name=2009factbook/> The [[Sex ratio|gender ratio]] is roughly balanced, with proportionally about as many men as women.<ref name=2009factbook/>

There is little reliable statistical information on [[urbanization]] in Somalia. However, rough estimates have been made indicating a rate of urbanization of 4.2% per annum (2005-10 est.), with many towns quickly growing into cities. As of 2008, 37% of the nation's population live in towns and cities, with the percentage rapidly increasing.<ref name=2009factbook/>

==Languages==
{{Main|Languages of Somalia}}

The [[Somali language]] is the official language of Somalia.<ref name="Charter">According to article 7 of [http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/countries/docs/charterfeb04.pdf The Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic]: ''The official languages of the Somali Republic shall be Somali (Maay and Maxaatiri) and Arabic. The second languages of the Transitional Federal Government shall be English and Italian.''</ref> It is a member of the [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] branch of the [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] language family, and its nearest relatives are the [[Afar language|Afar]] and [[Saho language|Saho]] languages.<ref>I. M. Lewis, Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho, (Red Sea Press: 1998), p.11.</ref> Somali is the best documented of the Cushitic languages,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/b14r67j54k377r7g/ |title=A software tool for research in linguistics and lexicography: Application to Somali |doi=10.1007/BF01540131 |publisher=Springerlink.com |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref> with academic studies of it dating from before 1900.
[[File:Ciismaniya.jpg|thumb|The [[Osmanya script|Osmanya]] writing script]]
Somali dialects are divided into three main groups: Northern, Benaadir and [[Maay language|Maay]]. Northern Somali (or Northern-Central Somali) forms the basis for Standard Somali. Benaadir (also known as Coastal Somali) is spoken on the [[Benadir]] coast from [[Cadale]] to south of [[Merca]], including [[Mogadishu]], as well as in the immediate hinterland. The coastal dialects have additional [[phoneme]]s which do not exist in Standard Somali. Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle ([[Rahanweyn]]) clans in the southern areas of Somalia.<ref name="Dalby">Andrew Dalby, ''Dictionary of languages: the definitive reference to more than 400 languages'', (Columbia University Press: 1998), p.571.</ref>

Since Somali had long lost its ancient script,<ref>Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somalia, ''The writing of the Somali language'', (Ministry of Information and National Guidance: 1974), p.5</ref> a number of [[writing system]]s have been used over the years for transcribing the language. Of these, the [[Somali alphabet]] is the most widely used, and has been the official writing script in Somalia since the government of former President of Somalia Siad Barre formally introduced it in October 1972.<ref>Economist Intelligence Unit (Great Britain), ''Middle East annual review'', (1975), p. 229</ref>

The script was developed by the Somali linguist [[Shire Jama Ahmed]] specifically for the Somali language, and uses all letters of the English Latin alphabet except ''p'', ''v'' and ''z''. Besides Ahmed's Latin script, other orthographies that have been used for centuries for writing Somali include the long-established [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic script]] and [[Wadaad's writing]]. Indigenous writing systems developed in the 20th century include the [[Osmanya script|Osmanya]], [[Borama script|Borama]] and [[Kaddare script|Kaddare]] scripts, which were invented by [[Osman Yusuf Kenadid]], [[Sheikh Abdurahman Sheikh Nuur]] and [[Hussein Sheikh Ahmed Kaddare]], respectively.<ref>David D. Laitin, ''Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience'', (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), pp.86-87</ref>

In addition to Somali, [[Arabic language|Arabic]] is an official national language in Somalia.<ref name="Charter"/> Many Somalis speak it due to centuries-old ties with the [[Arab World]], the far-reaching influence of the Arabic media, and religious education.

[[English language|English]] is also widely used and taught. [[Italian language|Italian]] used to be a major language, but its influence significantly diminished following independence. It is now most frequently heard among older generations. Other minority languages include [[Bravanese dialect|Bravanese]], a variant of [[Swahili language|Swahili]] that is spoken along the coast by the [[Bravanese people]].

==Religion==
{{Main|Islam in Somalia|Christianity in Somalia}}

With very few exceptions, [[Somali people|Somalis]] are entirely [[Muslim]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mepc.org/workshops/popstat.asp |title=Middle East Policy Council - Muslim Populations Worldwide |publisher=Mepc.org |date=2005-12-01 |accessdate=2010-06-27}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> the majority belonging to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] branch of [[Islam]] and the [[Shafi`i]] school of [[Islamic jurisprudence]], although some are also adherents of the [[Shia]] Muslim denomination.<ref name="Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi">Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, ''Culture and Customs of Somalia'', (Greenwood Press: 2001), p.1.</ref> [[Sufism]], the mystical dimension of Islam, is also well-established, with many local ''jama'a'' (''[[Zaouia|zawiya]]'') or congregations of the various ''[[Tariqah|tariiqa]]'' or Sufi orders.<ref>I. M. Lewis, ''Saints and Somalis: popular Islam in a clan-based society'', (The Red Sea Press: 1998), p.8-9.</ref> The [[Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic|constitution]] of Somalia likewise defines Islam as the religion of the Somali Republic, and Islamic [[sharia]] as the basic source for national legislation.<ref>[http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/countries/docs/charterfeb04.pdf The Transitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic], Article 8, p.6.</ref>
[[File:Somaliamosque11.jpg|thumb|[[Eid ul-Fitr|Eid]] celebrations at the [[Mosque of Islamic Solidarity]] in [[Mogadishu]] (2006).]]
Islam entered the region very early on, as a group of persecuted Muslims had, at Prophet [[Muhammad]]'s urging, sought refuge across the [[Red Sea]] in the [[Horn of Africa]]. Islam may thus have been introduced into Somalia well before the faith even took root in its place of origin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+so0014) |title=A Country Study: Somalia from The Library of Congress |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

In addition, the Somali community has produced numerous important Islamic figures over the centuries, many of whom have significantly shaped the course of Muslim learning and practice in the Horn of Africa, the [[Arabian Peninsula]], and well beyond. Among these Islamic scholars is the 14th century Somali [[theologian]] and [[jurist]] [[Uthman bin Ali Zayla'i]] of [[Zeila]], who wrote the single most authoritative text on the [[Hanafi]] school of Islam, consisting of four volumes known as the ''Tabayin al-Haqa’iq li Sharh Kanz al-Daqa’iq''.

[[Christianity]] is a minority religion in Somalia, with no more than 1,000 practitioners in a population of over eight million inhabitants.<ref name="economist">{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/world/middleeast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14707279 |title=Almost expunged: Somalia's Embattled [[Christian]]s |date=2009-10-22 |accessdate=2009-10-22}}</ref> There is one [[diocese]] for the whole country, the [[Diocese of Mogadishu]], which estimates that there were only about 100 [[Catholic]] practitioners in Somalia in 2004.<ref name="Catholic">{{cite web|author=David M. Cheney |url=http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dmgds.html |title=Catholic Church in Somalia |publisher=Catholic-hierarchy.org |date= |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

In 1913, during the early part of the colonial era, there were virtually no [[Christian]]s in the Somali territories, with only about 100-200 followers coming from the schools and [[orphanage]]s of the few Catholic [[Mission (Christian)|missions]] in the [[British Somaliland]] [[protectorate]].<ref>Charles George Herbermann, ''The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the Catholic church'', Volume 14, (Robert Appleton company: 1913), p.139.</ref> There were also no known Catholic missions in [[Italian Somaliland]] during the same period.<ref>Charles Henry Robinson, ''History of Christian Missions'', (READ BOOKS: 2007), p. 356.</ref> In the 1970s, during the reign of Somalia's then [[Marxism|Marxist]] government, church-run schools were closed and [[Missionary|missionaries]] sent home. There has been no [[archbishop]] in the country since 1989, and the [[cathedral]] in Mogadishu was severely damaged during the civil war.

Some non-Somali ethnic minority groups also practice [[animism]], which represents (in the case of the [[Somali Bantu|Bantu]]) religious traditions inherited from their ancestors in southeastern Africa.<ref name="UNHCR">{{cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3d9ac1502.pdf |title=Refugees Vol. 3, No. 128, 2002 UNHCR Publication Refugees about the Somali Bantu |publisher=Unhcr.org |date=2002-09-01 |accessdate=2010-06-27}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Somalia}}

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Somali cuisine}}
[[File:Somali food.jpg|thumb|Various types of popular [[Somali cuisine|Somali dishes]].]]
The cuisine of Somalia varies from region to region and consists of an exotic [[Fusion cuisine|mixture]] of diverse culinary influences. It is the product of Somalia's rich [[Maritime history of Somalia|tradition of trade and commerce]]. Despite the variety, there remains one thing that unites the various regional cuisines: all food is served [[halal]]. There are therefore no [[pork]] dishes, [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] is not served, nothing that died on its own is eaten, and no blood is incorporated. ''Qaddo'' or lunch is often elaborate.

Varieties of ''bariis'' ([[rice]]), the most popular probably being [[basmati]], usually serve as the main dish. Spices like [[cumin]], [[cardamom]], [[cloves]], [[cinnamon]] and [[Common sage|sage]] are used to aromatize these different rice dishes. Somalis serve dinner as late as 9 pm. During [[Ramadan (calendar month)|Ramadan]], dinner is often served after [[Tarawih]] prayers – sometimes as late as 11 pm.

''Xalwo'' or [[halva]] is a popular confection served during special occasions such as [[Eid ul-Fitr|Eid]] celebrations or wedding receptions. It is made from sugar, [[cornstarch]], [[cardamom]] powder, [[nutmeg]] powder and [[ghee]]. [[Peanut]]s are also sometimes added to enhance texture and flavor.<ref>Barlin Ali, ''Somali Cuisine'', (AuthorHouse: 2007), p.79</ref> After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed using [[frankincense]] (''lubaan'') or [[incense]] (''cuunsi''), which is prepared inside an incense burner referred to as a ''[[dabqaad]]''.

===Music===
{{Main|Music of Somalia}}
[[File:Aar maanta.jpg|thumb|Somali singer [[Aar Maanta]] performing with his band.]]
Somalia has a rich musical heritage centered on traditional Somali [[folklore]]. Most Somali songs are [[Pentatonic scale|pentatonic]]; that is, they only use five [[Pitch (music)|pitches]] per [[octave]] in contrast to a [[Heptatonic scale|heptatonic]] (seven note) scale such as the [[major scale]]. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as [[Ethiopia]], [[Sudan]] or [[Arabia]], but it is ultimately recognizable by its own unique tunes and styles. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between [[lyricist]]s (''midho''), [[songwriter]]s (''lahan'') and [[Singing|singers]] ('''odka'' or "voice").<ref>Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, ''Culture and Customs of Somalia'', (Greenwood Press: 2001), pp.170-171.</ref>

===Literature===
{{Main|Somali literature}}
Somali scholars have for centuries produced many notable examples of [[Islamic literature]] ranging from [[poetry]] to [[Hadith]]. With the adoption of the [[Somali alphabet|Latin alphabet]] in 1972 as the nation's standard orthography, numerous contemporary Somali authors have also released novels, some of which have gone on to receive worldwide acclaim. Of these modern writers, [[Nuruddin Farah]] is probably the most celebrated. Books such as ''From a Crooked Rib'' and ''Links'' are considered important literary achievements, works which have earned Farah, among other accolades, the 1998 [[Neustadt International Prize for Literature]].<ref>[http://www.lettre-ulysses-award.org/authors03/farah.html Lettre Ulysses Award for the Art of Reportage - Nuruddin Farah]</ref> [[Farah Mohamed Jama Awl]] is another prominent Somali writer who is perhaps best known for his [[Dervish State|Dervish era]] novel, ''Ignorance is the enemy of love''.

===Architecture===
{{Main|Architecture of Somalia}}
[[File:Eyl Castle.jpg|thumb|220px|right| [[Eyl]] castle.]]
[[Architecture of Somalia|Somali architecture]] is a rich and diverse tradition of [[engineering]] and [[designing]] multiple different [[construction]] types such as [[masonry|stone cities]], [[castle]]s, [[citadel]]s, [[fortress]]es, [[mosque]]s, [[temple]]s, [[aqueduct]]s, [[lighthouse]]s, towers and [[tomb]]s during the ancient, [[Middle Ages|medieval]] and [[early modern]] periods in Somalia, as well as the fusion of Somalo-Islamic architecture with Occidental designs in [[contemporary architecture|contemporary]] times.

In ancient Somalia, [[pyramid]]ical structures known in [[Somali language|Somali]] as ''taalo'' were a popular burial style, with hundreds of these [[drystone]] monuments scattered around the country today. Houses were built of [[Stonemasonry|dressed stone]] similar to the ones in [[Ancient Egypt]],<ref name="MGC"/> and there are examples of [[courtyard]]s and large stone walls such as the [[Wargaade Wall]] enclosing settlements.

The adoption of Islam in the early medieval era of Somalia's history brought [[Islamic architecture|Islamic architectural influences]] from [[Arabia]] and [[Persia]], which stimulated a shift from [[drystone]] and other related materials in construction to [[Masonry|coral stone]], [[mud-brick|sundried bricks]], and the widespread use of [[limestone]] in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs such as [[mosques]] were built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that would continue over and over again throughout the following centuries.<ref>Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, ''Culture and Customs of Somalia'', (Greenwood Press: 2001), p.102.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Somalia}}
{{Main|Outline of Somalia}}
*[[Index of Somalia-related articles]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
*Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye, ''Culture and Customs of Somalia'', (Greenwood Press: 2001)
*Cassanelli, Lee V., ''The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600-1900'', (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1982)
*Cerulli, Enrico, ''Somalia: Scritti Vari Editi ed Inediti'', (Istituto poligrafico dello Stato: 1957)
*Hess, Robert L. ''Italian Colonialism in Somalia'', (University of Chicago: 1966)
*Laitin, David D., ''Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience'', (University Of Chicago Press: 1977)
*Lewis, I.M., ''Pastoral Democracy: A study on Pastoralism and Politics among the Northern Somali clans'', (Ohio University Press: 1958)
*Van Notten, Michael, ''The Law of the Somalis: A Stable Foundation for Economic Development in the Horn of Africa'', First Printing edition, (The Red Sea Press: 2005)

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Somalia}}

; Government
*[http://www.tfgsomalia.net Official Website of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia]
*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-s/somalia.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]

; General information
*{{CIA World Factbook link|so|Somalia}}
*[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/somalia.htm Somalia] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
*{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Somalia}}
*{{wikiatlas|Somalia}}
*{{Wikitravel}}

{{Somalia topics|State=expanded}}
{{Template group
|title = Geographic locale
|list =
{{Countries and territories of the Middle East|state=collapsed}}
{{Countries of Africa|state=collapsed}}
{{Countries bordering the Red Sea|state=collapsed}}
{{Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean|state=collapsed}}
{{Countries bordering the Arabian Sea}}
}}
{{Template group
|title = International membership
|list =
{{African Union (AU)|state=collapsed}}
{{Arab League|state=collapsed}}
{{Community of Sahel-Saharan States|state=collapsed}}
{{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|state=collapsed}}
{{Afro-Asiatic-speaking nations}}
}}

[[Category:Somalia| ]]
[[Category:African countries]]
[[Category:Arab League member states]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Countries of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Countries bordering the Red Sea]]
[[Category:Horn of Africa]]
[[Category:Arabic-speaking countries]]
[[Category:Divided regions]]
[[Category:Least Developed Countries]]
[[Category:Organisation of the Islamic Conference members]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1960]]

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[[sw:Somalia]]
[[kg:Somalia]]
[[ht:Somali]]
[[ku:Somaliya]]
[[la:Somalia]]
[[lv:Somālija]]
[[lb:Somalia]]
[[lt:Somalis]]
[[lij:Somalia]]
[[ln:Somalia]]
[[jbo:somalias]]
[[lmo:Sumalia]]
[[hu:Szomália]]
[[mk:Сомалија]]
[[mg:Somalia]]
[[ml:സൊമാലിയ]]
[[mt:Somalja]]
[[mr:सोमालिया]]
[[arz:الصومال]]
[[ms:Somalia]]
[[mn:Сомали]]
[[nah:Somalia]]
[[nl:Somalië]]
[[new:सोमालिया]]
[[ja:ソマリア]]
[[no:Somalia]]
[[nn:Somalia]]
[[nov:Somalia]]
[[oc:Somalia]]
[[mhr:Сомали]]
[[uz:Somaliya]]
[[pnb:صومالیہ]]
[[pap:Somalia]]
[[ps:سوماليا]]
[[pms:Somalia]]
[[nds:Somalia]]
[[pl:Somalia]]
[[pt:Somália]]
[[crh:Somaliya]]
[[ro:Somalia]]
[[rm:Somalia]]
[[qu:Sumalya]]
[[ru:Сомали]]
[[sah:Сомалия]]
[[se:Somália]]
[[sm:Somalia]]
[[sa:सोमालिया]]
[[sc:Somàlia]]
[[sco:Somalie]]
[[stq:Somalia]]
[[sq:Somalia]]
[[scn:Somalia]]
[[simple:Somalia]]
[[sk:Somálsko]]
[[sl:Somalija]]
[[szl:Sůmalijo]]
[[so:Soomaaliya]]
[[sr:Сомалија]]
[[sh:Somalija]]
[[fi:Somalia]]
[[sv:Somalia]]
[[tl:Somalya]]
[[ta:சோமாலியா]]
[[te:సొమాలియా]]
[[th:ประเทศโซมาเลีย]]
[[ti:ሶማሊያ]]
[[tg:Сумолӣ]]
[[tr:Somali]]
[[uk:Сомалі]]
[[ur:صومالیہ]]
[[ug:سومالى]]
[[vec:Somałia]]
[[vi:Somalia]]
[[vo:Somalän]]
[[fiu-vro:Somaalia]]
[[zh-classical:索馬里]]
[[war:Somalia]]
[[wo:Somali]]
[[wuu:索马里]]
[[ts:Somalia]]
[[yi:סאמאליע]]
[[yo:Sòmálíà]]
[[zh-yue:索馬里]]
[[diq:Somalya]]
[[bat-smg:Suomalis]]
[[zh:索马里]]

Revision as of 15:06, 12 October 2010

Somalia is a horrible country.

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