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{{Infobox silicon}}
{{Infobox silicon}}


name "silicium" : "Had I been so fortunate as to have obtained more certain evidences on this subject, and to have procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium [silicon], alumium [aluminum], zirconium, and glucium [beryllium]."</ref> In 1811, [[Gay-Lussac]] and [[Louis Jacques Thénard|Thénard]] are thought to have prepared impure [[amorphous silicon]], through the heating of recently isolated [[potassium]] metal with [[silicon tetrafluoride]], but they did not purify and characterize the product, nor identify it as a new element.<ref>Gay-Lussac and Thenard, ''Recherches physico-chimiques'' … (Paris, France: Deterville, 1811), vol. 1, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ruITAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA313#v=onepage&q&f=false pages 313–314] ; vol. 2, [http://books.google.com/books?id=
'''Silicon''', a [[tetravalent]] [[metalloid]], is a [[chemical element]] with the symbol '''Si''' and [[atomic number]] 14. It is less reactive than its [[Structural analog|chemical analog]] [[carbon]], the [[nonmetal]] directly above it in the [[periodic table]], but more reactive than [[germanium]], the metalloid directly below it in the table. Controversy about silicon's character dates to its discovery; it was first prepared and characterized in pure form in 1823. In 1808, it was given the name silicium (from {{lang-la|silex}}, hard stone or [[flint]]), with an '''-ium''' word-ending to suggest a metal, a name which the element retains in several non-English languages. However, its final English name, first suggested in 1817, reflects the more physically similar elements [[carbon]] and [[boron]].

Silicon is the eighth most [[Abundance of the chemical elements|common element]] in the universe by mass, but very rarely occurs as the pure free element in nature. It is most widely distributed in [[dust]]s, [[sand]]s, [[planetoids]], and [[planets]] as various forms of [[silicon dioxide]] (silica) or [[silicate]]s. Over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of [[silicate minerals]], making silicon the [[Abundance of elements in Earth's crust|second most abundant element]] in the Earth's crust (about 28% by mass) after [[oxygen]].<ref>Nave, R. [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/tables/elabund.html Abundances of the Elements in the Earth's Crust], Georgia State University</ref>

Most silicon is used commercially without being separated, and indeed often with little processing of compounds from nature. These include direct industrial building-use of [[clays]], [[silica sand]] and [[stone]]. Silica is used in [[ceramic]] brick. Silicate goes into [[Portland cement]] for [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]] and [[stucco]], and when combined with silica sand and [[gravel]], to make [[concrete]]. Silicates are also in whiteware [[ceramic]]s such as [[porcelain]], and in traditional [[quartz]]-based [[soda-lime glass]]. More modern silicon compounds such as [[silicon carbide]] form abrasives and high-strength ceramics. Silicon is the basis of the ubiquitous synthetic silicon-based polymers called [[silicone]]s.

Elemental silicon also has a large impact on the modern world economy. Although most free silicon is used in the [[steel]] refining, [[aluminum]]-casting, and fine chemical industries (often to make [[fumed silica]]), the relatively small portion of very highly purified silicon that is used in semiconductor electronics (< 10%) is perhaps even more critical. Because of wide use of silicon in [[integrated circuits]], the basis of most computers, a great deal of modern technology depends on it.

Silicon is an essential element in biology, although only tiny traces of it appear to be required by animals.<ref name="Niels">{{cite journal|doi = 10.1146/annurev.nu.04.070184.000321|pages =21–41|journal = Annual Review of Nutrition|volume = 4|year = 1984|title = Ultratrace Elements in Nutrition|first = Forrest H.|last = Nielsen|pmid = 6087860}}</ref> However, various [[sea sponges]] as well as microorganisms like [[diatoms]] need silicon in order to have structure. It is much more important to the metabolism of plants, particularly many [[grasses]].

==Characteristics==

===Physical===
[[File:Silicon-unit-cell-3D-balls.png|160px|thumb|left|Silicon crystallizes in a diamond cubic crystal structure]]
{{Further|Monocrystalline silicon}}
Silicon is a solid at room temperature, with relatively high melting and boiling points of 1414 and 3265 degrees Celsius respectively. It has a greater [[density]] in a liquid state than a solid state.
It does not contract when it freezes like most substances, but expands, similar to how ice is less dense than water. With a relatively high [[thermal conductivity]] of 149 W·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup>, silicon conducts heat well and as a result is not often used to insulate hot objects.

In its [[crystal]]line form, pure silicon has a gray color and a [[metallic]] luster. Like [[germanium]], silicon is rather strong, very brittle, and prone to chipping. Silicon, like carbon and germanium, crystallizes in a [[diamond cubic]] [[crystal structure]], with a lattice spacing of 0.5430710&nbsp;nm (5.430710 [[Ångström|Å]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Mara |first=William C. |year=1990|title=Handbook of Semiconductor Silicon Technology |pages =349–352 |publisher=William Andrew Inc. |isbn=0-8155-1237-6 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=COcVgAtqeKkC&pg=PA351&dq=Czochralski+Silicon+Crystal+Face+Cubic |accessdate=2008-02-24}}</ref>

The outer [[atomic orbital|electron orbital]] of silicon, like that of carbon, has four valence electrons. The 1''s'', 2''s'', 2''p'' and 3''s'' subshells are completely filled while the 3''p'' subshell contains two electrons out of a possible six.

Silicon is a [[semiconductor]]. It has a negative temperature coefficient of [[electrical resistance|resistance]], since the number of free charge carriers increases with temperature. The electrical resistance of [[single crystal]] silicon significantly changes under the application of mechanical stress due to the [[piezoresistive effect]].<ref>{{cite journal|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=C_TWB_0rRLgC&pg=PA421|page =421|title = Properties of crystalline silicon|isbn = 978-0-85296-933-5|author1 = Hull|first1 = Robert|year = 1999}}</ref>

===Chemical===
[[File:Silizium pulver.jpg|160px|thumb|left|Silicon powder]]
Silicon is a [[metalloid]], readily either donating or sharing its four outer electrons, allowing for many forms of chemical bonding. Like carbon, it typically forms four bonds. Unlike carbon, it can accept additional electrons and form five or six bonds in a sometimes more [[labile]]
[[silicate]] form. Tetra-valent silicon is relatively [[inert]], but still reacts with [[halogen]]s and dilute [[alkali]]s, but most acids (except for some hyper-reactive combinations of [[nitric acid]] and [[hydrofluoric acid]]) have no known effect on it. However, having four bonding electrons gives it, like carbon, many opportunities to combine with other elements or compounds under the right circumstances.

===Isotopes===
{{Main|isotopes of silicon}}
Naturally occurring silicon is composed of three stable [[isotope]]s, silicon-28, silicon-29, and silicon-30, with silicon-28 being the most abundant (92% [[natural abundance]]).<ref name = "NNDC">
{{cite web
|url = http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/
|author = NNDC contributors
|editor = Alejandro A. Sonzogni (Database Manager)
|title = Chart of Nuclides
|publisher = National Nuclear Data Center, [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]]
|accessdate = 2008-09-13
|year = 2008
|location = Upton (NY)
}}</ref> Out of these, only silicon-29 is of use in [[NMR]] and [[EPR spectroscopy]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.nyu.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/aj39/NMRmap.cgi|accessdate = 2011-10-20| title = Interactive NMR Frequency Map| author =Jerschow, Alexej|publisher = New York University}}</ref> Twenty [[radioisotopes]] have been characterized, with the most stable being silicon-32 with a [[half-life]] of 170 years, and silicon-31 with a half-life of 157.3 minutes.<ref name = "NNDC"/> All of the remaining [[Radioactive decay|radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are less than seven seconds, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than one tenth of a second.<ref name = "NNDC"/> Silicon does not have any known [[nuclear isomer]]s.<ref name = "NNDC"/>

The isotopes of silicon range in [[mass number]] from 22 to 44.<ref name = "NNDC"/> The most common [[decay mode]] of six isotopes with mass numbers lower than the most abundant stable isotope, silicon-28, is [[Beta decay|{{SubatomicParticle|beta+}}]], primarily forming aluminium isotopes (13 protons) as [[decay product]]s.<ref name = "NNDC"/> The most common decay mode(s) for 16 isotopes with mass numbers higher than silicon-28 is [[Beta decay|{{SubatomicParticle|beta-}}]], primarily forming phosphorus isotopes (15 protons) as decay products.<ref name = "NNDC"/>

===Occurrence===
[[File:Quartz, Tibet.jpg|thumb|left|160px|Quartz crystal cluster from [[Tibet]]. The naturally occurring mineral is a network solid with the formula SiO<sub>2</sub>.]]
{{See also|Silicate minerals}}
Measured by mass, silicon makes up 27.7% of the [[Earth's crust]] and is the second most abundant element in the crust, with only oxygen having a greater abundance.<ref>{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=MrlUAAAAYAAJ&pg=SL1-PA54|title = Geological Survey professional paper|author = Geological Survey (U.S.)|year = 1975}}</ref> Silicon is usually found in the form of complex [[silicate minerals]], and less often as [[silicon dioxide]] ('''silica''', a major component of common sand). Pure silicon crystals are very rarely found in nature.

The [[silicate mineral]]s—various minerals containing silicon, oxygen and reactive metals—account for 90% of the mass of the Earth's crust. This is due to the fact that at the high temperatures characteristic of the formation of the inner solar system, silicon and oxygen have a great affinity for each other, forming networks of silicon and oxygen in chemical compounds of very low volatility. Since oxygen and silicon were the most common non-gaseous and non-metallic elements in the debris from [[supernova]] dust which formed the [[protoplanetary disk]] in the [[formation and evolution of the Solar System]], they formed many complex silicates which accreted into larger rocky [[planetesimals]] that formed the [[terrestrial planets]]. Here, the reduced silicate mineral matrix entrapped the metals reactive enough to be oxidized (aluminum, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium). After loss of volatile gases, as well as carbon and sulfur via reaction with hydrogen, this silicate mixture of elements formed most of the Earth's crust. These silicates were of relatively low density with respect to iron, nickel, and other metals non-reactive to oxygen and thus a residuum of uncombined iron and nickel sank to the planet's core, leaving a thick mantle consisting mostly of magnesium and iron silicates. These are thought to be mostly [[silicate perovskite]]s, followed in abundance by the magnesium/iron oxide [[ferropericlase]].<ref>Anderson, Don L. (2007) New Theory of the Earth. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84959-3, ISBN 0-521-84959-4</ref>

Examples of silicate minerals in the crust include those in the [[pyroxene]], [[amphibole]], [[mica]], and [[feldspar]] groups. These minerals occur in clay and various types of [[rock (geology)|rock]] such as [[granite]] and [[sandstone]].

[[Silica]] occurs in [[mineral]]s consisting of very pure silicon dioxide in different crystalline forms, [[quartz]], [[agate]] [[amethyst]], [[rock crystal]], [[chalcedony]], [[flint]], [[jasper]], and [[opal]]. The crystals have the empirical formula of silicon dioxide, but do not consist of separate silicon dioxide molecules in the manner of solid carbon dioxide. Rather, silica is structurally a network-solid consisting of silicon and oxygen in three-dimensional crystals, like diamond. Less pure silica forms the natural glass [[obsidian]]. [[Biogenic silica]] occurs in the structure of diatoms, [[radiolaria]] and [[siliceous sponge]]s.

Silicon is also a principal component of many [[meteorite]]s, and is a component of [[tektite]]s, a silicate mineral of possibly lunar origin, or (if Earth-derived) which has been subjected to unusual temperatures and pressures, possibly from meteorite strike.

==Production==

===Alloys===
[[File:Ferrosilicon.JPG|thumb|160px|Ferrosilicon alloy]]
[[Ferrosilicon]], an iron-silicon alloy that contains varying ratios of elemental silicon and iron, accounts for about 80% of the world's production of elemental silicon, with China, the leading supplier of elemental silicon, providing 4.6 million [[tonne]]s (or 2/3 of the world output) of silicon, most of which is in the form of ferrosilicon. It is followed by Russia (610,000 t), Norway (330,000 t), Brazil (240,000 t) and the United States (170,000 t).<ref>{{cite web|url = http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/silicon/mcs-2011-simet.pdf|publisher = USGS|title = Silicon Commodities Report 2011|accessdate = 2011-10-20}}</ref> Ferrosilicon is primarily used by the steel industry (see below).

Aluminum-silicon alloys are heavily used in the aluminum alloy casting industry, where silicon is the single most important additive to aluminum to improve its casting properties. Since cast aluminum is widely used in the automobile industry, this use of silicon is thus the single largest industrial use of "metallurgical grade" pure silicon (as this purified silicon is added to pure aluminum, whereas ferrosilicon is never purified before being added to steel).<ref name="diecasting">Apelian, D. (2009) [http://www.diecasting.org/research/wwr/WWR_AluminumCastAlloys.pdf Aluminum Cast Alloys: Enabling Tools for Improved Performance]. North American Die Casting Association, Wheeling, Illinois.</ref>

===Metallurgical grade===
Elemental silicon not alloyed with significant quantities of other elements, and usually > 95%, is often referred to loosely as '''silicon metal'''. It makes up about 20% of the world total elemental silicon production, with less than 1 to 2% of total elemental silicon (5–10% of metallurgical grade silicon) ever purified to higher grades for use in electronics. Metallurgical grade silicon is commercially prepared by the reaction of high-purity [[silica]] with wood, charcoal, and coal in an [[electric arc furnace]] using carbon [[electrode]]s. At temperatures over {{convert|1900|°C|°F|abbr=on|lk=on}}, the carbon in the aforementioned materials and the silicon undergo the [[chemical reaction]] SiO<sub>2</sub> + 2 C → Si + 2 CO. Liquid silicon collects in the bottom of the furnace, which is then drained and cooled. The silicon produced in this manner is called ''metallurgical grade silicon'' and is at least 98% pure. Using this method, [[silicon carbide]] (SiC) may also form from an excess of carbon in one or both of the following ways: SiO<sub>2</sub> + C → SiO + CO or SiO + 2 C → SiC + CO. However, provided the concentration of SiO<sub>2</sub> is kept high, the silicon carbide can be eliminated by the chemical reaction 2 SiC + SiO<sub>2</sub> → 3 Si + 2 CO.

As noted above, metallurgical grade silicon "metal" has its primary use in the aluminum casting industry to make aluminum-silicon alloy parts. The remainder (about 45%) is used by the [[chemical industry]], where it is primarily employed to make [[fumed silica]].<ref name=USGS/>

As of September 2008, [[metallurgical]] grade silicon costs about [[United States dollar|US$]]1.45 per pound ($3.20/kg),<ref>{{cite web|title=Metallurgical silicon could become a rare commodity – just how quickly that happens depends to a certain extent on the current financial crisis|url=http://www.photon-magazine.com/news_archiv/details.aspx?cat=News_PI&sub=worldwide&pub=4&parent=1555|publisher=Photon International|accessdate=2009-03-04}}</ref> up from $0.77 per pound ($1.70/kg) in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|title=Silicon|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/silicon/silicmcs06.pdf|publisher=usgs.gov|accessdate=2008-02-20}}</ref>

===Electronic grade {{anchor|Siemens process}}===
[[File:Monokristalines Silizium für die Waferherstellung.jpg|160px|thumb|right|[[Monocrystalline silicon]] ingot grown by the [[Czochralski process]]]]
The use of silicon in [[semiconductor]] devices demands a much greater purity than afforded by metallurgical grade silicon.
Very pure silicon (>99.9%) can be extracted directly from solid silica or other silicon compounds by molten salt electrolysis.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1149/1.2130041|title=Electrowinning of Silicon from K<sub>2</sub>SiF<sub>6</sub>-Molten Fluoride Systems|year=1980|last1=Rao|first1=Gopalakrishna M.|journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society|volume=127|page=1940|issue=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1149/1.2127716|title=Electrodeposition of Silicon at Temperatures above Its Melting Point|year=1981|last1=De Mattei|first1=Robert C.|journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society|volume=128|page=1712|issue=8}}</ref><!--<ref>Monnier, R. ''et al.'' "Dual cell refining of silicon and germanium" {{US patent|3219561}} Issue date: Nov 1965</ref><ref>Monnier, R. ''et al.'' "Refining of silicon and germanium" {{US patent|3254010}} Issue date: May 1966</ref>--> This method, known as early as 1854<ref>{{cite journal|author=Deville, H. St. C.|journal=Ann. Chim. Phys.|year=1854|volume=43|page=31|url = http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k34784b.image.f31.langFR| title =Recherches sur les métaux, et en particulier sur l'aluminium et sur une nouvelle forme du silicium}}</ref> (see also [[FFC Cambridge process]]), has the potential to directly produce solar-grade silicon without any [[carbon dioxide]] emission at much lower energy consumption.

Solar grade silicon cannot be used for semiconductors, where purity must be extreme to properly control the process. Bulk silicon wafers used at the beginning of the integrated circuit making process must first be refined to "nine nines" purity (99.9999999%), a process which requires repeated applications of refining technology.

The majority of silicon crystals grown for device production are produced by the [[Czochralski process]], (CZ-Si) since it is the cheapest method available and it is capable of producing large size crystals. However, single crystals grown by the Czochralski process contain impurities because the [[crucible]] containing the melt often dissolves. Historically, a number of methods have been used to produce ultra-high-purity silicon.

Early silicon purification techniques were based on the fact that if silicon is melted and re-solidified, the last parts of the mass to solidify contain most of the impurities. The earliest method of silicon purification, first described in 1919 and used on a limited basis to make [[radar]] components during [[World War II]], involved crushing metallurgical grade silicon and then partially dissolving the silicon powder in an acid. When crushed, the silicon cracked so that the weaker impurity-rich regions were on the outside of the resulting grains of silicon. As a result, the impurity-rich silicon was the first to be dissolved when treated with acid, leaving behind a more pure product.

In [[zone melting]], also called zone refining, the first silicon purification method to be widely used industrially, rods of metallurgical grade silicon are heated to melt at one end. Then, the heater is slowly moved down the length of the rod, keeping a small length of the rod molten as the silicon cools and re-solidifies behind it. Since most impurities tend to remain in the molten region rather than re-solidify, when the process is complete, most of the impurities in the rod will have been moved into the end that was the last to be melted. This end is then cut off and discarded, and the process repeated if a still higher purity is desired.<ref>{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=ATFo8Pr67uIC&pg=PA33|page =33|title = Silicon: Evolution and future of a technology|isbn = 978-3-540-40546-7|author1 = Siffert|first1 = Paul|last2 = Krimmel|first2 = E. F|year = 2004}}</ref>

[[File:Polycrystalline silicon rod.jpg|160px|thumb|left|A [[polycrystalline silicon]] rod made by the Siemens process]]
At one time, [[DuPont]] produced ultra-pure silicon by reacting silicon tetrachloride with high-purity [[zinc]] vapors at 950 °C, producing silicon by SiCl<sub>4</sub> + 2 Zn → Si + 2 ZnCl<sub>2</sub>. However, this technique was plagued with practical problems (such as the [[zinc chloride]] byproduct solidifying and clogging lines) and was eventually abandoned in favor of the [[Siemens process]]. In the ''Siemens process'', high-purity silicon rods are exposed to trichlorosilane at 1150 °C. The trichlorosilane gas decomposes and deposits additional silicon onto the rods, enlarging them because 2 HSiCl<sub>3</sub> → Si + 2 HCl + SiCl<sub>4</sub>. Silicon produced from this and similar processes is called ''[[polycrystalline silicon]]''. Polycrystalline silicon typically has impurity levels of less than one part per billion.<!--http://books.google.com/books?id=u-bCMhl_JjQC&pg=PT230 http://books.google.com/books?id=ATFo8Pr67uIC&pg=PA28 http://ir.library.tohoku.ac.jp/re/bitstream/10097/26661/1/KJ00004195973.pdf http://books.google.com/books?id=4aYylPYsf90C&pg=PA27--><ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1007/s11663-010-9440-y|title = Production of Solar-grade Silicon by Halidothermic Reduction of Silicon Tetrachloride|year = 2010|last1 = Yasuda|first1 = Kouji|last2 = Saegusa|first2 = Kunio|last3 = Okabe|first3 = Toru H.|journal = Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B|volume = 42|page = 37|bibcode = 2011MMTB...42...37Y }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1007/s11837-010-0190-8|title = Solar-grade silicon production by metallothermic reduction|year = 2010|last1 = Yasuda|first1 = Kouji|last2 = Okabe|first2 = Toru H.|journal = JOM|volume = 62|issue = 12|page = 94|bibcode = 2010JOM....62l..94Y }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi =10.1002/recl.19590781204|title =The preparation of pure silicon|year =2010|last1 =Van Der Linden|first1 =P. C.|last2 =De Jonge|first2 =J.|journal =Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas|volume =78|issue =12|page =962}}</ref>

In 2006 [[Renewable Energy Corporation|REC]] announced construction of a plant based on ''[[Fluidized bed reactor|fluidized bed]]'' (FB) technology using silane: 3 SiCl<sub>4</sub> + Si + 2 H<sub>2</sub> → 4 HSiCl<sub>3</sub>, 4 HSiCl<sub>3</sub> → 3 SiCl<sub>4</sub> + SiH<sub>4</sub>, SiH<sub>4</sub> → Si + 2 H<sub>2</sub>.<ref>{{cite web|title=Analyst silicon field trip|date=March 28, 2007| url=http://hugin.info/136555/R/1115224/203491.pdf|publisher=hugin.info|accessdate=2008-02-20}}</ref> The advantage of fluid bed technology is that processes can be run continuously, yielding higher yields than Siemens Process, which is a batch process.

Today, silicon is purified by converting it to a silicon [[chemical compound|compound]] that can be more easily purified by distillation than in its original state, and then converting that silicon compound back into pure silicon. [[Trichlorosilane]] is the silicon compound most commonly used as the intermediate, although [[silicon tetrachloride]] and [[silane]] are also used. When these gases are blown over silicon at high temperature, they decompose to high-purity silicon.

In addition, there is the ''[[Schumacher process]]'', which utilizes [[tribromosilane]] in place of trichlorosilane and fluid bed technology. It requires lower deposition temperatures, lower capital costs to build facilities and operate, no hazardous polymers nor explosive material, and produces no amorphous silicon dust waste, all of which are drawbacks of the Siemens process.<ref>[http://www.peaksunsilicon.com/schumacher-process/ High Purity Polysilicon – Schumacher Process]. Peak Sun Silicon. Retrieved on 2011-08-07.</ref> However, there are yet to be any major factories built using this process.

==Compounds==
[[File:Pdms.png|160px|right|thumb|[[Polydimethylsiloxane|PDMS]] – a silicone compound]]
<!-- silicides -->
* Silicon forms binary compounds called [[silicide]]s with many metallic elements whose properties range from reactive compounds, e.g. [[magnesium silicide]], Mg<sub>2</sub>Si through high melting refractory compounds such as [[molybdenum disilicide]], MoSi<sub>2</sub>.{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|pp=335–337}}
<!-- silicon carbide -->
* [[Silicon carbide]], SiC (carborundum) is a hard, high melting solid and a well known abrasive. It may also be sintered into a type of high-strength ceramic used in armor.
<!-- silanes, halosilanes -->
* [[Silane]], SiH<sub>4</sub>, is a [[pyrophoric]] gas with a similar tetrahedral structure to [[methane]], CH<sub>4</sub>. When pure, it does not react with pure water or dilute acids; however, even small amounts of alkali impurities from the laboratory glass can result in a rapid hydrolysis.{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|p=339}} There is a range of catenated silicon hydrides that form a homologous series of compounds, {{chem|Si|''n''|H|2''n''+2}} where ''n'' = 2–8 (analogous to the [[alkane]]s). These are all readily hydrolyzed and are thermally unstable, particularly the heavier members.{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|p=337}}<ref name = "Wiberg">{{cite book|last=Holleman|first=Arnold F. |coauthor=Wiberg, Nils |title=Lehrbuch der anorganischen Chemie|edition=102 |publisher=de Gruyter|place=Berlin |year=2007|isbn=3-11-017770-6}}</ref>
<!-- Disilene and silicon silicon triple bond -->
* [[Disilene]]s contain a silicon-silicon double bond (analogous to the [[alkene]]s) and are generally highly reactive requiring large substituent groups to stabilize them.<ref>F. G. Stone, Robert West, Multiply Bonded Main Group Metals and Metalloids, Academic Press, 1996, ISBN 0-12-031139-9 [http://books.google.com/books?id=IrcORBkVjGQC&pg=PA255 p. 255]</ref> A [[disilyne]] with a silicon-silicon triple bond was first isolated in 2004; although as the compound is non-linear, the bonding is dissimilar to that in [[alkyne]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.1102209|pmid=15375262|year=2004|last1=Sekiguchi|first1=A|last2=Kinjo|first2=R|last3=Ichinohe|first3=M|title=A stable compound containing a silicon-silicon triple bond|volume=305|issue=5691|pages=1755–7|journal=Science|bibcode = 2004Sci...305.1755S}}</ref>
<!-- silicon halides -->
* Tetrahalides, SiX<sub>4</sub>, are formed with all the halogens.{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|pp=340–341}} [[Silicon tetrachloride]], for example, reacts with water, unlike its carbon analogue, [[carbon tetrachloride]].{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|p=342}} Silicon dihalides are formed by the high temperature reaction of tetrahalides and silicon; with a structure analogous to a [[carbene]] they are reactive compounds. Silicon difluoride condenses to form a polymeric compound, {{chem|(SiF|2|)|''n''}}.<ref name = "Wiberg"/>
<!-- silica, silicic acid -->
* [[Silicon dioxide]] is a high melting solid with a number of crystal forms; the most familiar of which is the mineral [[quartz]]. In quartz each silicon atom is surrounded by four oxygen atoms that bridge to other silicon atoms to form a three dimensional lattice.{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|p=342}} Silica is soluble in water at high temperatures forming a range of compounds called ''monosilicic acid'', Si(OH)<sub>4</sub>.{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|p=346}}
<!-- *silicate minerals, types of structure -->
* Under the right conditions monosilicic acid readily polymerizes to form more complex silicic acids, ranging from the simplest condensate, disilicic acid (H<sub>6</sub>Si<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>) to linear, ribbon, layer and lattice structures which form the basis of the many silicate minerals and are called ''polysilicic acids'' {Si<sub>x</sub>(OH)<sub>4–2x</sub>}<sub>n</sub>.{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|p=346}}
<!-- Glasses -->
* With oxides of other elements the high temperature reaction of silicon dioxide can give a wide range of glasses with various properties.{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|p=344}} Examples include soda lime glass, [[borosilicate glass]] and [[lead crystal]] glass.
<!-- Sulfide, SiS2-->
* [[Silicon sulfide]], SiS<sub>2</sub>, is a polymeric solid (unlike its carbon analogue the liquid [[carbon disulfide|CS<sub>2</sub>]]).{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|pp=359–360}}
<!-- Nitride -->
* Silicon forms a nitride, [[Silicon nitride|Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>]] which is a ceramic.{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|p=360}} [[Silatrane]]s, a group of tricyclic compounds containing five-coordinate silicon, may have physiological properties.<ref name = "Lickiss">{{cite book|last = Lickiss| first = Paul D.|title= Inorganic Compounds of Silicon, in Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=1994|isbn=0-471-93620-0| pages = 3770–3805}}</ref>
<!-- silylamides, content needed -->
<!-- silicon phosphorus compounds- content needed -->
* Many transition metal complexes containing a metal-silicon bond are now known, which include complexes containing {{chem|SiH|n|X|3−''n''}} ligands, SiX<sub>3</sub> ligands, and Si(OR)<sub>3</sub> ligands.<ref name = "Lickiss"/>
<!-- clusters containing silicon content needed -->
<!-- silicones -->
* [[Silicone]]s are large group of polymeric compounds with an (Si-O-Si) backbone. An example is the silicone oil PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane). These polymers can be crosslinked to produce resins and [[elastomer]]s.{{sfn|Greenwood|1997|pp=364–365}}
<!-- organosilicon -->
* Many [[organosilicon]] compounds are known which contain a silicon-carbon single bond. Many of these are based on a central tetrahedral silicon atom, and some are optically active when central [[chirality (chemistry)|chirality]] exists. Long chain polymers containing a silicon backbone are known, such as polydimethysilylene {{chem|(SiMe|2|)|''n''}}.<ref name = "mark">{{cite book|last = Mark| first = James. E|title= Inorganic polymers|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|isbn=0-19-513119-3|pages = 200–245}}</ref> Polycarbosilane, {{chem|[(SiMe|2|)|2|CH|2|]|''n''}} with a backbone containing a repeating -Si-Si-C unit, is a precursor in the production of silicon carbide fibers.<ref name = "mark"/>

==History==
Attention was first drawn to silica as the possible oxide of a fundamental [[chemical element]] by [[Antoine Lavoisier]], in 1787.<ref>In his table of the elements, Lavoisier listed five "salifiable earths" (i.e., ores that could be made to react with acids to produce salts (''salis'' = salt, in Latin)): ''chaux'' (calcium oxide), ''magnésie'' (magnesia, magnesium oxide), ''baryte'' (barium sulfate), ''alumine'' (alumina, aluminum oxide), and ''silice'' (silica, silicon dioxide). About these "elements", Lavoisier speculates: "We are probably only acquainted as yet with a part of the metallic substances existing in nature, as all those which have a stronger affinity to oxygen than carbon possesses, are incapable, hitherto, of being reduced to a metallic state, and consequently, being only presented to our observation under the form of oxyds, are confounded with earths. It is extremely probable that barytes, which we have just now arranged with earths, is in this situation; for in many experiments it exhibits properties nearly approaching to those of metallic bodies. It is even possible that all the substances we call earths may be only metallic oxyds, irreducible by any hitherto known process." -- from [http://books.google.com/books?id=adYKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA218#v=onepage&q&f=false page 218] of: Lavoisier with Robert Kerr, trans., ''Elements of Chemistry'', … , 4th ed. (Edinburgh, Scotland: William Creech, 1799). (The original passage appears in: Lavoisier, ''Traité Élémentaire de Chimie'', … (Paris, France: Cuchet, 1789), vol. 1, [http://books.google.com/books?id=hZch3yOrayUC&pg=PA174#v=onepage&q&f=false page 174].)</ref> After an attempt to isolate silicon in 1808, Sir Humphry Davy proposed the name "silicium" for silicon, from the Latin ''silex'',<!-- Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1) - Cite This Source si·lex –noun flint; silica. [Origin: 1585–95; < L silex, s. silic- hard stone, flint, boulder] --> ''silicis'' for flint, flints, and adding the "-ium" ending because he believed it was a metal.<ref>Davy, Humphry (1808) [http://books.google.com.au/books?id=Kg9GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA333#v=onepage&q&f=false "Electro chemical researches, on the decomposition of the earths; with observations on the metals obtained from the alkaline earths, and on the amalgam procured from ammonia,"] ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'' [of London], '''98''' : 333–370. On [http://books.google.com.au/books?id=Kg9GAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA353#v=onepage&q&f=false page 353] Davy coins the name "silicium" : "Had I been so fortunate as to have obtained more certain evidences on this subject, and to have procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium [silicon], alumium [aluminum], zirconium, and glucium [beryllium]."</ref> In 1811, [[Gay-Lussac]] and [[Louis Jacques Thénard|Thénard]] are thought to have prepared impure [[amorphous silicon]], through the heating of recently isolated [[potassium]] metal with [[silicon tetrafluoride]], but they did not purify and characterize the product, nor identify it as a new element.<ref>Gay-Lussac and Thenard, ''Recherches physico-chimiques'' … (Paris, France: Deterville, 1811), vol. 1, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ruITAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA313#v=onepage&q&f=false pages 313–314] ; vol. 2, [http://books.google.com/books?id=w8YPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA55#v=onepage&q&f=false page 55–65].</ref> Silicon was given its present name in 1817 by Scottish chemist [[Thomas Thomson (chemist)|Thomas Thomson]]. He retained part of Davy's name but added "-on" because he believed that silicon was a [[nonmetal]] similar to [[boron]] and [[carbon]].<ref>Thomas Thomson, ''A System of Chemistry in Four Volumes'', 5th ed. (London, England: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1817), vol. 1. From [http://books.google.com/books?id=zVA0AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA252#v=onepage&q&f=false page 252]: "The base of silica has been usually considered as a metal, and called ''silicium''. But as there is not the smallest evidence for its metallic nature, and as it bears a close resemblance to boron and carbon, it is better to class it along with these bodies, and to give it the name of ''silicon''."</ref> In 1823, [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius|Berzelius]] prepared amorphous silicon using approximately the same method as Gay-Lussac (potassium metal and potassium fluorosilicate), but purifying the product to a brown powder by repeatedly washing it.<ref>See:
* Berzelius announced his discovery of silicon ("silicium") in: Berzelius, J. (presented: 1823 ; published: 1824) [http://books.google.com/books?id=pJlPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false "Undersökning af flusspatssyran och dess märkvärdigaste föreningar"] (Investigation of hydrofluoric acid and of its most noteworthy compounds), ''Kongliga Vetenskaps-Academiens Handlingar'' [Proceedings of the Royal Science Academy], '''12''' : 46–98. The isolation of silicon and its characterization are detailed in the section titled "Flussspatssyrad kisseljords sönderdelning med kalium," pages 46–68.
* The above article was reprinted in German in: J. J. Berzelius (1824) [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15086x/f185.image.langEN "''II. Untersuchungen über Flussspathsäure und deren merkwürdigsten Verbindungen''"] (II. Investigations of hydrofluoric acid and its most noteworthy compounds), ''Annalen der Physik'', '''77''' : 169–230. The isolation of silicon is detailed in the section titled: [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15086x/f220.image.langEN "Zersetzung der flussspaths. Kieselerde durch Kalium"] (Decomposition of silicate fluoride by potassium), pages 204–210.
* The above article was reprinted in French in: Berzelius (1824) [http://books.google.com/books?id=eHmstO7CmqAC&pg=PA337#v=onepage&q&f=false "Décomposition du fluate de silice par le potassium"] (Decomposition of silica fluoride by potassium), ''Annales de Chimie et de Physique'', '''27''' : 337–359.
* Reprinted in English in: Berzelius (1825) [http://books.google.com/books?id=_UwwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA254#v=onepage&q&f=false "On the mode of obtaining silicium, and on the characters and properties of that substance,"] ''Philosophical Magazine'', '''65''' (324) : 254–267.</ref> As a result he is usually given credit for the element's discovery.<ref>{{cite journal|title =The discovery of the elements: XII. Other elements isolated with the aid of potassium and sodium: beryllium, boron, silicon, and aluminum|last = Weeks|first = Mary Elvira|authorlink=Mary Elvira Weeks|year = 1932|journal = Journal of Chemical Education|volume = 9|issue = 8|pages = 1386–1412|bibcode =1932JChEd...9.1386W|doi =10.1021/ed009p1386}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| year =2007| journal =Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry| doi =10.1134/S1070427207120397|title =Silicon era|last1 =Voronkov|first1 =M. G.|volume =80|page =2190| issue =12}}</ref>

Silicon in its more common crystalline form was not prepared until 31 years later, by [[Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville|Deville]].<ref>In 1854, Deville was trying to prepare aluminum metal from aluminum chloride that was heavily contaminated with silicon chloride. Deville used two methods to prepare aluminum: heating aluminum chloride with sodium metal in an inert atmosphere (of hydrogen); and melting aluminum chloride with sodium chloride and then electrolyzing the mixture. In both cases, pure silicon was produced: the silicon dissolved in the molten aluminum, but crystallized upon cooling. Dissolving the crude aluminum in hydrochloric acid revealed flakes of crystallized silicon. See: Henri Sainte-Claire Deville (1854) [http://books.google.com/books?id=C3VFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA321#v=onepage&q&f=false "Note sur deux procédés de préparation de l'aluminium et sur une nouvelle forme du silicium"] (Note on two procedures for the preparation of aluminum and on a new form of silicon), ''Comptes rendus'', '''39''' : 321–326.<br>Subsequently Deville obtained crystalline silicon by heating the chloride or fluoride of silicon with sodium metal, isolating the amorphous silicon, then melting the amorphous form with salt and heating the mixture until most of the salt evaporated. See: H. Sainte-Claire Deville (1855) [http://books.google.com/books?id=tZhDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1034#v=onepage&q&f=false "Du silicium et du titane"] (On silicon and titanium), ''Comptes rendus'', '''40''' : 1034-1036.</ref><ref>[http://elements.etacude.com/Si.php Information on silicon – history, [[thermodynamic]], chemical, physical and electronic properties: Etacude.com]. Elements.etacude.com. Retrieved on 2011-08-07.</ref> By [[electrolysis|electrolyzing]] impure [[sodium]]-[[aluminum]] [[chloride]] containing approximately 10% silicon, he was able to obtain a slightly impure [[allotrope]] of silicon in 1854.<ref>[http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/st2.5/scenes-e/elem/e01410.html Silicon: History]. Nautilus.fis.uc.pt. Retrieved on 2011-08-07.</ref> Later, more cost-effective methods have been developed to isolate silicon in several [[allotrope]] forms, the most recent being [[silicene]].

Because silicon is an important element in semiconductors and high-technology devices, many places in the world bear its name. For example, [[Silicon Valley]] in [[California]], since it is the base for a number of technology-related industries, bears the name ''silicon''. Other geographic locations with connections to the industry have since been named after silicon as well. Examples include [[Silicon Forest]] in [[Oregon]], [[Silicon Hills]] in [[Austin, Texas]], [[Silicon Saxony]] in [[Germany]], [[Bangalore#Economy|Silicon Valley]] in [[India]], [[Mexicali#Silicon Border|Silicon Border]] in [[Mexicali, Mexico]], [[Silicon Fen]] in [[Cambridge, England]], [[Old Street Roundabout#Silicon Roundabout|Silicon Roundabout]] in [[London]], [[Silicon Glen]] in [[Scotland]], and [[Silicon Gorge]] in [[Bristol, England]].

==Applications==

===Compounds===
Most silicon is used industrially without being separated into the element, and indeed often with comparatively little processing from natural occurrence. Over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of [[silicate minerals]]. Many of these have direct commercial uses, such as clays, silica sand and most kinds of building stone. Thus, the vast majority of uses for silicon are as structural compounds, either as the silicate minerals or silica (crude silicon dioxide). For example, silica is an important part of ceramic brick. Silicates are used in making Portland cement which is used in building mortar and stucco, but more importantly combined with silica sand, and gravel (usually containing silicate minerals like granite), to make the concrete that is the basis of most of the very largest industrial building projects of the modern world. {{sfn|Greenwood|1997|p=356}}

Silicate minerals are also in whiteware ceramics, an important class of products usually containing various types of fired clay (natural aluminum silicate). An example is porcelain which is based on silicate mineral [[kaolinite]]. Ceramics include art objects, and domestic, industrial and building products. Traditional quartz-based soda-lime glass also functions in many of the same roles.

More modern silicon compounds also function as high-technology abrasives and new high-strength ceramics based upon ([[silicon carbide]]), and in [[superalloy]]s.

Alternating silicon-oxygen chains with hydrogen attached to the remaining silicon bonds form the ubiquitous silicon-based polymeric materials known as [[silicone]]s. These compounds containing silicon-oxygen and occasionally silicon-carbon bonds have the capability to act as bonding intermediates between glass and organic compounds, and to form polymers with useful properties such as impermeability to water, flexibility and resistance to chemical attack. Silicones are often used in [[waterproofing]] treatments, [[molding (process)|molding]] compounds, mold-[[release agent]]s, mechanical seals, high temperature [[lubricant|greases]] and waxes, and [[caulking]] compounds. Silicone is also sometimes used in [[breast implant]]s, contact lenses, [[explosive]]s and [[pyrotechnics]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/prep.200700021 |title=Special Materials in Pyrotechnics: VI. Silicon – An Old Fuel with New Perspectives|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/114279686/ABSTRACT|author= Koch, E.C.|coauthors= Clement, D. |journal=Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics |volume=32 |page=205 |year=2007 |issue=3}}</ref> [[Silly Putty]] was originally made by adding [[boric acid]] to [[silicone oil]].<ref>{{cite book|url = http://books.google.com/?id=jftapGDTmYUC&pg=PA90|chapter = Silly Putty|title = Timeless toys: classic toys and the playmakers who created them|first = Tim|last = Walsh|publisher = Andrews McMeel Publishing|year = 2005|isbn = 978-0-7407-5571-2}}</ref><!--Now name-brand Silly Putty also contains significant amounts of elemental silicon. (Silicon binds to the silicone and allows the material to bounce 20% higher.){{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} http://books.google.com/books?id=F2ApK7QnbPUC&pg=PA125 does not mention silicon-->

===Alloys===
Elemental silicon is added to molten [[cast iron]] as [[ferrosilicon]] or silicocalcium alloys to improve performance in casting thin sections and to prevent the formation of [[cementite]] where exposed to outside air. The presence of elemental silicon in molten iron acts as a sink for oxygen, so that the steel carbon content, which must be kept within narrow limits for each type of steel, can be more closely controlled. Ferrosilicon production and use is a monitor of the steel industry, and although this form of elemental silicon is impure, it accounts for 80% of the world's use of free silicon.

The properties of silicon itself can be used to modify alloys. Silicon's importance in aluminum casting is that a significantly high amount (12%) of silicon in aluminum forms a [[eutectic mixture]] which solidifies with very little thermal contraction. This greatly reduces tearing and cracks formed from stress as casting alloys cool to solidity. Silicon also significantly improves the hardness and thus wear-resistance of aluminum.<ref name="diecasting" /> Silicon is an important constituent of [[electrical steel]], modifying its [[resistivity]] and [[ferromagnetic]] properties.

Metallurgical grade silicon is silicon of 95–99% purity. About 55% of the world consumption of metallurgical purity silicon goes for production of aluminum-silicon alloys for aluminum part [[Casting|casts]], mainly for use in the [[automotive industry]]. The reason for the high silicon use in these alloys is noted above.<ref name=USGS/> Much of the rest of metallurgical-grade silicon is used by the chemical industry for production of the important industrial product [[fumed silica]]. The remainder is used in production of other fine chemicals such as [[silane]]s and some types of [[silicone]]s.

===Electronics===
{{main|Semiconductor device fabrication}}
[[File:Silicon wafer with mirror finish.jpg|160px|thumb|right|Silicon wafer with mirror finish]]
Since most elemental silicon produced remains as ferrosilicon alloy, only a relatively small amount (20%) of the elemental silicon produced is refined to metallurgical grade purity (a total of 1.3–1.5 million metric tons/year). The fraction of silicon metal which is further refined to semiconductor purity is estimated at only 15% of the world production of metallurgical grade silicon.<ref name=USGS/> However, the economic importance of this small very high-purity fraction (especially the ~ 5% which is processed to monocrystalline silicon for use in integrated circuits) is disproportionately large.

Pure [[monocrystalline silicon]] is used to produce silicon [[Wafer (electronics)|wafers]] used in the [[semiconductor industry]], in electronics and in some high-cost and high-efficiency [[photovoltaic]] applications. In terms of charge conduction, pure silicon is an [[intrinsic semiconductor]] which means that unlike metals it conducts [[electron hole]]s and electrons that may be released from atoms within the crystal by heat, and thus increase silicon's [[electrical conductivity]] with higher temperatures. Pure silicon has too low a conductivity (i.e., too high a [[resistivity]]) to be used as a circuit element in electronics. In practice, pure silicon is [[doping (semiconductors)|doped]] with small concentrations of certain other elements, a process that greatly increases its conductivity and adjusts its electrical response by controlling the number and charge ([[electron hole|positive]] or [[electron|negative]]) of activated carriers. Such control is necessary for [[transistor]]s, [[solar cell]]s, [[semiconductor detector]]s and other [[semiconductor device]]s, which are used in the computer industry and other technical applications. For example, in [[silicon photonics]], silicon can be used as a continuous wave [[Raman laser]] medium to produce coherent light, though it is ineffective as an everyday light source.

In common [[integrated circuit]]s, a wafer of monocrystalline silicon serves as a mechanical support for the circuits, which are created by doping, and insulated from each other by thin layers of [[silicon dioxide|silicon oxide]], an insulator that is easily produced by exposing the element to oxygen under the proper conditions. Silicon has become the most popular material to build both high power semiconductors and integrated circuits. The reason is that silicon is the semiconductor that can withstand the highest temperatures and electrical powers without becoming dysfunctional due to [[avalanche breakdown]] (a process in which an [[electron avalanche]] is created by a chain reaction process whereby heat produces free electrons and holes, which in turn produce more current which produces more heat). In addition, the insulating oxide of silicon is not soluble in water, which gives it an advantage over [[germanium]] (an element with similar properties which can also be used in semiconductor devices) in certain type of fabrication techniques.<ref>[http://www.mpoweruk.com/semiconductors.htm Semiconductors Without the Quantum Physics]. Electropaedia</ref>

Monocrystalline silicon is expensive to produce, and is usually only justified in production of integrated circuits, where tiny crystal imperfections can interfere with tiny circuit paths. For other uses, other types of pure silicon which do not exist as single crystals may be employed. These include [[hydrogenated amorphous silicon]] and upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon (UMG-Si) which are used in the production of low-cost, [[large-area electronics]] in applications such as [[liquid crystal display]]s, and of large-area, low-cost, thin-film [[solar cells]]. Such semiconductor grades of silicon which are either slightly less pure than those used in integrated circuits, or which are produced in polycrystalline rather than monocrystalline form, make up roughly similar amount of silicon as are produced for the monocrystalline silicon semiconductor industry, or 75,000 to 150,000 metric tons per year. However, production of such materials is growing more quickly than silicon for the integrated circuit market. By 2013 polycrystalline silicon production, used mostly in solar cells, is projected to reach 200,000 metric tons per year, while monocrystalline semiconductor silicon production (used in computer microchips) remains below 50,000 tons/year.<ref name=USGS>Corathers, Lisa A. [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/silicon/myb1-2009-simet.pdf 2009 Minerals Yearbook]. USGS</ref>

==Biological role==
[[File:Radiolaria3434.JPG|thumb|Silica skeletons of [[radiolaria]] in false color.]]
Although silicon is readily available in the form of [[silicate]]s, very few organisms have a use for it. [[Diatom]]s, [[radiolaria]] and [[siliceous sponge]]s use [[biogenic silica]] as a structural material to construct skeletons. In more advanced plants, the silica [[phytolith]]s (opal phytoliths) are rigid microscopic bodies occurring in the cell; some plants, for example [[rice]], need silicon for their growth.<ref>{{cite book|chapter = Silicon|page = 856|isbn = 978-0-444-53181-0|title = Studies in Natural Products Chemistry|volume = 35 |first =Atta-ur-|last = Rahman}}</ref><ref name="abd">{{cite journal|last1 = Exley|first1 = C|title = Silicon in life:A bioinorganic solution to bioorganic essentiality|journal = Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry|volume = 69|page = 139|year = 1998|doi = 10.1016/S0162-0134(97)10010-1|issue = 3}}</ref><ref name="plants">{{cite journal|last1 =Epstein|first1 =Emanuel|title =SILICON|journal =Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology|volume =50|year =1999|pmid =15012222|doi =10.1146/annurev.arplant.50.1.641|pages =641–664}}</ref> Although silicon was proposed to be an ultra trace nutrient, its exact function in the biology of animals is still under discussion. Higher organisms are only known to use it in very limited occasions in the form of [[silicic acid]] and soluble silicates.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}}

Silicon is known to be needed for synthesis of [[elastin]] and [[collagen]]; the [[aorta]] contains the highest quantity of elastin and silicon.<ref name=Loeper>LOEPER J., LOEPER J., FRAGNY M. ''The physiological role of the silicon and its antiatheromatous action'' Biochemistry of silicon and related problems. Nobel Fondation Symposium 40. Edited by Gerd BENDZ and Ingvar LINDQVIST. Plenum Press. New York and London. 1978. ISBN 0-306-33710-X</ref>

Silicon is currently under consideration for elevation to the status of a "plant beneficial substance by the Association of American Plant Food Control Officials (AAPFCO)."<ref>{{cite web|title=AAPFCO Board of Directors 2006 Mid-Year Meeting|url=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:iOI8KNDnLWIJ:www.aapfco.org/MY06BODAgenda.pdf+aapfco+silicon&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjMlF3h06OX6FdbTRJOEdaajE2qOt3w4NSERgyku4mg6N0CkbhDSWZE3P31RoNP-BDM4Td8YajxqeqPrnCNY1vt01pOAMfTO85N4j4AXUhwbR2q1Wba3orzcMj6Bpr0yk55P_GZ&sig=AHIEtbS2-zE_UrT_3T9_gqKrxD9us-1_bA|publisher=Association of American Plant Food Control Officials|accessdate=2011-07-18}}</ref><ref name=presentation>{{cite web|last=Miranda, Stephen R.; Bruce Barker|title=Silicon: Summary of Extraction Methods|url=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:SzfW40-2DDcJ:www.aapfco.org/AM09/LSC_Si_Methods_DC.ppt+aapfco+siicon&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESj4Jo-RFFj54kb6Sun3ikgJW9DMHzRAuUS045YkFErzE5NaSA084KvIyRxJp0IVX5ktDhaPPqcYLRx2hVu6K5YVWj95h2kgvkvDLQLyrxcJXXD3tQ3P5YLJ7J5F8rRYzenxznHp&sig=AHIEtbSPNk7BtSIpiRnvNI1F-2jSLN5LYA|publisher= Harsco Minerals. August 4, 2009|accessdate=2011-07-18}}</ref> Silicon has been shown in university and field studies to improve plant cell wall strength and structural integrity,<ref name=PHC>{{cite journal|title=Silicon nutrition in plants|journal=Plant Health Care,Inc.|date=12|year=2000|month=December|page=1|url=http://excellerator.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/phc_silicon.pdf|accessdate=2011-07-01}}</ref> improve drought and frost resistance, decrease lodging potential and boost the plant's natural pest and disease fighting systems.<ref name=Bangalore>{{cite journal|last=Prakash|first=Dr. N.B.|title=Evaluation of the calcium silicate as a source of silicon in aerobic and wet rice|journal=University of Agricultural Science Bangalore|year=2007|page=1}}</ref> Silicon has also been shown to improve plant vigor and physiology by improving root mass and density, and increasing above ground plant biomass and crop yields.<ref name=PHC />

Hypothetical silicon-based lifeforms are the subject of [[silicon biochemistry]], by analogy with [[carbon]]-based lifeforms. Silicon, being below carbon in the periodic table, is thought to have similar enough properties that would make silicon-based life possible, but much different from life as we know it.

==See also==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Amorphous silicon]]
* [[Black silicon]]
* [[Covalent superconductors]]
* [[List of silicon producers]]
* [[Monocrystalline silicon]]
* [[Polycrystalline silicon]]
* [[Printed silicon electronics]]
* ''[[Silicon (journal)|Silicon]]'' journal
* [[Transistor]]
{{colend}}
{{Subject bar
|portal=Chemistry
|book1=Silicon
|book2=Period 3 elements
|book3=Carbon group
|book4=Chemical elements (sorted&nbsp;alphabetically)
|book5=Chemical elements (sorted by number)
|commons=y
|wikt=y
|wikt-search=silicon
|v=y
|v-search=Silicon
|b=y
|b-search=Wikijunior:The Elements/Silicon
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Greenwood|first= Norman N|coauthor=Earnshaw, Alan|year=1997|title=Chemistry of the Elements |edition=2|place=Oxford|publisher= Butterworth-Heinemann|isbn=0-08-037941-9}}

==External links==
* [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/014.htm Silicon] at ''[[The Periodic Table of Videos]]'' (University of Nottingham)
* [http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/silicon/silicon.htm Mineral.Galleries.com – Silicon]
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Si/key.html WebElements.com – Silicon]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0554.html CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]

{{Compact periodic table}}
{{Silicon compounds}}

[[Category:Silicon| ]]
[[Category:Dietary minerals]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Metalloids]]
[[Category:Semiconductor materials]]
[[Category:Pyrotechnic fuels]]
[[Category:Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements]]
[[Category:Reducing agents]]

{{Link FA|sk}}

Revision as of 14:26, 7 November 2013

Template:Distinguish2

"Element 14" redirects here. For other uses, see Element 14 (disambiguation).
Silicon, 14Si
Silicon
Pronunciation
Allotropessee Allotropes of silicon
Appearancecrystalline, reflective with bluish-tinged faces
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Si)
Silicon in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
C
↑
Si
↓
Ge
aluminium ← silicon → phosphorus
Atomic number (Z)14
Groupgroup 14 (carbon group)
Periodperiod 3
Block  p-block
Electron configuration[Ne] 3s2 3p2
Electrons per shell2, 8, 4
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point1687 K ​(1414 °C, ​2577 °F)
Boiling point3538 K ​(3265 °C, ​5909 °F)
Density (at 20° C)2.329085 g/cm3[3]
when liquid (at m.p.)2.57 g/cm3
Heat of fusion50.21 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization383 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity19.789 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1908 2102 2339 2636 3021 3537
Atomic properties
Oxidation statescommon: −4, +4
−3,[4] −2,[4] −1,[4] 0,[5] +1,[4][6] +2,[4] +3[4]
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 1.90
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 786.5 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 1577.1 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 3231.6 kJ/mol
  • (more)
Atomic radiusempirical: 111 pm
Covalent radius111 pm
Van der Waals radius210 pm
Color lines in a spectral range
Spectral lines of silicon
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structure ​face-centered diamond-cubic (cF8)
Lattice constant
Diamond cubic crystal structure for silicon
a = 543.0986 pm (at 20 °C)[3]
Thermal expansion2.556×10−6/K (at 20 °C)[3]
Thermal conductivity149 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity2.3×103 Ω⋅m (at 20 °C)[7]
Band gap1.12 eV (at 300 K)
Magnetic orderingdiamagnetic[8]
Molar magnetic susceptibility−3.9×10−6 cm3/mol (298 K)[9]
Young's modulus130–188 GPa[10]
Shear modulus51–80 GPa[10]
Bulk modulus97.6 GPa[10]
Speed of sound thin rod8433 m/s (at 20 °C)
Poisson ratio0.064–0.28[10]
Mohs hardness6.5
CAS Number7440-21-3
History
Namingafter Latin silex or silicis, meaning 'flint'
PredictionAntoine Lavoisier (1787)
Discovery and first isolationJöns Jacob Berzelius[11][12] (1823)
Named byThomas Thomson (1817)
Isotopes of silicon
Main isotopes[13] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
28Si 92.2% stable
29Si 4.7% stable
30Si 3.1% stable
31Si trace 2.62 h β− 31P
32Si trace 153 y β− 32P
 Category: Silicon
| references

name "silicium" : "Had I been so fortunate as to have obtained more certain evidences on this subject, and to have procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium [silicon], alumium [aluminum], zirconium, and glucium [beryllium]."</ref> In 1811, Gay-Lussac and Thénard are thought to have prepared impure amorphous silicon, through the heating of recently isolated potassium metal with silicon tetrafluoride, but they did not purify and characterize the product, nor identify it as a new element.<ref>Gay-Lussac and Thenard, Recherches physico-chimiques … (Paris, France: Deterville, 1811), vol. 1, pages 313–314 ; vol. 2, [http://books.google.com/books?id=

  1. ^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Silicon". CIAAW. 2009.
  2. ^ Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
  3. ^ a b c Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. ISBN 978-1-62708-155-9.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
  5. ^ "New Type of Zero-Valent Tin Compound". Chemistry Europe. 27 August 2016.
  6. ^ Ram, R. S.; et al. (1998). "Fourier Transform Emission Spectroscopy of the A2D–X2P Transition of SiH and SiD" (PDF). J. Mol. Spectr. 190 (2): 341–352. doi:10.1006/jmsp.1998.7582. PMID 9668026.
  7. ^ Eranna, Golla (2014). Crystal Growth and Evaluation of Silicon for VLSI and ULSI. CRC Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4822-3281-3.
  8. ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
  9. ^ Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.
  10. ^ a b c d Hopcroft, Matthew A.; Nix, William D.; Kenny, Thomas W. (2010). "What is the Young's Modulus of Silicon?". Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems. 19 (2): 229. doi:10.1109/JMEMS.2009.2039697.
  11. ^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements: XII. Other elements isolated with the aid of potassium and sodium: beryllium, boron, silicon, and aluminum". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (8): 1386–1412. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1386W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1386.
  12. ^ Voronkov, M. G. (2007). "Silicon era". Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry. 80 (12): 2190. doi:10.1134/S1070427207120397.
  13. ^ Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
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