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SEAL Team Six

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For the multinational police force, see Special Team Six. For the television series, see SEAL Team (TV series) and Six (TV series).

Naval Special Warfare Development Group
ActiveNovember 1980 – present
Country United States of America
Branch United States Navy
TypeSpecial Operations Forces
Special Mission Unit
RoleSpecial operations Counterterrorism
Size1,787 personnel authorized (2014):[1]
  • 1,342 military personnel
  • 445 civilian personnel
Part of Joint Special Operations Command
United States Naval Special Warfare Command
HeadquartersDam Neck Annex
NAS Oceana, Virginia Beach, Virginia, U.S.
Nickname(s)"SEAL Team Six", "DEVGRU", "Task Force Blue", "NSWDG"
Engagements
Unit awardsPresidential Unit Citation[2]

The Naval Special Warfare Development Group (NSWDG), abbreviated as DEVGRU ("Development Group")[3][note 1] and unofficially known as SEAL Team Six,[5][6] is the United States Navy component of the Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC). The unit is often referred to within JSOC as Task Force Blue.[6] DEVGRU is administratively supported by Naval Special Warfare Command and operationally commanded by JSOC. Most information concerning DEVGRU is designated as classified, and details of its activities are not usually commented on by either the United States Department of Defense or the White House.[7] Despite the official name changes and increase in size, "SEAL Team Six" remains the unit's widely recognized moniker.

DEVGRU and its Army and Air Force counterparts, Delta Force, Intelligence Support Activity, the 75th Ranger Regiment's Regimental Reconnaissance Company and 24th Special Tactics Squadron, are the U.S. military's primary Tier 1 special mission units tasked with performing the most complex, classified, and dangerous missions directed by, until 2002, the National Command Authority, and since then, directly from the president or the secretary of defense.[8][9] DEVGRU conducts various specialized missions such as counterterrorism, hostage rescue, special reconnaissance, and direct action (short-duration strikes or small-scale offensive actions), often against high-value targets.[10]

History

[edit]
Main article: List of operations conducted by SEAL Team Six

The origins of DEVGRU are in SEAL Team Six, a unit created in the aftermath of Operation Eagle Claw.[11][12][13] During the Iran hostage crisis in 1979, Richard Marcinko was one of two U.S. Navy representatives for a Joint Chiefs of Staff task force known as the TAT (Terrorist Action Team). The purpose of the TAT was to develop a plan to free the American hostages held in Iran. In the wake of the disaster at the Desert One base in Iran, the Navy saw the need for a full-time counter-terrorist unit and tasked Marcinko with its design and development.

Navy Unit Commendation awarded to SEAL TEAM SIX for exceptionally meritorious service from November 1980 to October 1982
SEAL Team Six Patch

Marcinko was the first commanding officer of this new unit. At the time, there were two SEAL Teams, SEAL Team ONE and SEAL Team TWO. Marcinko named the unit SEAL Team Six in order to confuse Soviet intelligence as to the number of actual SEAL teams in existence.[13][14][15] The unit's plankowners (founding members) were interviewed and hand-picked by Marcinko from throughout the UDT/SEAL community. SEAL Team Six was formally commissioned in November 1980, and an intense, progressive work-up training program made the unit mission-ready six months later.[15] SEAL Team Six became the U.S. Navy's premier hostage rescue and counter-terrorism unit. It has been compared to the U.S. Army's elite Delta Force.[7][12] Marcinko held the command of SEAL Team Six for three years, from 1980 to July 1983, instead of the typical two-year command in the Navy at the time.[13] SEAL Team Six started with 75 shooters. The unit has virtually unlimited resources at its disposal.[16] In 1984, Marcinko and a dozen members of SEAL Team Six would go on to form "Red Cell" (also known as OP-06D), a special unit designed to test the security of American military installations.

In 1987, SEAL Team Six was dissolved. A new unit named the "Naval Special Warfare Development Group" was formed, essentially as SEAL Team Six's successor.[5][17] Reasons for the disbanding are varied,[13] but the name SEAL Team Six is often used in reference to DEVGRU.

Controversies

[edit]
Main articles: Death of Linda Norgrove and Death of Logan Melgar

In 2010, during the attempted rescue of British aid worker Linda Norgrove from Taliban kidnappers in Afghanistan, she died as a result of injuries sustained from a SEAL's errant hand grenade. In 2017, Army Special Forces Staff Sergeant Logan Melgar died from trauma received during an apparent on-base hazing incident in Mali that resulted in the criminal prosecutions of two DEVGRU members and two Marine Raiders.

Following a two-year investigation by The Intercept, a report was released in 2017, accusing SEAL Team Six and its commanding officers of abuses, crimes and coverups. The investigation included interviews with numerous members and officers of the unit, who recounted the group's involvement in abuses, including what some members described as war crimes. Former unit members and officers said that commanding officers tolerated and covered up abuses.[18][19]

Recruitment, selection and training

[edit]
NSWDG recruiting support personnel,[20] 2007

In the early stages of creating SEAL Team Six, Marcinko was given a six-month window to produce the team. Had he failed to do so, the project would have been canceled. Consequentially, Marcinko had little time to create a proper selection course on par with Delta Force's process. To get around this, recruits were selected after assessing their Navy records, followed by individual interviews. According to Marcinko's book Rogue Warrior, SEAL Team Six members were chosen if they had initial struggles qualifying in aspects of training, but subsequently qualified, as the determination of these candidates was seen as more valuable than a candidate that breezed through his training. Applicants came from the east coast and west coast SEAL teams and the Underwater Demolition Teams.

Although much of the training and recruitment is classified, there are some requirements and training exercises that are now public knowledge. The requirements to apply for DEVGRU states that applicants must be male, be 21 years old or older, have served at least 2 deployments on their previous assignments, and be eligible for Secret clearance. Candidates come from the East/West Coast SEAL teams, SEAL Delivery Vehicle (SDV) teams, the Special Boat teams (for Gray Squadron), the Navy explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) teams, and Navy SARCs. Enlisted candidates must be in the pay grades of E-4 through E-8 and Officer candidates need to be O-3 through O-4 to apply. Candidates must undergo physical screening, psychological testing and are then interviewed to deem whether they are suitable for assignment to NSWDG.[21] Those who pass the stringent recruitment process will attend an eight-month selection and training course with the unit's training department known as "Green Team". The training course attrition rate is high, usually around 50%; during one selection course, out of the original 20 candidates, 12 completed the course.[22] All candidates are watched closely by DEVGRU instructors and evaluated on whether they are suitable to join the individual squadrons. Howard E. Wasdin, a former member of SEAL Team Six said in a 2011 interview that 16 applied for SEAL Team Six selection course and two were accepted.[23] Those who do not pass the selection phase are returned to their previous assignments and are able to try again in the future.[24]

Like all special operations forces units that have an extremely intensive and high-risk training schedule, there can be serious injuries and deaths. SEAL Team Six/DEVGRU has lost several operators during training, including parachute accidents and close-quarters battle training accidents. It is presumed that the unit's assessment process for potential new recruits is different from what a SEAL operator experienced in his previous career, and much of the training tests the candidate's mental capacity rather than his physical condition. Every candidate chosen will have already completed their respective advanced training pipelines; Basic Underwater Demolitions/SEAL training, the Special Warfare Combatant-Craft Crewman training, Special Amphibious Reconnaissance Corpsman training, the Navy EOD training or Navy Dive School.

Candidates are put through a variety of advanced training courses led by civilian or military instructors. These can include free climbing, land warfare, advanced unarmed combat techniques, defensive and offensive advanced driving, advanced diving, communications and Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape training. Candidates are also taught how to pick locks on cars, doors, and safes. All candidates must perform at the top level during selection, and the unit instructors evaluate the candidate during the training process. Selected candidates are assigned to one of the Tactical Development and Evaluation Squadrons. Unlike regular SEAL Teams, SEAL Team Six operators can attend almost any other military course to receive further training depending on the unit's requirements.

Like Delta Force, live-fire marksmanship drills in both long-range and close-quarter battle drills are done with hostage roles being played by other students to help build the candidates' trust between each other.

DEVGRU regularly trains and operates with special forces units from other countries including the Australian 2nd Commando Regiment, the British Special Boat Service and Canada's Joint Task Force 2.[25][26][27]

Structure

[edit]

DEVGRU is divided into color-coded line squadrons:[28]

  • Red Squadron (Assault)
  • Blue Squadron (Assault)
  • Gold Squadron (Assault)
  • Silver Squadron (Assault)
  • Black Squadron (Intelligence, Reconnaissance, & Surveillance)
  • Gray Squadron (Mobility Teams, Transportation/Divers, QRF)
  • Green Team (Selection/Training)[29]

Each assault squadron, usually led by a commander (O-5), is divided into three troops. Each of these troops is commanded by a senior commissioned officer, which is usually a lieutenant commander (O-4). A troop chief also serves as an adviser to the troop commander and is the highest enlisted SEAL in the troop, usually a master chief petty officer (E-9). A troop is further divided into smaller teams of enlisted SEALs, called assaulters. Each troop has around 16 members and is led by a senior commissioned officer, as well as a troop chief.[30] These individual teams of assaulters are led by senior enlisted SEALs; usually a senior chief petty officer (E-8), sometimes a chief petty officer (E-7). The rest of these teams are filled out with more chief petty officers (E-7), petty officers first class (E-6), and petty officers second class (E-5); each member with a respective role.

Each assault squadron also has a specific nickname. Examples include Gold Squadron's Crusaders, Red Squadron's Indians, Blue Squadron's Pirates, Silver Squadron's Headhunters, and Gray Squadron's Vikings.[28][31][32] The assault squadrons are supported by a variety of support personnel, including cryptologists, communicators, EOD technicians, dog handlers, and sometimes airmen from the United States Air Force 24th Special Tactics Squadron, the Air Force's JSOC element.

According to the Government Accountability Office report on special operations forces, in the fiscal year of 2014, DEVGRU had a total of 1,787 authorized positions, of which 1,342 are military and 445 are civilian.[33][34]

Firearms

[edit]

The following is a list of firearms known to be used by DEVGRU, but because of the unit's secretive nature, this list is not exhaustive.

Carbines
Sniper and anti-material rifles
Sidearms

Commanding Officers

[edit]
Commanders of
SEAL Team Six & DEVGRU
Commander Class Time as CO Note
(SEAL Team Six)
Richard Marcinko UDT/R class 26 1980 to 1983 [37]
Robert A. Gormly UDT/R class 31 1983 to 1986 [38]
Thomas E. Murphy UDT/R class 35 1986 to 1987[failed verification] [39][additional citation(s) needed]
(DEVGRU)
Richard Woolard UDT/R class 38 1987 to 1990[failed verification] [40][additional citation(s) needed]
Ronald E. Yeaw UDT/R class 37 1990 to 1992 [41]
Thomas G. Moser BUD/S class 55 1992 to 1994[failed verification] [42]
Eric T. Olson BUD/S class 76 1994 to 1997[failed verification] [43][additional citation(s) needed]
Albert M. Calland III BUD/S class 82 1997 to 1999 [44]
Joseph D. Kernan BUD/S class 117 1999 to 2003 [44]
Edward G. Winters, III BUD/S class 112 2003 to 2005 [45]
Brian L. Losey BUD/S class 126 2005 to 2007 [46]
Scott P. Moore BUD/S class 126 2007 to 2009 [47][48][49]
Perry F. Van Hooser BUD/S class 137 2009 to 2011 [50][51]
Hugh W. Howard III BUD/S class 172 2011 to 2013 [52]
Frank M. Bradley BUD/S class 179 2013[failed verification] to 2015 [53][54][55][additional citation(s) needed]
Jeromy B. Williams BUD/S class 191 2015 to 2017 [56][57]
Matthew J. Burns BUD/S class 158 2018 to 2020 [58]

The unit's first commanding officer was a Commander (O-5). Following his departure, the billet was changed to that of a Captain (O-6), and remains so currently.

Roles and responsibilities

[edit]
Secretary of the Navy, Donald C. Winter is briefed on the Sentry HP UAV at Dam Neck, 2007

DEVGRU's full mission is classified but is thought to include pre-emptive, pro-active counter-terrorist operations, counter-proliferation (efforts to prevent the spread of both conventional weapons and weapons of mass destruction), as well as the elimination or recovery of high-value targets from unfriendly nations.[59][60] DEVGRU is one of a handful of U.S. Special Mission Units authorized in the use of pre-emptive actions against terrorists and their facilities.[61]

When SEAL Team Six was first created in 1980, it was devoted exclusively to counter-terrorism with a worldwide maritime responsibility; its objectives typically included targets such as ships, oil rigs, naval bases, coastal embassies, and other civilian or military bases that were accessible from the sea or inland waterways. On certain operations, small teams from SEAL Team Six were tasked with covertly infiltrating international high-risk areas to carry out reconnaissance or security assessments of U.S. military facilities and embassies to give advice on improvements in order to prevent casualties in an event of a terrorist attack. SEAL Team Six was disbanded in 1987, and its role, minus non-counter-terrorism ship-boarding, which was given to the newly formed SEAL Team 8, given to the newly formed DEVGRU.[62]

Since the start of war on terror, DEVGRU has evolved into a multi-functional special operations unit with a worldwide operational mandate. Such operations include the successful rescue of Jessica Buchanan and Poul Hagen Thisted, the attempted rescue of Linda Norgrove, the successful rescue of American doctor Dilip Joseph[63] and in 1991, the successful recovery of Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide and his family during a coup that deposed him.[citation needed]

The official mission of the currently operating Naval Special Warfare Development Group mission is "to provide centralized management for the test, evaluation, and development of equipment technology and Techniques, Tactics and Procedures for Naval Special Warfare".[64] DEVGRU and the Army's Delta Force train and deploy together on counter-terrorist missions usually as part of a joint special operations task force (JSOTF).[7][15][65][66] The Central Intelligence Agency's highly secretive Special Activities Center and more specifically its elite Special Operations Group often works with, and recruits from, DEVGRU.[67] The combination of these units led ultimately to the killing of Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden in Operation Neptune Spear.[68][69][70]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ However, The Atlantic reported in October 2010 that the designation "DEVGRU" may have been changed at some point, with the subsequent designations being classified.[4]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "SEAL Team 6 by the Numbers – Foreign Policy". 28 July 2015. Archived from the original on 28 July 2015. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
  2. ^ Brook, Tom Vanden (16 May 2016). "Navy SEALs' secret medals reveal heroism over last 15 years". Navy Times. Retrieved 1 January 2017.
  3. ^ "Administrative Organization of the Operating Forces of the U.S. Navy" (PDF). 17 February 2023. p. 2.
  4. ^ "Delta Force Gets a Name Change". theatlantic.com. 12 October 2010.
  5. ^ a b von Rosenbach, Alexander (4 May 2011). "Devgru: Bin Laden's ultimate nemesis". IHS Jane's Defense & Security Intelligence & Analysis. Archived from the original on 9 May 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2013. Devgru was established in 1987 as the successor to SEAL Team 6 (although it is still colloquially known by this name). The unit serves as the US Navy's dedicated counter-terrorism unit and is believed to consist of about 200 personnel.
  6. ^ a b Naylor, Sean. "Chapter 4". Relentless Strike.
  7. ^ a b c Emerson, Steven (13 November 1988). "Stymied Warriors". The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved 13 March 2008.
  8. ^ "The U.S. Army's Delta Force: How This Secret Group of Deadly Soldiers Came to Be". The National Interest. 30 April 2019.
  9. ^ "In high demand, Air Force commandos must find new ways to cope with stress of duty". The Gaffney Ledger. Gaffney, South Carolina. Associated Press. Retrieved 4 May 2013.
  10. ^ "Special Operations" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
  11. ^ Fallows, James (13 December 1981). "Iran from five American viewpoints". The New York Times.
  12. ^ a b Halloran, Richard (26 November 1986). "U.S. moving to expand unconventional forces". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 May 2011.
  13. ^ a b c d Marcinko, Richard (1992). Rogue Warrior. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN 978-0-671-79593-1.
  14. ^ Pfarrer, Chuck (2011). SEAL Target Geronimo: The Inside Story of the Mission to Kill Osama Bin Laden. Macmillan. p. 178. ISBN 978-1-4299-6025-0.
  15. ^ a b c Gerth, Jeff; Philip Taubman (8 June 1984). "U.S. military creates secret units for use in sensitive tasks abroad". The New York Times.
  16. ^ Wasdin, Howard (9 May 2011). "'SEAL Team Six' And Other Elite Squads Expanding". NPR. Retrieved 19 May 2011.
  17. ^ Ambiner, Marc (10 October 2012). "Delta Force Gets a Name Change". The Atlantic. Retrieved 18 June 2013.
  18. ^ Cole, Matthew (10 January 2019). "The Crimes of SEAL Team 6". The Intercept. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  19. ^ staff, Navy Times (27 March 2019). "War crimes case expands to SEAL Team 6". Navy Times. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  20. ^ Abhan, Courtney Messman (30 July 2010). "Special Warfare Development Group seeks Sailors" (PDF). Naval Station Everett Public Affairs. Northwest Navigator. p. 3. Retrieved 14 September 2012. NSWDG is located in Virginia Beach and is a type two sea duty cno priority one major command. The command is an elite counter-terrorism unit that conducts research, and develops, tests, and evaluates current and emerging technology. This technology is related to special operations tactics and joint warfare to improve Special Forces warfighting capabilities. ... While at NSWDG, support personnel could have opportunities to earn many special qualifications, their expeditionary warfare specialist (EXW) pin, and Combat Service Support and Combat Support Naval Education Codes (NEC). Special qualifications include parachuting and fast roping, among many others. NSWDG support personnel receive special duty pay and have some of the highest promotion rates in the Navy.
  21. ^ Anderson Cooper (3 May 2011). "'This is their type of op,' ex-SEAL says". CNN. Archived from the original on 6 May 2011.
  22. ^ Pfarrer, Chuck (2004). Warrior Soul: The Memoir of a Navy Seal. New York: Random House. pp. 325–26. ISBN 978-0-89141-863-4. In one year, the operators of SEAL Six fire more bullets than entire USMC.
  23. ^ "The iron will of Seal Team 6". CBS News. 6 May 2011. Retrieved 19 May 2011.
  24. ^ "LCV Cities Tour: Interview with Howard Wasdin 'SEAL Team Six: Memoirs of an Elite Navy SEAL Sniper'". Global-report.org. 22 June 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
  25. ^ Atlamazoglou, Stavros (19 October 2021). "AUKUS security pact follows decades of special ops cooperation". Business Insider. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
  26. ^ Atlamazoglou, Stavros (3 February 2020). "Canadian soldier serving in a Tier 1 SOF unit kicked out of the military for theft". SOFREP. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
  27. ^ McAlister, Mitchell (26 February 2015). "Australia's 2nd Commando Regiment and the DEA". SOFREP. Retrieved 27 November 2021.
  28. ^ a b Pfarrer, Chuck (2004). Warrior Soul: The Memoir of a Navy Seal. New York: Random House. pp. 325–26. ISBN 978-0-89141-863-4. editions:PanKDPddlTQC.
  29. ^ Owen, Mark (2012). No Easy Day. Dutton Adult. p. 11. ISBN 9780525953722.
  30. ^ Owen, Mark (2012). No Easy Day. Dutton Adult. p. 37. ISBN 9780525953722.
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  32. ^ Blehm, Eric (2013). Fearless: The Undaunted Courage and Ultimate Sacrifice of Navy SEAL Team SIX Operator Adam Brown. WaterBrook Press. ISBN 9780307730701.
  33. ^ "SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES Opportunities Exist to Improve Transparency of Funding and Assess Potential to Lessen Some Deployments" (PDF). GAO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 May 2017. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
  34. ^ "SEAL Team 6 by the Numbers". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 26 January 2019. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
  35. ^ "About Those Custom Rifles Navy SEALs Were Seen Carrying On A Recent Training Mission". The War Zone. 10 May 2021.
  36. ^ "Sig Sauer vs. Glock: Why the Navy SEALs Dumped the P226 for the Glock 19". nationalinterest.org. 12 February 2019.
  37. ^ "A True Hero – Richard Marcinko". Archived from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 21 October 2019.
  38. ^ Gormly 1999, pp. 183, 253
  39. ^ Mann, Don (2011). Inside SEAL Team Six: My Life and Missions with America's Elite Warriors. Little, Brown and Company. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-316-20431-6.
  40. ^ Kelly, Orr (1995). Never Fight Fair!. Presidio. p. 276. ISBN 0-89141-519-X.
  41. ^ ""Finished his career as CO of SEAL Team 6 ('90–92)"". reddit.com. 7 September 2017.
  42. ^ "Lessons Learned from the Fukushima Nuclear Accident for Improving Safety and Security of U.S. Nuclear Plants". Archived from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
  43. ^ Butler, Frank K.; John H. Hagmann; David T. Richards (2009). "Tactical Management of Urban Warfare Casualties in Special Operations". Military Medicine. 165 (4 Suppl). Parabellum Concepts: 6. PMID 10803010.
  44. ^ a b Naylor, Sean (2006). Not a Good Day to Die: The Untold Story of Operation Anaconda. Penguin. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-425-20787-1.
  45. ^ "Rear Admiral Edward G. Winters, III". United States Navy. 12 October 2020. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
  46. ^ "Rear Admiral Brian L. Losey". United States Navy. 18 November 2014. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
  47. ^ FOIA request Scott P Moore, USN (ret) Navy military record Bureau of Naval Personnel (PDF), 8 November 2018
  48. ^ "Testimony – Michigan House of Representatives" (PDF). house.mi.gov. 2 October 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 December 2023. Retrieved 29 July 2021. "The deaths of SOCS Marcum and SOC Freiwald are tremendous losses for Naval Special Warfare and the United States," Capt. Scott Moore, commanding officer of Naval Special Warfare Development Group, said in a statement. ("2 SEALs killed in Afghanistan fighting". – Associated Press, 15 September 2008)
  49. ^ "2 SEALs killed in Afghanistan fighting". Navy Times. Associated Press. 15 September 2008. Retrieved 11 October 2015. "The deaths of SOCS Marcum and SOC Freiwald are tremendous losses for Naval Special Warfare and the United States," Capt. Scott Moore, commanding officer of Naval Special Warfare Development Group, said in a statement.[dead link‍]
  50. ^ "Pete Van Hooser". xecompany.us.
  51. ^ "Leader in Residence Perry F. Vanhooser". VMI. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2019.
  52. ^ "Rear Admiral Hugh W. Howard III Commander, Naval Special Warfare Command". navy.mil. Archived from the original on 17 November 2020.
  53. ^ "Rear Admiral Frank M. Bradley Commander, Special Operations Command Central". navy.mil. Archived from the original on 27 February 2021.
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  56. ^ "Rear Admiral Jeromy B. Williams". navy.mil. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021.
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  59. ^ Shanker, Thom; Risen, James (12 August 2002). "Rumsfeld weighs new covert acts by military units". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 May 2011.
  60. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". LT Michael P. Murphy USN. United States Navy. Archived from the original on 9 April 2008. Retrieved 20 May 2008.
  61. ^ U.S. Special Ops: America's Elite Forces in the 21st Century, Fred J. Pushies, MBI Publishing Company, 2003.
  62. ^ "DEVGRU". americanspecialops.com. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
  63. ^ Qadir Sediqi,"U.S. Navy SEAL killed in operation to rescue American doctor in Afghanistan". CNN. 10 December 2012
  64. ^ "Special Operations Forces Reference Manual – Fourth Edition 2015" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 October 2015. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
  65. ^ Couch, Dick (2005). The Finishing School: Earning the Navy SEAL Trident. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 978-0-609-81046-0.
  66. ^ Bowden, Mark (2001). Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War. Signet. ISBN 978-0-451-20393-9.
  67. ^ Waller, Douglas (3 February 2003). "The CIA's Secret Army". Time
  68. ^ "Osama bin Laden killed in CIA operation". The Washington Post. 8 May 2011. Retrieved 19 May 2011.
  69. ^ Naylor, Mark Mazzetti, Nichols Kulish, Christopher Drew, Serge F. Kovaleski, Sean D.; Ismay, John (6 June 2015). "The Secret History of SEAL Team 6: Quiet Killings and Blurred Lines". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 6 June 2015.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  70. ^ "KUHNER: The betrayal of the Navy's SEAL Team 6". washingtontimes.com. 7 June 2013. Retrieved 2 April 2022.

Further reading

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