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Ruins at the top of Mount Gerizim, where the temple was once located

The Mount Gerizim Temple was an ancient Samaritan center of worship located on Mount Gerizim, the holiest site in the Samaritan religion. It was built in the 5th century BCE,[1] and destroyed by Hasmonean leader John Hyrcanus in the late 2nd century BCE.

The Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim is attested in several historical sources, both literary and epigraphical. These include references in 2 Maccabees from the second century BCE and two Greek inscriptions found on the island of Delos, also dating to the same period, which mention a sanctuary on the mountain.[2] Additionally, the first-century CE historian Josephus provides an account of the temple's founding (though inaccurately dated[3]) and its eventual destruction.[2] Josephus notes that the temple on Mount Gerizim resembled the Temple in Jerusalem.[4]

Archaeological excavations on Mount Gerizim's main peak revealed remnants of the sacred precinct, or temenos,[2] that enclosed the temple.[5] During the Persian period (5th–4th centuries BCE), a small monumental sacred complex existed at the site, featuring ashlar masonry walls, courtyards, and chambers.[6] Persian-era finds include pottery, silver jewelry, coins, and burned bones, primarily of goats, sheep, cattle, and doves,[6] indicating sacrificial practices.[7] The site underwent major expansion during the Hellenistic period during the reign of Antiochus III (223–187 BCE), when a large fortified town and a new sacred precinct were constructed.[6] The Hellenistic structures were built with smooth quarried stones and included city walls, domiciles, and service buildings.[6] Excavations revealed thousands of coins and hundreds of inscriptions in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek,[6] confirming the temple's dedication to the worship of Yahweh.[8] The rebuilt temple remained in use for about 90 years before its final destruction circa 110 BCE.[9]

In contrast to the enduring significance of the Jerusalem Temple in Judaism, the Samaritan Temple is notably absent from Samaritan texts and is not recognized by contemporary Samaritans.[10] For them, Mount Gerizim itself is sacred,[11] with Passover celebrated each spring through a pilgrimage and sheep sacrifice atop the mount. It has been suggested that the current Samaritan holy site known as "The Twelve Stones" is located where the temple's Holy of Holies was once located.[12]

History

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Persian period

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The sanctuary was seemingly built during the mid-5th century BCE, when the region was under Persian rule.[4] Located at the mountain's highest point, it was the first structure erected on the site.[4] This discovery indicates that the Second Jewish Temple (built c. 516 BCE) had a rival to the north earlier than most scholars previously assumed, based on the writings of the first-century Jewish historian Josephus.[13] The latter claimed that Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) granted the Samaritans permission to build the temple;[14] however, this timeline is inconsistent with the archaeological evidence, suggesting that he may have conflated the later expansion of the sanctuary and the rise of a significant urban center in the early second century BCE with the temple's original construction.

During the Persian period, the Samaritan religious and political leadership was based in the city of Samaria. Evidence suggests that the governor of Samaria did not also serve as high priest at the Mount Gerizim temple, although Josephus mentions a promise by Sanballat to his son-in-law Ephraim regarding dual secular and religious authority as high priest.[15]

Hellenistic conquest and Ptolemaic period

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The precinct survived Alexander the Great's conquests and subsequent suppression of revolts in Samaria.[15] Following the destruction of the city of Samaria, the Samaritan priestly class rose to prominence among the Samaritans, with the high priest at the helm of the theocratic governance.[15] According to Magen, many religious leaders moved to Mount Gerizim, further establishing it as the central hub for Samaritan religion, economy, and politics during this period.[15]

During the Ptolemaic period, a significant construction initiative commenced on Mount Gerizim, including the establishment of the southern quarter and potentially other structures around the sacred area.[15]

Seleucid period

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The temple and precinct were reconstructed in the early second century BCE under the reign of Antiochus III (r. 222–187 BCE), as indicated by archaeological evidence.[16] The precinct was significantly expanded and constructed with smooth stones quarried from depth.[6] Simultaneously, a large fortified town was established nearby, which grew to approximately 30 dunams (40.5 acres) during his rule.[3]

Josephus recounts that during the reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor (180–145 BCE), the Jewish and Samaritan communities in Alexandria were disputing over the legitimate location of the Temple—Jerusalem or Gerizim. Both groups claimed that their respective sanctuary had been built "in accordance with the laws of Moses".[17][18] The persecution led by Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BCE) against the Jews initially targeted both the cult practices of the Jerusalem temple and those of the Gerizim temple.[3] According to 2 Maccabees (6:1–6), the king sent and official "to pollute the temple in Jerusalem and to call it the temple of Olympian Zeus, and to call the one in Gerizim the temple of Zeus-the-Friend-of-Strangers, as did the people who lived in that place."[19] Another excerpt in the book indicates that both sanctuaries received comparable recognition, underscoring their significance.[20][19] Josephus recounts that this foreign oppression created friction between the Jews and Samaritans, as the latter convinced Antiochus that they bore no responsibility for the unrest and were not connected to the Jews.[21][19]

There is a wealth of epigraphic evidence from this period that confirms the existence of a community in both Israel and the diaspora, dedicated to worship at the sanctuary on the mountain.[18] Numerous votive inscriptions in Hebrew, Aramaic, and a few in Greek, left by pilgrims, have been discovered at the summit of the mountain.[18] Other inscriptions at the site include one featuring the Tetragrammaton, several with priestly titles, and others containing formulaic phrases such as "before God" or "before the Lord."[22] Additionally, two Greek inscriptions discovered on the island of Delos, dating to 150–50 BCE[18], mention a sanctuary on Mount Gerizim.[2] One of them is dedicated by "the Israelites on Delos who make offerings to the temple (on) [or, to sacred] Argarizein[23] crown with a golden wreath Sarapion, son of Jason of Knossos, for his beneficence toward them."[18]

Destruction

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Samaritans marking Sukkot, near the site of the temple, 2005

Between 112 and 107 BCE, John Hyrcanus, ruler of Judea and high priest, launched military campaigns to expand his state's territory. Around 111–110 BCE, as part of this effort, Hyrcanus led a campaign in Samaria that culminated in the destruction of the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim.[24] Josephus writes that Hyrcanus conquered the "Cuthean nation" living around the temple, which he described as being "modeled on that in Jerusalem."[25][26]

Josephus does not explain Hyrcanus's reasons for destroying the temple, prompting scholars to propose various motivations for his actions. Jonathan Bourgel argues that John Hyrcanus's destruction of the Samaritan temple was not meant to exclude the Samaritans, but rather to forcibly integrate them into the Hasmonean state, and bring them under his authority as High Priest of the Jerusalem Temple.[27] Unlike his conversion of the Idumeans, who had to adopt circumcision and Jewish laws, Hyrcanus likely saw the Samaritans as genuine Israelites rather than foreign 'Cutheans', as Josephus described them.[28] His policy continued the process begun under Jonathan, who applied tax exemption for those offering sacrifices in Jerusalem after annexing the Samarian districts of Lydda, Aphairema, and Ramathaim, though replacing his means of persuasion with coercion.[29] Similarly, Seth Schwartz adds that the Samaritans "were expected to switch their religious loyalties to the Jerusalem temple, and in return were regarded by the Judaean authorities as Jews."[30]

According to Gary N. Knoppers, in destroying the Samaritan temple, Hyrcanus "not only fulfilled the centralization mandate (in Deuteronomy 12:1–13:1) but also consolidated political, sacerdotal, and economic power in Jerusalem."[31] Knoppers writes that, due to shared characteristics, the similarities between the two sanctuaries, and the credibility of Josephus's claims about interrelated priesthoods and families, it is likely that some Samaritans turned to the Jerusalem Temple after the destruction of their own.[32] However, as Bourgel suggests, while Hyrcanus had some success in drawing Samaritans to Jerusalem, the majority remained loyal to Mount Gerizim, and the destruction of their temple heightened their defiance, eventually leading to another policy shift which saw their exclusion from the Jerusalem Temple.[29]

It appears that John Hyrcanus established a military garrison on the mountain, which, according to Stefan Schorch, aimed to prevent the Samaritans from returning and to enforce recognition of the Jerusalem Temple.[24] This garrison remained at the site until the reign of Alexander Jannaeus or possibly later.[32] Likewise, during the later Herodian period, the Samaritans appeared to be prohibited from rebuilding the sanctuary.[32]

According to Stefan Schorch, the destruction of the Samaritan temple solidified the split between Samaritans and Jews, a division that had been widening for centuries.[24] Its significance is reflected in the Jewish text Megillat Taanit, which commemorates the event as "Mount Gerizim Day" (Yom Har Gerizim) on the 21st of Kislev,[33][24] indicating it was still celebrated in first-century Jerusalem.[2]

Archaeology

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From 1982 to 2006,[5] the remains of the sanctuary were revealed through over nineteen[13] seasons of archaeological excavations conducted by Yitzhak Magen at Jabal al-Tur, one of the three peaks of Mount Gerizim. The excavators identified two main phases at the site: the sacred precinct from the Persian period - c. mid-fifth century CE, and the sacred precinct from the Hellenistic period, constructed under the reign of Antiochus III.[16] A city developed around the site during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE.

The physical remnants of the temple have yet to be located, primarily due to later constructions on the site, such as the church of Mary Theotokos, built by Emperor Zeno (474–491 CE) after the Samaritan revolt of 484, and additional fortifications by Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century. However, there is substantial support for the existence of a temple—a roofed structure rather than an open-air sanctuary—on the mountain.

First phase (c. 450–200 BCE)

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"The Twelve Stones," a contemporary Samaritan holy site, is thought by Magen to be situated at the former location of the temple's Holy of Holies

The temple's initial phase was constructed in the mid-5th century BCE and functioned for around 250 years.[7] This dating is supported by the discovery of Persian-period coins, pottery, and radiocarbon analysis of charred animal bones from sacrificial offerings found at the site.[34]

During the Persian period, the sacred precinct at the site was relatively small, covering an area of about 96 by 98 meters, not including its gates.[3] The well-preserved western wall extends 84 meters in length and stands 2 meters high, built from large fieldstones sourced from the bedrock, unlike the later Hellenistic precinct made of smoother quarried stones.[12] Excavations revealed unroofed courtyards at both corners of the western wall: the southern courtyard measures 12 by 21.5 meters, while the northern courtyard is 12.5 meters wide, with its length undetermined.[12] Most of the eastern precinct wall has been damaged due to later constructions. The southern gate also experienced significant destruction from building activities during the Hellenistic, and alterations to the entrances of the sanctuary.[35] The Persian-period temple also featured proto-Ionic or Aeolic capitals, which archaeologists discovered among the debris.[36]

The Persian-period enclosure likely featured three chamber gates situated to the north, east, and south, reflecting the temple gates described in the Book of Ezekiel (40:10–16), which served as a model for the Second Temple built by Jews returning from Babylon and later influenced the Samaritan temple.[35] No gates were found in the western wall, possibly due to the positioning of the Holy of Holies.[12] It has been suggested that the current Samaritan sacred site known as "The Twelve Stones" is located near this area.[12]

East of the sacred precinct, excavations uncovered a public building measuring approximately 11 by 12 meters, identified as the "House of Ashes"[37] adjacent to the altar where sacrifices were burned. This structure contained significant quantities of burnt bones and ashes, predominantly from goats, sheep, cattle, and doves, which have been dated to the 5th century BCE.[38]

Second phase (c. 200–110 BCE)

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In the early 2nd century BCE, a large precinct was built at the site, featuring a temple built of white ashlar at its center.[39] The precinct, measuring 136 x 212 meters with 2.6-meter-thick walls, incorporated Greek architectural elements, distinguishing it from the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem.[40] Key features included a grand entrance staircase leading to a paved plaza facing the temple, as well as a fortified gateway flanked by public buildings that catered to worshippers and visitors.[41] The southern precinct underwent significant modifications, including the construction of a monumental guard tower and double fortifications. A new entrance gate replaced the earlier one, enhancing accessibility while construction continued. The site also featured expansive courtyards for pilgrims, with a broad staircase leading to the eastern gate.[41]

Hellenistic-period city

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A fortified city from the Hellenistic period, measuring 500 by 800 meters (around 400 dunams), was constructed on the southern ridge of the mountain, encircling the sacred precinct from the Persian period.[42] The town covered approximately 30 dunams (40.5 acres) during the reign of Antiochus III (223–187 BCE).[3] It is assumed that the town was founded for ritual and religious purposes and functioned as a temple city inhabited by priests.[42] Discoveries from this site include parts of a city wall (found only to the site's south), as well as towers, large residential buildings, service structures, courtyards, oil presses, storage jars, and a variety of lamps.[3]

Inscriptions

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Approximately 400 fragmentary inscriptions, the majority of which were not found in situ, were uncovered at the Mount Gerizim site.[43] These inscriptions are written in various scripts, including paleo-Hebrew, lapidary Aramaic, cursive Aramaic, and Samaritan.[43] The Samaritan inscriptions, from late antiquity and the Middle Ages, were created centuries after the temple’s destruction.[43] The majority of the inscriptions, however, date to the Hellenistic period (3rd–2nd centuries BCE) and are primarily votive or dedicatory in nature.[43] Several inscriptions (nos. 382–85, 387) were carefully carved in Hebrew, using paleo-Hebrew script, and likely served as public displays.[43]

Inscriptions reference priestly titles in both singular (כהן‎, כהנא‎) and plural (כהנים‎, כהניא‎) forms, with one example mentioning "Pinhas the Priest" and "their brothers the priests."[22] Many inscriptions contain formulaic phrases such as "before the God in this place," "before (the) God," or "before the Lord," which are typically associated with temple contexts.[22] One votive inscription in Hebrew reads: "that which Joseph offered for his wife and his sons before the Lord in the temple."[22] Another inscription, written in Aramaic, states: "This is [the stone] that Delayah, son of Shimon, dedicated for himself and his children, [this] ston[e for] good remembrance before God in this place."[18] One inscription refers to a "house of sacrifice," echoing terminology used for the Jerusalem Temple in the Books of Chronicles (2 Chronicles 7:12).[22] An inscription written in Paleo-Hebrew script features the Tetragrammaton, seemingly included in the phrase "[the house of] Yhwh",[44] However, this usage is quite rare; the more commonly used divine names in the inscriptions are "God" (אלהא‎) and "the Lord" (אדני‎).[44]

The analysis of the names found on the inscriptions highlights the prevalence of common Yahwistic names, featuring the divine element 'Yah' or 'Yahu,' such as Hananiah (חנניה‎) and Shemaiah (שמעיה‎).[45] It also reveals the presence of archaizing names that evoke figures from ancient Israel, like Jacob (יעקב‎), Ephraim (אפרים‎), Joseph (יוסף‎), and Miriam (מרים‎).[45] Levitical names featured include Levi (לוי‎), Amram (עמרם‎), and Pinehas (פנחס‎).[46] Additionally, there is a frequency of other common Hebrew names, such as Elnatan (אלנתן‎) and Hagai (חגי‎), which reflect typical naming conventions of the period.[45]

Bell

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Among the findings at the site is a small gold bell with a silver clapper. Magen proposed that it was part of the high priest's ephod, as mentioned in the Book of Exodus (28:33–35).[22]

In Jewish and Christian writings

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An indirect reference to the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim appears in some Jewish sources. Megillat Ta'anit, a text from the first century CE, mentions that the 21st of Kislev is the "Day of Mount Gerizim." According to the Talmudic-era scholium, a commentary on the scroll, at this day, Alexander the Great gave Jews permission to plow and plant Mount Gerizim as punishment for the Samaritans' plot to destroy the Temple in Jerusalem.[47] A similar account appears in bYoma 69a, where the "Day of Mount Gerizim" is observed on the 21st of Tevet.[47] According to Ori Amitay, this story likely refers to the destruction of the Gerizim precinct by Hyrcanus.[48]

Procopius of Gaza (circa 475–538), likely drawing on written sources, wrote in his Commentary on Deuteronomy 11:29 that the Samaritans constructed a temple (ναόν) on Mount Gerizim where they engaged in prayer.[47] In contrast, Procopius of Caesarea asserted in the 6th century that the Samaritans never had a temple at the summit of Mount Gerizim. This statement, according to Pummer, may stem from either his lack of knowledge about its historical existence, or a deliberate attempt to undermine the Samaritan tradition.[47]

Legacy

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Samaritans performing the Passover sacrifice on Mount Gerizim, 2013

For Samaritans, the biblical Tabernacle is the sole legitimate sanctuary, and they assert that no lawful temple ever existed on Mount Gerizim or elsewhere.[2] Unlike Judaism, which emphasizes the centrality of the Jerusalem Temple in historical, liturgical, and theological texts, Samaritan writings largely omit the Samaritan Temple.[10] Instead, Samaritans view the archaeological findings on Mount Gerizim as remnants of administrative structures,[49] or of a "sacrificial compound".[50] They anticipate that the eschatological figure of the Taheb, the returner/restorer, will restore the Tabernacle rather than a temple.[49]

During the late Roman and early Byzantine periods, however, the memory of a temple may have endured among Samaritans, along with a hope for its eventual restoration.[51] This idea is supported by floor mosaics found in Samaritan synagogues, such as Khirbet Samara and el-Khirbe, which some scholars believe depict temple façades.[52] However, these mosaics could also reflect adaptations from Jewish synagogue art or illustrate the Torah shrine within the synagogue. Other interpretations propose that the images might represent the Tabernacle, consistent with later Samaritan artistic traditions that emphasize the Tabernacle.[53]

Medieval Samaritan chronicler Abū l-Fatḥ, in his Kitāb al-Tarīkh, references an altar and temple allegedly constructed by the high priest 'Abdāl during the reign of King Sūrdī, possibly Darius I. He notes that the Jews later "demolished the altar and the temple which 'Abdāl the high priest had built." This account may indicate a fading memory of the temple. However, the oldest extant Samaritan chronicle, the Tūlīda, claims that 'Abdāl constructed only an altar. Contemporary Samaritans assert that 'Abdāl's temple lacked divine approval and thus holds no religious significance.[10]

According to Richard Pummer, the memory of the Gerizim temple may have been suppressed within Samaritan tradition due to the traumatic consequences of its destruction by their Jewish brethren, prompting the community to focus more on the remembrance of the Tabernacle.[54] This erasure of memory was likely further exacerbated by the destruction and neglect of synagogues, including artworks depicting the temple, during periods of Byzantine persecution.[54]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Pummer 2022, pp. 31–32.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Pummer 2022, p. 31.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Knoppers 2013, p. 123.
  4. ^ a b c Magen 2007, p. 158.
  5. ^ a b Magen 2007, p. 157.
  6. ^ a b c d e f Knoppers 2013, pp. 124–125.
  7. ^ a b Magen 2007, pp. 162, 164.
  8. ^ Magen 2007, pp. 167–168.
  9. ^ Magen 2007, pp. 158, 164.
  10. ^ a b c Pummer 2024, p. 23.
  11. ^ Pummer 2022, p. 39.
  12. ^ a b c d e Magen 2007, p. 160.
  13. ^ a b Knoppers 2013, p. 11.
  14. ^ Antiquities of the Jews, 11.321–325
  15. ^ a b c d e Magen 2007, p. 182.
  16. ^ a b Magen 2007, pp. 158–160.
  17. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 13.74–79
  18. ^ a b c d e f Angel 2022, p. 57.
  19. ^ a b c Knoppers 2013, p. 176.
  20. ^ 2 Maccabees 5:22–23
  21. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 12.257, 261
  22. ^ a b c d e f Magen 2007, pp. 166–168.
  23. ^ Originally ἱερὸν Ἀργαριζεῖν (Knoppers 2013, p. 171)
  24. ^ a b c d Schorch 2022, p. 41.
  25. ^ Josephus, The Jewish War, 1.62–63
  26. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 13.254–256
  27. ^ Bourgel 2016, p. 517, 522.
  28. ^ Bourgel 2016, pp. 517–518.
  29. ^ a b Bourgel 2016, p. 522.
  30. ^ Schwartz 2001, p. 37.
  31. ^ Knoppers 2013, p. 214.
  32. ^ a b c Knoppers 2013, p. 213.
  33. ^ Original text: בעשרים ואחד ביה יום הר גריזים
  34. ^ Magen 2007, pp. 161, 164, 180.
  35. ^ a b Magen 2007, p. 161.
  36. ^ Magen 2007, p. 166.
  37. ^ Magen 2007, pp. 180–182.
  38. ^ Magen 2007, pp. 180–181.
  39. ^ Magen 2007, p. 164.
  40. ^ Magen 2007, pp. 164–165.
  41. ^ a b Magen 2007, pp. 165–166.
  42. ^ a b Magen 2007, pp. 168–169.
  43. ^ a b c d e Knoppers 2013, pp. 125–126.
  44. ^ a b Knoppers 2013, p. 128.
  45. ^ a b c Knoppers 2013, pp. 126–127.
  46. ^ Knoppers 2013, pp. 128–129.
  47. ^ a b c d Pummer 2024, p. 25.
  48. ^ Amitay 2007, p. 239.
  49. ^ a b Pummer 2024, p. 24.
  50. ^ Pummer 2022, p. 32.
  51. ^ Pummer 2024, pp. 26, 32.
  52. ^ Pummer 2024, pp. 26–28.
  53. ^ Pummer 2024, p. 36.
  54. ^ a b Pummer 2024, p. 34.

Bibliography

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  • Angel, Joseph L. (2022). "'Kinsmen" or an "Alien Race?': Jews and Samaritans from the Hasmoneans to the Mishnah". In Fine, Steven (ed.). The Samaritans: A Biblical People. Brill. pp. 53–60. ISBN 978-900446690-6.
  • Amitay, Ory (2007). "Shim'on ha-Ṣadiq in his Historical Context". Journal of Jewish Studies (58): 236–249.
  • Bourgel, Jonathan (2016). "The Destruction of the Samaritan Temple by John Hyrcanus: A Reconsideration". Journal of Biblical Literature. 135 (3). The Society of Biblical Literature: 505–523.
  • Fine, Steven (2022). "'The Consolation of Souls, the Assurer of Hearts, and the Certainty of Truth': The Abisha Scroll". In Fine, Steven (ed.). The Samaritans: A Biblical People. Brill. pp. 15–30. ISBN 978-900446690-6.
  • Knoppers, Gary N. (2013). Jews and Samaritans: The Origins and History of Their Early Relations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-019532954-4.
  • Magen, Yitzhak (2007). "The Dating of the First Phase of the Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim in Light of the Archaeological Evidence". In Lipschits, Oded; Knoppers, Gary N.; Albertz, Rainer (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. Penn State University Press. pp. 157–212. ISBN 978-157506580-9.
  • Pummer, Reinhard (2022). "The Samaritan Tabernacle: From Sinai to the Mountain of Blessings". In Fine, Steven (ed.). The Samaritans: A Biblical People. Brill. pp. 31–40. ISBN 978-900446690-6.
  • Pummer, Reinhard (2024). "Samaritan Synagogue Mosaics and the Mt. Gerizim Temple". In Zsengellér, József (ed.). Samaritans Through the Ages: Studies on Samaritan History, Texts, Interpretation, Linguistics and Manuscripts. Studia Samaritana. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-311143573-2.
  • Schorch, Stefan (2022). "'Woe to Those Who Exchanged the Truth for a Lie, When They Choose for Themselves a Different Place': Samaritan Perspectives on the Samaritan–Jewish Split". In Fine, Steven (ed.). The Samaritans: A Biblical People. Brill. pp. 41–52. ISBN 978-900446690-6.
  • Schwartz, Seth (2001). Imperialism and Jewish Society, 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Jews, Christians, and Muslims from the Ancient to the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-019532954-4.
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