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[[File:Image-Zigong Salt.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Brine]] being boiled down to produce salt at the Xinhai Well in [[Zigong]], [[People's Republic of China]]]] |
[[File:Image-Zigong Salt.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Brine]] being boiled down to produce salt at the Xinhai Well in [[Zigong]], [[People's Republic of China]]]] |
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[[File:Table Salt (NaCl) Crystal.jpg|thumb|Table salt (NaCl) crystal]] |
[[File:Table Salt (NaCl) Crystal.jpg|thumb|Table salt (NaCl) crystal]] |
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salt is made by water and then it adds on to a rock |
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'''Salt''', also known as '''table salt''', or '''[[rock salt]]''', is a [[mineral]] that is composed primarily of [[sodium chloride]]. It is essential for [[animal]] life in small quantities, but is harmful to animals and plants in excess. Salt is one of the oldest, most ubiquitous food seasonings and [[Salting (food)|salting]] is an important method of [[food preservation]]. The [[taste]] of salt (saltiness) is one of the [[taste#Basic_tastes|basic human taste]]s. |
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Salt for human consumption is produced in different forms: unrefined salt (such as [[sea salt]]), refined salt (table salt), and [[iodised salt|iodized salt]]. It is a crystalline solid, white, pale pink or light gray in color, normally obtained from [[sea water]] or rock deposits. Edible rock salts may be slightly grayish in color because of mineral content. |
Salt for human consumption is produced in different forms: unrefined salt (such as [[sea salt]]), refined salt (table salt), and [[iodised salt|iodized salt]]. It is a crystalline solid, white, pale pink or light gray in color, normally obtained from [[sea water]] or rock deposits. Edible rock salts may be slightly grayish in color because of mineral content. |
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Revision as of 19:50, 24 January 2011
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Image-Zigong_Salt.jpg/300px-Image-Zigong_Salt.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Table_Salt_%28NaCl%29_Crystal.jpg/220px-Table_Salt_%28NaCl%29_Crystal.jpg)
salt is made by water and then it adds on to a rock Salt for human consumption is produced in different forms: unrefined salt (such as sea salt), refined salt (table salt), and iodized salt. It is a crystalline solid, white, pale pink or light gray in color, normally obtained from sea water or rock deposits. Edible rock salts may be slightly grayish in color because of mineral content.
Chloride and sodium ions, the two major components of salt, are needed by all known living creatures in small quantities. Salt is involved in regulating the water content (fluid balance) of the body. However, too much salt increases the risk of health problems, including high blood pressure. Therefore health authorities have recommended limitations of dietary sodium.[1][2][3][4][5]
History
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Salzproduktion-Halle.jpg/220px-Salzproduktion-Halle.jpg)
While people have used canning and artificial refrigeration to preserve food for the last hundred years or so, salt has been the best-known food preservative, especially for meat, for many thousands of years.[6] A very ancient saltworks operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a salt spring in Lunca, Neamţ County, Romania. Evidence indicates that Neolithic people of the Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage to extract the salt as far back as 6050 BC.[7] The salt extracted from this operation may have had a direct correlation to the rapid growth of this society's population soon after its initial production began.[8] The harvest of salt from the surface of Xiechi Lake near Yuncheng in Shanxi, China dates back to at least 6000 BC, making it one of the oldest verifiable saltworks.[9]: 18–19
Salt was included among funereal offerings found in ancient Egyptian tombs from the third millennium BC, as were salted birds and salt fish.[9]: 38 From about 2800 BC, the Egyptians began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in return for Lebanon cedar, glass, and the dye Tyrian purple; the Phoenicians traded Egyptian salt fish and salt from North Africa throughout their Mediterranean trade empire.[9]: 44
Along the Sahara, the Tuareg maintain routes especially for the transport of salt by Azalai (salt caravans). In 1960, the caravans still transported some 15,000 tons of salt, but this trade has now declined to roughly a third of this figure.[10]
Salzburg, Hallstatt, and Hallein lie on the river Salzach in central Austria, within a radius of no more than 17 kilometres. Salzach literally means "salt water" and Salzburg "salt city", both taking their names from the German word for salt, [Salz] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help).
Hallstatt gave its name to the Celtic archaeological culture that began mining for salt in the area in around 800 BC. Around 400 BC, the Hallstatt Celts, who had heretofore mined for salt, began open pan salt making. During the first millennium BC, Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and salted meat to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in exchange for wine and other luxuries.[6]
It is widely, though incorrectly,[11] believed that troops in the Roman army were paid in salt.[12] Even widely respected historical works repeat this error.[9]: 63 The word salad literally means "salted," and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting leaf vegetables.[9]: 64
Mahatma Gandhi led at least 100,000 people on the "Dandi March" or "Salt Satyagraha", in which protesters made their own salt from the sea, which was illegal under British rule, as it avoided paying the "salt tax". This civil disobedience inspired millions of common people, and elevated the Indian independence movement from an elitist struggle to a national struggle.
Forms of salt
Unrefined salt
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Seasalt.jpg/220px-Seasalt.jpg)
Different natural salts have different mineralities, giving each one a unique flavor. Fleur de sel, natural sea salt harvested by hand, has a unique flavor varying from region to region. In traditional Korean cuisine, so-called "bamboo salt" is prepared by roasting salt [13] in a bamboo container plugged with mud at both ends. This product absorbs minerals from the bamboo and the mud, and has been shown to increase the anticlastogenic and antimutagenic properties of doenjang.[14]
Completely raw sea salt is bitter because of magnesium and calcium compounds, and thus is rarely eaten. The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases.[15]
Unrefined sea salts are also commonly used as ingredients in bathing additives and cosmetic products. One example is bath salts, which uses sea salt as its main ingredient and combined with other ingredients used for its healing and therapeutic effects.
Refined salt
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Piles_of_Salt_Salar_de_Uyuni_Bolivia_Luca_Galuzzi_2006_a.jpg/220px-Piles_of_Salt_Salar_de_Uyuni_Bolivia_Luca_Galuzzi_2006_a.jpg)
Refined salt, which is most widely used presently, is mainly sodium chloride. Food grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in industrialised countries (3% in Europe[16]) although worldwide, food uses account for 17.5% of salt production.[17] The majority is sold for industrial use. Salt has great commercial value because it is a necessary ingredient in many manufacturing processes. A few common examples include: the production of pulp and paper, setting dyes in textiles and fabrics, and the making of soaps and detergents.
The manufacture and use of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries.[18] Salt can be obtained by evaporation of sea water, usually in shallow basins warmed by sunlight;[19] salt so obtained was formerly called bay salt, and is now often called sea salt or solar salt. Rock salt deposits are formed by the evaporation of ancient salt lakes,[20] and may be mined conventionally or through the injection of water. Injected water dissolves the salt, and the brine solution can be pumped to the surface where the salt is collected.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Salt_crystals_in_death_valley.jpg/220px-Salt_crystals_in_death_valley.jpg)
After the raw salt is obtained, it is refined to purify it and improve its storage and handling characteristics. Purification usually involves recrystallization. In recrystallization, a brine solution is treated with chemicals that precipitate most impurities (largely magnesium and calcium salts).[21] Multiple stages of evaporation are then used to collect pure sodium chloride crystals, which are kiln-dried.
Since the 1950s, it has been common practice in the United Kingdom to add a trace amount of sodium ferrocyanide to the brine; this acts as an anticaking agent by promoting irregular crystals.[22] The safety of sodium ferrocyanide as a food additive was confirmed in the United Kingdom in 1993.[23] Some anticaking agents used are tricalcium phosphate, calcium or magnesium carbonates, fatty acid salts (acid salts), magnesium oxide, silicon dioxide, calcium silicate, sodium aluminosilicate, and calcium aluminosilicate. Both the European Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) permitted the use of aluminum in the latter two compounds.[24] The refined salt is then ready for packing and distribution.
Table salt
In Western cuisines, salt is used in cooking, and also made available to diners in salt shakers on the table.
Table salt is refined salt, which contains about 97% to 99% sodium chloride.[25][26][27] It usually contains substances that make it free-flowing (anticaking agents) such as sodium silicoaluminate or magnesium carbonate. Some people also add a desiccant, such as a few grains of uncooked rice,[28] in salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up clumps when anticaking agents are not enough. Table salt has a particle density of 2.165 g/cm3, and a bulk density (dry, ASTM D 632 gradation) of about 1.154 g/cm3.[29]
Salty condiments
In many East Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a condiment.[30] However, condiments such as soy sauce, fish sauce and oyster sauce tend to have a high sodium content and fill much the same role as a salt-providing table condiment that table salt serves in western cultures.
Health effects
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Salt1.jpg/220px-Salt1.jpg)
Sodium is one of the primary electrolytes in the body. All four cationic electrolytes (sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium) are available in unrefined salt, as are other vital minerals needed for optimal bodily function. Too much or too little salt in the diet can lead to muscle cramps, dizziness, or electrolyte disturbance, which can cause neurological problems, or death.[31] Drinking too much water, with insufficient salt intake, puts a person at risk of water intoxication (hyponatremia). Salt is sometimes used as a health aid, such as in treatment of dysautonomia.[32]
Excess salt consumption is linked with a number of conditions including[33]:
- Stroke and cardiovascular disease.[34]
- Hypertension (high blood pressure): "Since 1994, the evidence of an association between dietary salt intakes and blood pressure has increased. The data have been consistent in various study populations and across the age range in adults."[35] A large scale study from 2007 has shown that people with high-normal blood pressure who significantly reduced the amount of salt in their diet decreased their chances of developing cardiovascular disease by 25% over the following 10 to 15 years. Their risk of dying from cardiovascular disease decreased by 20%.[36]
- Left ventricular hypertrophy (cardiac enlargement): "Evidence suggests that high salt intake causes left ventricular hypertrophy, a strong risk factor for cardiovascular disease, independently of blood pressure effects."[35] "...there is accumulating evidence that high salt intake predicts left ventricular hypertrophy."[37] Excessive salt (sodium) intake, combined with an inadequate intake of water, can cause hypernatremia. It can exacerbate renal disease.[31]
- Edema (BE: oedema): A decrease in salt intake has been suggested to treat edema (fluid retention).[31][38]
- Duodenal ulcers and gastric ulcers[39]
- Heartburn.[40]
- Osteoporosis: One report shows that a high salt diet does reduce bone density in women.[41] Yet "While high salt intakes have been associated with detrimental effects on bone health, there are insufficient data to draw firm conclusions."[35]
- Gastric cancer (stomach cancer) is associated with high levels of sodium, "but the evidence does not generally relate to foods typically consumed in the UK."[42] However, in Japan, salt consumption is higher.[43]
- Death: Ingestion of large amounts of salt in a short time (about 1 g per kg of body weight)[44] can be fatal. Deaths have also resulted from attempted use of salt solutions as emetics, forced salt intake, and accidental confusion of salt with sugar in child food.[45]
The Cochrane Collaboration found that "a modest and long term reduction in population salt intake [...] would result in a lower population blood pressure, and a reduction in strokes, heart attacks and heart failure. Furthermore, our study is consistent with the fact that the lower the salt intake, the lower the blood pressure."[46] However, salt consumption is not linked to asthma.[47]
The risk for disease due to insufficient or excessive salt intake varies because of biochemical individuality. Some have asserted that while the risks of consuming too much salt are real, the risks have been exaggerated for most people, or that the studies done on the consumption of salt can be interpreted in many different ways.[48][49]
Some isolated cultures, such as the Yanomami in South America, have been found to consume little salt, possibly an adaptation originated in the predominantly vegetarian diet of human primate ancestors.[50] However, the low salt diets of the Yanomamo Indians does not result in their low blood pressure, this has been attributed to their lack of a D/D genotype.[51][52]
Recommended intake
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Spice_4_bg_010104.jpg/220px-Spice_4_bg_010104.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Saltmill.jpg/220px-Saltmill.jpg)
In the United Kingdom the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) recommended in 2003 that, for a typical adult, the Reference Nutrient Intake (RNI) is 4 g salt per day (1.6 g or 70 mmol sodium). However, average adult intake is two and a half times the Reference Nutrient Intake for sodium. SACN states, "The target salt intakes set for adults and children do not represent ideal or optimum consumption levels, but achievable population goals."[53] The Food Safety Authority of Ireland endorses the UK targets.[37]
Health Canada recommends an Adequate Intake (AI) and an Upper Limit (UL) in terms of sodium,[54] as does The Auckland District Health Board in New Zealand.[55] Health Canada recommends an AI of 1200–1500 mg and an UL of 2200–2300 mg per day for persons aged 9 years or more.
The NHMRC in Australia was not able to define a recommended dietary intake (RDI). It defines an Adequate Intake (AI) for adults of 460–920 mg/day and an Upper Level of intake (UL) of 2300 mg/day.[56]
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration itself does not make a recommendation,[57] but refers readers to Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005. These suggest that US citizens should consume less than 2,300 mg of sodium (= 2.3 g sodium = 5.8 g salt) per day.[58]
Meta-analysis in 2009 found that the sodium consumption of 19,151 individuals from 33 countries fit into the narrow range of 2,700 to 4,900 mg/day. The small range across many cultures, together with animal studies, suggest that sodium intake is tightly controlled by feedback loops in the body, making recommendations to reduce sodium consumption below 2,700 mg/day potentially futile.[59]
Labeling
UK: The Food Standards Agency defines the level of salt in foods as follows: "High is more than 1.5 g salt per 100 g (or 0.6 g sodium). Low is 0.3 g salt or less per 100 g (or 0.1 g sodium). If the amount of salt per 100 g is in between these figures, then that is a medium level of salt." In the UK, foods produced by some supermarkets and manufacturers have ‘traffic light’ colors on the front of the pack: Red (High), Amber (Medium), or Green (Low).[60]
USA: The FDA Food Labeling Guide stipulates whether a food can be labelled as "free", "low", or "reduced/less" in respect of sodium. When other health claims are made about a food (e.g. low in fat, calories, etc.), a disclosure statement is required if the food exceeds 480 mg of sodium per 'serving.'[61]
Normal salt itself contains 40 g of sodium per 100 g of salt.
Campaigns
In 2004, Britain's Food Standards Agency started a public health campaign called "Salt – Watch it", which recommends no more than 6g of salt per day; it features a character called Sid the Slug and was criticised by the Salt Manufacturers Association (SMA).[62] The Advertising Standards Authority did not uphold the SMA complaint in its adjudication.[63] In March 2007, the FSA launched the third phase of their campaign with the slogan "Salt. Is your food full of it?" fronted by comedienne Jenny Eclair.[64]
The University of Tasmania's Menzies Research Institute maintains a website[65] to educate people about the problems of a salt-laden diet.
Consensus Action on Salt and Health (CASH)[66] established in 1996, actively campaigns to raise awareness of the harmful health effects of salt. The 2008 focus includes raising awareness of high levels of salt hidden in sweet foods and marketed towards children.[67]
Taxation of sodium has been proposed as a method of decreasing sodium intake and thereby improving health in countries like the United States where typical salt consumption is high.[68][69]
The Salt Institute, a salt industry body, is active in promoting the use of salt,[70] and questioning or opposing restrictions on salt intake.[71]
Additives
Iodized salt (BrE: iodised salt) is table salt mixed with a minute amount of potassium iodide, sodium iodide, or sodium iodate. Iodized salt is used to help reduce the incidence of iodine deficiency in humans. Iodine deficiency commonly leads to thyroid gland problems, specifically endemic goiter, a disease characterized by a swelling of the thyroid gland, usually resulting in a bulbous protrusion on the neck. While only tiny quantities of iodine are required in the diet to prevent goiter, the United States Food and Drug Administration recommends [21 CFR 101.9 (c)(8)(iv)] 150 micrograms of iodine per day for both men and women. Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in countries where it is used.[72] Iodine is important to prevent the insufficient production of thyroid hormones (hypothyroidism), which can cause goitre, cretinism in children, and myxedema in adults.
Table salt is mainly employed in cooking and as a table condiment. The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies from country to country. In the United States, iodized salt contains 46–77 ppm (parts per million), while in the UK the iodine content of iodized salt is recommended to be 10–22 ppm.[73] Today, iodized salt is more common in the United States, Australia and New Zealand than in the United Kingdom.
In some European countries, where water fluoridation is not practiced, fluoridated table salt is available. In France, 35% of sold table salt contains either sodium fluoride or potassium fluoride.[citation needed] Another additive, especially important for pregnant women, is folic acid (vitamin B9), which gives the table salt a yellow color.
In Canada, at least one brand (Windsor Salt) contains inverted sugar syrup.[citation needed]
Sodium ferrocyanide, also known as yellow prussiate of soda, is sometimes added to salt as an anticaking agent. The additive is considered safe for human consumption.[23][74]
Salt substitutes
Salt intake can be reduced by simply reducing the quantity of salty foods in a diet, without recourse to salt substitutes. Salt substitutes have a taste similar to table salt and contain mostly potassium chloride, which will increase potassium intake. Excess potassium intake can cause hyperkalemia. Various diseases and medications may decrease the body's excretion of potassium, thereby increasing the risk of hyperkalemia. Those who have kidney failure, heart failure or diabetes should seek medical advice before using a salt substitute. One manufacturer, LoSalt, has issued an advisory statement[75] that those taking the following prescription drugs should not use a salt substitute: amiloride, triamterene, Dytac, spironolactone (Aldactone), and eplerenone (Inspra).
Low salt diets
Diets low in salt are mainly low sodium diets, that is, diets that specifically aim to lower intake of sodium, potentially including salt substitutes replacing sodium with other components.
Production
Salt is produced by evaporation of seawater or brine from other sources, such as brine wells and salt lakes, and by mining rock salt, called halite.
In 2002, total world production (of sodium chloride in general, not just table salt) was estimated at 210 million tonnes, the top five producers being the United States (40.3 million tonnes), China (32.9), Germany (17.7), India (14.5), and Canada (12.3).[76]
Non-dietary aspects
Apart from its role as the major form of table salt in the diet, sodium chloride is responsible for the salinity of the ocean, and plays a role in formation of clouds.
Usage in religion
In the Hebrew Bible, thirty-five verses mention salt,[77] one of which being the story of Lot's wife, who was turned into a pillar of salt when she looked back at the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19:26) as the Lord destroyed them. When King Abimelech destroyed the city of Shechem, he is said to have "sown salt on it," probably as a curse on anyone who would re-inhabit it. (Judges 9:45) The Book of Job contains the first mention of salt in all literature. "Can that which is unsavory be eaten without salt? or is there any taste in the white of an egg?" (Job 6:6)
In the Christian New Testament, six verses mention salt. In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus referred to his followers as the "salt of the earth". The apostle Paul also encouraged Christians to "let your conversation be always full of grace, seasoned with salt" (Colossians 4:6).
In one of the Hadith recorded in Sunan Ibn Majah, Prophet Muhammad is reported to have said that: "Salt is the master of your food. God sent down four blessings from the sky – fire, water, iron and salt"
Salt is mandatory in the rite of the Tridentine Mass.[78] Salt is used in the third item (which includes an Exorcism) of the Celtic Consecration (cf. Gallican Rite) that is employed in the consecration of a church. Salt may be added to the water "where it is customary" in the Roman Catholic rite of Holy water.
Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hindu mythology, and is used in particular religious ceremonies like housewarmings and weddings.
In Judaism, it is recommended to have either a salty bread or to add salt to the bread if this bread is unsalted when doing Kiddush for Shabbat. It is customary to spread some salt over the bread or to dip the bread in a little salt when passing the bread around the table after the Kiddush.[79] To preserve the covenant between their people and God, Jews dip the Sabbath bread in salt.[80]
In Wicca, salt is symbolic of the element Earth. It is also believed to clense an area of harmful or negative energies.
In the native Japanese religion Shinto, salt is used for ritual purification of locations and people, such as in sumo wrestling.
In Aztec mythology, Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water.
The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water. Some think this to be the origin of Holy Water in the Christian faith.[80]
See also
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Salt_ship_loading.jpg/400px-Salt_ship_loading.jpg)
- Alberger process
- Black salt
- Curing (food preservation)
- Health Canada Sodium Working Group
- International Salt Co. v. United States
- Kosher salt
- Salt equivalent
- Salt Road
- Smoked salt
References
- ^ "American Heart Association 2010 Dietary Guidelines" (PDF). 2010 Dietary Guidelines. American Heart Association. 23 January 2009. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
- ^ "Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand – Sodium". Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand. Australian Government National Health and Medical Research Council/ New Zealand Ministry of Health. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
- ^ "Dietary Guidelines focus on sodium intake, sugary drinks, dairy alternatives". Food Navigator-usa.com. Decision News Media. 27 April 2010. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
- ^ "Sodium Chloride". Eat Well, Be Well. UK Government Food Standards Agency. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
- ^ "Health Canada, Healthy Living, Sodium". Healthy Living. Health Canada. 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
- ^ a b Barber 1999:136
- ^ Olivier Weller & Gheorghe Dumitroaia The earliest salt production in the world: an early Neolithic exploitation in Poiana Slatinei-Lunca, Romania Antiquity, Vol 79 No 306 December 2005
- ^ Template:Fr icon Arhives-ouvertes.fr ArchæDyn – Dijon, 23–25 june 2008 Dynamics settlement pattern, production and trades from Neolithic to Middle Ages
- ^ a b c d e Kurlansky 2002
- ^ Onbekende Wereld by Wim Offeciers (based on Douchan Gersi's travels)
- ^ "The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition". Answers.com. Retrieved 14 December 2008.
- ^ For instance, in the animated short Scrooge McDuck and Money
- ^ James V. Livingston (2005). Agriculture and soil pollution: new research. Nova Publishers. p. 45. ISBN 1594543100.
- ^ Shahidi, Fereidoon; John Shi; Ho, Chi-Tang (2005). Asian functional foods. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 575. ISBN 0-8247-5855-2.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "References on food salt & health issues". Salt Institute. 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ European Salt Producers' Association
- ^ Roskill Information Services
- ^ Salt made the world go round
- ^ Nauticus – Weather Curriculum
- ^ UK Salt Manufacturers' Association
- ^ The Salt Manufacturers Association: saltsense, salt history, salt manufacture, salt uses, sodium. Key information on salt from the Salt Industry
- ^ The Salt Manufacturers Association: saltsense, salt history, salt manufacture, salt uses, sodium. Key information on salt from the Salt Industry
- ^ a b Discussions of the safety of sodium hexaferrocyanate in table salt
- ^ HE-620
- ^ "Tesco Table Salt 750g". Tesco. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
Nutritional analysis provided with Tesco Table Salt states 38.9% sodium by weight which equals 97.3% sodium chloride
- ^ Table
- ^ The international Codex Alimentarius Standard for Food Grade Salt
- ^ "Rice in Salt Shakers". Ask a Scientist. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
- ^ "Physical properties". Salt Institute. 2010. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ The Seattle Times: Pacific Northwest Magazine
- ^ a b c Salt Australia: Better Health Channel (Australia, Victoria)
- ^ Cleveland Clinic Health Information Center Dysautonomia page
- ^ Salt, BBC News
- ^ Strazzullo P, D'Elia L, Kandala NB, Cappuccio FP (2009). "Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of prospective studies". BMJ. 339: b4567. doi:10.1136/bmj.b4567. PMC 2782060. PMID 19934192.
{{cite journal}}
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(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health, page 3
- ^ Cook, NR; Cutler, JA; Obarzanek, E; Buring, JE; Rexrode, KM; Kumanyika, SK; Appel, LJ; Whelton, PK (2007). "Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension prevention (TOHP)" (Free full-text). BMJ (Clinical research ed.). 334 (7599). British Medical Journal: 885–8. doi:10.1136/bmj.39147.604896.55. PMC 1857760. PMID 17449506.
{{cite journal}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - ^ a b Food Safety Authority of Ireland Salt and Health: Review of the Scientific Evidence and Recommendations for Public Policy in Ireland, p. 12
- ^ Australia: Better Health Channel (Australia, Victoria) Fluid retention
- ^ High-salt diet link to ulcer risk, BBC, 22 May 2007
- ^ Everybody Study adds salt to suspected triggers for heartburn
- ^ High salt diet reduces bone density in girls
- ^ Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health, page 18
- ^ Salt raises 'stomach cancer risk', BBC News, 7 January 2004
- ^ Safety data for sodium chloride – The Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory of Oxford University
- ^ Turk, E; Schulz, F; Koops, E; Gehl, A; Tsokos, M (2005). "Fatal hypernatremia after using salt as an emetic?report of three autopsy cases". Legal Medicine. 7 (1): 47. doi:10.1016/j.legalmed.2004.06.005. PMID 15556015.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ "Effect of longer-term modest salt reduction on blood pressure". The Cochrane Collaboration Cochrane Reviews. The Cochrane Collaboration. 9 May 2005. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
{{cite web}}
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ignored (help) - ^ "Low-sodium advice for asthmatics should be taken with a pinch of salt". The University of Nottingham. 15 July 2008. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
- ^ Why Files article Salt and other wounds
- ^ Gary Taubes (1998). "The (Political) Science of Salt". Science. 281: 898–907. doi:10.1126/science.281.5379.898.
- ^ Jairo de Jesus Mancilha-Carvalho, Nelson Albuquerque de Souza e Silva (2003). "Yanomami Indians in the Intersald study" (PDF). Arq Bras Cardiol. 80 (3): 295–300.
- ^ Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Gene (ACE) Insertion/Deletion Polymorphism in Mexican Populations
- ^ Mitchell, BD; Stern, MP; Haffner, SM; Hazuda, HP; Patterson, JK (1990). "Risk factors for cardiovascular mortality in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites. San Antonio Heart Study". American journal of epidemiology. 131 (3): 423–33. PMID 2301352.
- ^ Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health
- ^ Health Canada Dietary Reference Intakes
- ^ Auckland District Health Board Public Health Nutrition Advice (PDF)
- ^ NHMRC Reference Nutrient Values, Sodium
- ^ U. S. Food and Drug Administration A Pinch of Controversy Shakes Up Dietary Salt
- ^ Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Department of Agriculture (USDA) Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 "Sodium and Potassium"
- ^ McCarron, D. A.; Geerling, J. C.; Kazaks, A. G.; Stern, J. S. (2009). "Can Dietary Sodium Intake Be Modified by Public Policy?". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 4 (11): 1878. doi:10.2215/CJN.04660709. PMID 19833911.
{{cite journal}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - ^ Understanding labels
- ^ Food and Drug Administration A Food Labeling Guide—Appendix A
- ^ Salt Manufacturers Association press release New salt campaign under attack
- ^ Advertising Standards Authority Broadcast Advertising Adjudications: 20 April 2005 (PDF)
- ^ Salt TV ads
- ^ Dr Trevor Beard (26 March 2009). Salt Matters "Salt Matters". University of Tasmania. Retrieved 17 May 2010.
{{cite web}}
: Check|url=
value (help) - ^ "CASH Consensus Action on Salt".
- ^ Smithers, Rebecca (28 January 2008). "Child health fears over high salt levels in sweet foods". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
- ^ "Letter: Salt tax could reduce population's salt intake". 1 April 2010.
- ^ "Salt tax could massively reduce US mortality rates, healthcare costs". 1 April 2010.
- ^ "About the Salt Institute". Salt Institute. 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ "Food salt & health". Salt Institute. 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ "Iodized salt". Salt Institute. 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ "Discussion Paper on the setting of maximum and minimum amounts for vitamins and minerals in foodstuffs" (PDF). Directorate-General Health & Consumers. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ Ferrocyanides in salt for feed use is acceptable as regards safety for target animals and human consumer...
- ^ LoSalt Advisory Statement (PDF)
- ^ Feldman, Susan R. (2005). Sodium Chloride in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/0471238961.1915040902051820.a01.pub2.
- ^ Strong's Concordance
- ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. .
- ^ Chabad.org
- ^ a b "10+1 Things you may not know about Salt". Epikouria. Fall/Winter (3). 2006.
Bibliography
- Barber, Elizabeth Wayland (1999). The Mummies of Ürümchi. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0393320197. OCLC 48426519.
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(help) - Kurlansky, Mark (2002). Salt: A World History. New York: Walker & Co. ISBN 0802713734. OCLC 48573453.
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Further reading
- Alden, Lori (2005). "Salt". The Cook's Thesaurus.
- Cowen, Richard (May 1999). "The Importance of Salt". Department of Geology. UC Davis.
- Zacharias, Patricia (23 January 2000). "The ghostly salt city beneath Detroit". The Detroit News.
External links