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{{RomanMilitary}}
The '''Roman navy''' ({{lang-la|Classis}}, lit. "fleet") comprised the naval forces of the Ancient Roman state. The navy was instrumental in the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean basin, though it never enjoyed the prestige of the [[Roman legion]]s. Throughout their history, the Romans remained a primarily land-based people, and relied partially on their more nautically inclined subjects, such as the [[Greeks]] and the [[Egyptians]], to build and man their ships. Partly because of this, the navy was never wholly embraced by the Roman state, and deemed somewhat "un-Roman".<ref>{{Harvnb|Potter|2004|pp=77–78}}</ref> In Antiquity, navies and trading fleets did not have the logistical autonomy that modern ships and fleets possess. Unlike modern naval forces, the Roman navy even at its height never existed as an autonomous service, but operated as an adjunct to the [[Roman army]].

During the course of the [[First Punic War]], the Roman navy was massively expanded and played a vital role in the Roman victory and the [[Roman Republic]]'s eventual ascension to hegemony in the Mediterranean Sea. In the course of the first half of the 2nd century BC, Rome went on to destroy Carthage and subdue the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean, achieving complete mastery of the inland sea, which they called ''[[Mare Nostrum]]''. The Roman fleets were again prominent in the 1st century BC in the wars against the pirates, and in the civil wars that brought down the Republic, whose campaigns ranged across the Mediterranean. In 31 BC, the great naval [[Battle of Actium]] ended the [[Final War of the Roman Republic|civil wars]] culminating in the final victory of [[Augustus]] and the establishment of the [[Roman Empire]].

During the Imperial period, the Mediterranean became largely a peaceful "Roman lake"; in the absence of a maritime enemy, the navy was reduced mostly to patrol, anti-piracy and transport duties.<ref>[http://www2.rgzm.de/Navis/Themes/Flotte/Karten/Image/RoemFlotte.jpg Map of the Roman Fleet]</ref> The navy also manned and maintained craft on major frontier rivers such as the [[Rhine]] and the [[Danube]] for supplying the army.

On the fringes of the Empire, in new conquests or, increasingly, in defense against [[barbarian]] invasions, the Roman fleets were still engaged in open warfare. The [[Crisis of the Third Century|decline of the Empire]] in the 3rd century took a heavy toll on the navy, which was reduced to a shadow of its former self, both in size and in combat ability. As successive waves of the ''[[Völkerwanderung]]'' crashed on the land frontiers of the battered Empire, the navy could only play a secondary role. In the early 5th century, the Roman frontiers were breached, and barbarian kingdoms appeared on the shores of the western Mediterranean. One of them, the [[Vandal Kingdom]], raised a navy of its own and raided the shores of the Mediterranean, even [[Sack of Rome (455)|sacking Rome]], while the diminished Roman fleets were incapable of offering any resistance. The Western Roman Empire [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|collapsed in the late 5th century]]. The navy of the [[Byzantine Empire|surviving eastern Roman Empire]] is known as the [[Byzantine navy]].

== History ==
===Early Republic===
The exact origins of the Roman fleet are obscure. A traditionally agricultural and land-based society, the Romans rarely ventured out to sea, unlike their [[Etruscans|Etruscan]] neighbours.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meijer|1986|pp=147–148}}</ref> There is evidence of Roman warships in the early 4th century BC, such as mention of a warship that carried an embassy to [[Delphi]] in 394 BC, but at any rate, the Roman fleet, if it existed, was negligible.<ref name="Meijer149">{{Harvnb|Meijer|1986|p=149}}</ref> The traditional birth date of the Roman navy is set at ca. 311 BC, when, after the conquest of [[Campania]], two new officials, the ''[[duumviri]] navales classis ornandae reficiendaeque causa'', were tasked with the maintenance of a fleet.<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab urbe condita (book)|AUC]]'' IX.30; XL.18,26; XLI.1</ref><ref name="Goldsworthy96">{{Harvnb|Goldsworthy|2000|p=96}}</ref> As a result, the Republic acquired its first fleet, consisting of 20 ships, most likely [[trireme]]s, with each ''duumvir'' commanding a squadron of 10 ships.<ref name="Meijer149"/><ref name="Goldsworthy96"/> However, the Republic continued to rely mostly on her legions for expansion in Italy; the navy was most likely geared towards combating piracy and lacked experience in naval warfare, being easily defeated in 282 BC by the [[Taranto|Tarentines]].<ref name="Goldsworthy96"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Meijer|1986|p=150}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Potter|2004|p=76}}</ref>

This situation continued until the [[First Punic War]]: the main task of the Roman fleet was patrolling along the Italian coast and rivers, protecting seaborne trade from piracy. Whenever larger tasks had to be undertaken, such as the naval blockade of a besieged city, the Romans called on the allied Greek cities of southern Italy, the ''socii navales'', to provide ships and crews.<ref name="Goldsworthy34">Goldsworthy (2003), p. 34</ref> It is possible that the supervision of these maritime allies was one of the duties of the four new ''[[praetor]]es classici'', who were established in 267 BC.<ref name="Goldsworthy97">Goldsworthy (2000), p. 97</ref>

==== First Punic War ====
The first Roman expedition outside mainland Italy was against the island of [[Sicily]] in 265 BC. This led to the outbreak of hostilities with [[Carthage]], which would last until 241 BC. At the time, the [[Punic]] city was the unchallenged master of the western Mediterranean, possessing a long maritime and naval experience and a large fleet. Although Rome had relied on her legions for the conquest of Italy, operations in Sicily had to be supported by a fleet, and the ships available by Rome's allies were insufficient.<ref name="Goldsworthy97"/> Thus in 261 BC, the Roman Senate set out to construct a fleet of 100 [[Hellenistic-era warships#Quinquereme|quinquereme]]s and 20 triremes.<ref name="Goldsworthy34"/> According to [[Polybius]], the Romans seized a shipwrecked Carthaginian quinquereme, and used it as a blueprint for their own ships.<ref>Polybius, ''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/home.html The Histories]'', I.20-21</ref> The new fleets were commanded by the annually elected Roman [[magistratus|magistrates]], but naval expertise was provided by the lower officers, who continued to be provided by the ''socii'', mostly Greeks. This practice was continued until well into the Empire, something also attested by the direct adoption of numerous Greek naval terms.<ref>{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|p=201}}</ref><ref name="WE166">Webster & Elton (1998), p. 166</ref>

[[File:Quinquereme-and-corvus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Three-banked ("trireme") Roman quinquereme with the ''corvus'' boarding bridge. The use of the ''corvus'' negated the superior Carthaginian naval expertise, and allowed the Romans to establish their naval superiority in the western Mediterranean.]]
Despite the massive buildup, the Roman crews remained inferior in naval experience to the Carthaginians, and could not hope to match them in [[Naval tactics in the Age of Galleys|naval tactics]], which required great maneuverability and experience. They therefore employed a novel weapon which transformed sea warfare to their advantage. They equipped their ships with the ''[[Corvus (boarding device)|corvus]]'', possibly developed earlier by the [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracusans]] against the [[Athens|Athenians]]. This was a long plank with a spike for hooking onto enemy ships. Using it as a boarding bridge, marines were able to [[Boarding (attack)|board]] an enemy ship, transforming sea combat into a version of land combat, where the Roman legionaries had the upper hand. However, it is believed that the ''corvus''' weight made the ships unstable, and could capsize a ship in rough seas.<ref name=Goldsworth38>Goldsworthy (2003), p. 38</ref>

Although the first sea engagement of the war, the [[Battle of the Lipari Islands]] in 260 BC, was a defeat for Rome, the forces involved were relatively small. Through the use of the ''corvus'', the fledgling Roman navy under [[Gaius Duilius]] won its first major engagement later that year at the [[Battle of Mylae]]. During the course of the war, Rome continued to be victorious at sea: victories at [[Battle of Sulci|Sulci]] (258 BC) and [[Battle of Tyndaris|Tyndaris]] (257 BC) were followed by the [[Largest naval battle in history|massive]] [[Battle of Cape Ecnomus]], where the Roman fleet under the consuls [[Marcus Atilius Regulus]] and [[Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus|Lucius Manlius]] inflicted a severe defeat on the Carthaginians. This string of successes allowed Rome to push the war further across the sea to Africa and Carthage itself. Continued Roman success also meant that their navy gained significant experience, although it also suffered a number of catastrophic losses due to storms, while conversely, the Carthaginian navy suffered from attrition.<ref name="Goldsworth38"/>

The [[Battle of Drepana]] in 249 BC resulted in the only major Carthaginian sea victory, forcing the Romans to equip a new fleet from donations by private citizens. In the last battle of the war, at [[Battle of the Aegates Islands|Aegates Islands]] in 241 BC, the Romans under [[Gaius Lutatius Catulus]] displayed superior seamanship to the Carthaginians, notably using their rams rather than the now-abandoned ''corvus'' to achieve victory.<ref name=Goldsworth38/>

==== Illyria and the Second Punic War ====
[[File:As Publius Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Roman [[As (Roman coin)|''as'' coin]] of the second half of the 3rd century BC, featuring the prow of a galley, most likely a quinquereme. Several similar issues are known, illustrating the importance of naval power during that period of Rome's history.]]
After the Roman victory, the balance of naval power in the Western Mediterranean had shifted from Carthage to Rome.<ref name="Meijer167">{{Harvnb|Meijer|1986|p=167}}</ref> This ensured Carthaginian acquiescence to the conquest of Sardinia and Corsica, and also enabled Rome to deal decisively with the threat posed by the [[Illyria]]n pirates in the [[Adriatic]]. The [[Illyrian Wars]] marked Rome's first involvement with the affairs of the Balkan peninsula.<ref name="gruen 359">Gruen (1984), p. 359.</ref> Initially, in 229 BC, a fleet of 200 warships was sent against Queen [[Teuta]], and swiftly expelled the Illyrian garrisons from the Greek coastal cities of modern-day [[Albania]].<ref name="Meijer167"/> Ten years later, the Romans sent another expedition in the area against [[Demetrius of Pharos]], who had rebuilt the Illyrian navy and engaged in piracy up into the Aegean. Demetrius was supported by [[Philip V of Macedon]], who had grown anxious at the expansion of Roman power in Illyria.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meijer|1986|pp=167–168}}</ref> The Romans were again quickly victorious and expanded their Illyrian protectorate, but the beginning of the [[Second Punic War]] (218–201 BC) forced them to divert their resources westwards for the next decades.

Due to Rome's command of the seas, [[Hannibal]], Carthage's great general, was forced to eschew a sea-borne invasion, instead choosing to bring the war over land to the Italian peninsula.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meijer|1986|p=168}}</ref> Unlike the first war, the navy played little role on either side in this war. The only naval encounters occurred in the first years of the war, at [[Battle of Lilybaeum|Lilybaeum]] (218 BC) and the [[Battle of Ebro River|Ebro River]] (217 BC), both resulting Roman victories. Despite an overall numerical parity, for the remainder of the war the Carthaginians did not seriously challenge Roman supremacy. The Roman fleet was hence engaged primarily with raiding the shores of Africa and guarding Italy, a task which included the interception of Carthaginian convoys of supplies and reinforcements for Hannibal's army, as well as keeping an eye on a potential intervention by Carthage's ally, Philip V.<ref name="Meijer170">{{Harvnb|Meijer|1986|p=170}}</ref> The only major action in which the Roman fleet was involved was the [[Siege of Syracuse (214–212 BC)|siege of Syracuse in 214-212 BC]] with 130 ships under [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus]]. The siege is remembered for the ingenious inventions of [[Archimedes]], such as mirrors that burned ships or the so-called "[[Claw of Archimedes]]", which kept the besieging army at bay for two years.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meijer|1986|pp=170–171}}</ref> A fleet of 160 vessels was assembled to support [[Scipio Africanus]]' army in Africa in 202 BC, and, should his expedition fail, evacuate his men. In the event, Scipio achieved a decisive victory at [[Battle of Zama|Zama]], and the subsequent peace stripped Carthage of its fleet.<ref>{{Harvnb|Meijer|1986|p=173}}</ref>

==== Operations in the East ====
Rome was now the undisputed mistress of the Western Mediterranean, and turned her gaze from defeated Carthage to the [[Hellenistic]] world. Small Roman forces had already been engaged in the [[First Macedonian War]], when, in 214 BC, a fleet under [[Marcus Valerius Laevinus]] had successfully thwarted Philip V from invading Illyria with his newly-built fleet. The rest of the war was carried out mostly by Rome's allies, the [[Aetolian League]] and later the [[Kingdom of Pergamon]], but a combined Roman-Pergamene fleet of ca. 60 ships patrolled the Aegean until the war's end in 205 BC. In this conflict, Rome, still embroiled in the Punic War, was not interested in expanding her possessions, but rather in thwarting the growth of Philip's power in Greece. The war ended in an effective stalemate, and was renewed in 201 BC, when Philip V invaded [[Asia Minor]]. A [[Battle of Chios (201 BC)|naval battle]] off [[Chios]] ended in a costly victory for the Pergamene-[[Rhodes|Rhodian]] alliance, but the Macedonian fleet lost many warships, including its flagship, a ''deceres''.<ref name="Meijer175">{{Harvnb|Meijer|1986|p=175}}</ref> Soon after, Pergamon and Rhodes appealed to Rome for help, and the Republic was drawn into the [[Second Macedonian War]]. In view of the massive Roman naval superiority, the war was fought on land, with the Macedonian fleet, already weakened at Chios, not daring to venture out of its anchorage at [[Demetrias]].<ref name="Meijer175"/> After the crushing Roman victory at [[Battle of Cynoscephalae|Cynoscephalae]], the terms imposed on Macedon were harsh, and included the complete disbandment of her navy.

Almost immediately following the defeat of [[Macedon]], Rome became embroiled in a [[Roman-Syrian War|war]] with the [[Seleucid Empire]]. This war too was decided mainly on land, although the combined Roman-Rhodian navy also achieved victories over the Seleucids at [[Battle of Myonessus|Myonessus]] and [[Battle of the Eurymedon (190 BC)|Eurymedon]]. These victories, which were invariably concluded with the imposition of peace treaties that prohibited the maintenance of anything but token naval forces, spelled the disappearance of the Hellenistic royal navies, leaving Rome and her allies unchallenged at sea. Coupled with the final [[Third Punic War|destruction of Carthage]], and the end of [[Third Macedonian War|Macedon's independence]], by the latter half of the 2nd century BC, Roman control over all of what was later to be dubbed ''[[mare nostrum]]'' ("our sea") had been established. Subsequently, the Roman navy was drastically reduced, depending on its Greek allies to supply ships and crews as needed.<ref name=Connolly273>Connolly (1998), p. 273</ref>

===Late Republic===
==== Mithridates and the pirate threat ====
[[File:Hw-pompey.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pompey the Great. His swift and decisive campaign against the pirates re-established Rome's control over the Mediterranean sea lanes.]]
In the absence of a strong naval presence however, [[Cilician pirates|piracy]] flourished throughout the Mediterranean, especially in [[Cilicia]], but also in [[Crete]] and other places, further reinforced by money and warships supplied by King [[Mithridates VI of Pontus]], who hoped to enlist their aid in his [[Mithridatic Wars|wars]] against Rome.<ref>[[Appian]], ''The Mithridatic Wars'', [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_mithridatic_19.html#§92 §92]</ref> In the [[First Mithridatic War]] (89–85 BC), [[Sulla]] had to requisition ships wherever he could find them to counter Mithridates' fleet. Despite the makeshift nature of the Roman fleet however, in 86 BC [[Lucullus]] defeated the Pontic navy at [[Battle of Tenedos|Tenedos]].<ref name=Starr62>Starr (1989), p. 62</ref>

Immediately after the end of the war, a permanent force of ca. 100 vessels was established in the Aegean from the contributions of Rome's allied maritime states. Although sufficient to guard against Mithridates, this force was totally inadequate against the pirates, whose power grew rapidly.<ref name=Starr62/> Over the next decade, the pirates defeated several Roman commanders, and raided unhindered even to the shores of Italy, reaching Rome's harbor, [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]].<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''Historia Romana'', [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/36*.html#22 XXXVI.22]</ref> According to the account of [[Plutarch]], "the ships of the pirates numbered more than a thousand, and the cities captured by them four hundred."<ref>[[Plutarch]], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey*.html#24 ''Life of Pompey'', §24]</ref> Their activity posed a growing threat for the Roman economy, and a challenge to Roman power: several prominent Romans, including two [[praetor]]s with their retinue and the young [[Julius Caesar]], were captured and held for [[ransom]]. Perhaps most important of all, the pirates disrupted Rome's vital lifeline, namely the massive [[Grain supply to the city of Rome|shipments of grain]] and other produce from Africa and Egypt that were needed to sustain the city's population.<ref>[[Appian]], ''The Mithridatic Wars'', [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_mithridatic_19.html#§93 §93]</ref>

The resulting grain shortages were a major political issue, and popular discontent threatened to become explosive. In 74 BC, with the outbreak of the [[Third Mithridatic War]], [[Marcus Antonius Creticus|Marcus Antonius]] (the father of [[Mark Antony]]) was appointed ''praetor'' with extraordinary ''[[imperium]]'' against the pirate threat, but signally failed in his task: he was defeated off Crete in 72 BC, and died shortly after.<ref>Goldsworthy (2007), p. 186</ref> Finally, in 67 BC the ''[[Lex Gabinia]]'' was passed in the [[Plebeian Council]], vesting [[Pompey]] with unprecedented powers and authorizing him to move against them.<ref>[[Appian]], ''The Mithridatic Wars'', [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_mithridatic_19.html#§94 §94]</ref> In a [[Pompey#Campaign against the pirates|massive and concerted campaign]], Pompey cleared the seas from the pirates in only three months.<ref name=Connolly273>Connolly (1998), p. 273</ref><ref>[[Appian]], ''The Mithridatic Wars'', [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_mithridatic_19.html#§95 §95]-[http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_mithridatic_20.html#§96 §96]</ref> Afterwards, the fleet was reduced again to policing duties against intermittent piracy.

==== Caesar and the Civil Wars ====
In 56 BC, for the first time a Roman fleet engaged in battle outside the Mediterranean. This occurred during [[Julius Caesar]]'s [[Gallic Wars]], when the maritime tribe of the [[Veneti (Gaul)|Veneti]] rebelled against Rome. Against the Veneti, the Romans were at a disadvantage, since they did not know the coast, and were inexperienced in fighting in the open sea with its tides and currents.<ref>Caesar, [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 3#9|''Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, III.9]]</ref> Furthermore, the Veneti ships were superior to the light Roman galleys. They were built of [[oak]] and had no oars, being thus more resistant to [[ramming]]. In addition, their greater height gave them an advantage in both missile exchanges and boarding actions.<ref>Caesar, [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 3#13|''Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, III.13]]</ref> In the event, when the two fleets encountered each other in [[Quiberon Bay]], Caesar's navy, under the command of D. Brutus, resorted to the use of hooks on long poles, which cut the [[halyard]]s supporting the Veneti sails.<ref>Caesar, [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 3#14|''Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, III.14]]</ref> Immobile, the Veneti ships were easy prey for the legionaries who boarded them, and fleeing Veneti ships were taken when they became becalmed by a sudden lack of winds.<ref>Caesar, [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 3#15|''Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, III.15]]</ref> Having thus established his control of the [[English Channel]], in the next years Caesar used this newly-built fleet to carry out [[Caesar's invasions of Britain|two invasions of Britain]].

[[File:Pompey by Nasidius.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Silver ''[[denarius]]'' struck by Sextus Pompeius in 44–43 BC, featuring a bust of Pompey the Great and a Roman warship.]]
The last major campaigns of the Roman navy in the Mediterranean until the late 3rd century AD would be in the [[Roman civil wars|civil wars]] that ended the Republic. In the East, the Republican faction quickly established its control, and Rhodes, the last independent maritime power in the Aegean, was subdued by [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]] in 43 BC, after its fleet was defeated off [[Kos]]. In the West, against the [[Second Triumvirate|triumvirs]] stood [[Sextus Pompeius]], who had been given command of the Italian fleet by the Senate in 43 BC. He [[Sicilian revolt|took control of Sicily]] and made it his base, blockading Italy and stopping the politically crucial supply of grain from Africa to Rome.<ref>{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|pp=205–206}}</ref> After suffering a defeat from Sextus in 42 BC, Octavian initiated massive naval armaments, aided by his closest associate, [[Marcus Agrippa]]: ships were built at Ravenna and Ostia, the new artificial harbor of [[Portus Julius]] built at [[Cumae]], and soldiers and rowers levied, including over 20,000 manumitted slaves.<ref>{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|p=206}}</ref> Finally, Octavian and Agrippa defeated Sextus in the [[Battle of Naulochus]] in 36 BC, putting an end to all Pompeian resistance.

[[File:Castro Battle of Actium.jpg|thumb|200px|The Battle of Actium, by Lorenzo A. Castro, painted 1672.]]
Octavian's power was further enhanced after his victory against the combined fleets of [[Mark Antony]] and [[Cleopatra]], Queen of [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Egypt]], in the [[Battle of Actium]] in 31 BC, where Antony had assembled 500 ships against Octavian's 400 ships.<ref>{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|p=207}}</ref> This last naval battle of the Roman Republic definitively established Octavian as the sole ruler over Rome and the Mediterranean world. In the aftermath of his victory, he formalized the Fleet's structure, establishing several key harbors in the Mediterranean (see below). The now fully professional navy had its main duties consist of protecting against piracy, escorting troops and patrolling the river frontiers of Europe. It remained however engaged in active warfare in the periphery of the Empire.

=== Principate ===
==== Operations under Augustus ====
Under [[Augustus]] and after the conquest of [[Egypt]] there were increasing demands from the Roman economy to extend the trade lanes to India. The Arabian control of all sea routes to India was an obstacle. One of the first naval operations under ''princeps'' Augustus was therefore the preparation for a campaign on the Arabian Peninsula. [[Aelius Gallus]], the prefect of Egypt ordered the construction of 130 transports and subsequently carried 10,000 soldiers to Arabia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|p=208}}</ref> But the following march through the desert towards [[Yemen]] failed and the plans for control of the [[Arabian peninsula]] had to be abandoned.

At the other end of the Empire, in [[Germania]], the navy played an important role in the supply and transport of the [[Roman legion|legion]]s. In 15 BC an independent fleet was installed at the [[Lake Constance]]. Later, the generals [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]] and [[Tiberius]] used the Navy extensively, when they tried to extend the Roman frontier to the [[Elbe]]. In 12 BC [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]] ordered the construction of a fleet of 1,000 ships and sailed them along the [[Rhine]] into the [[North Sea]].<ref>[[Tacitus]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 2#6|''The Annals'' II.6]]</ref> The [[Frisii]] and [[Chauci]] had nothing to oppose the superior numbers, tactics and technology of the Romans. When these entered the river mouths of [[Weser]] and [[Ems (river)|Ems]], the local tribes had to surrender.

In 5 BC the Roman knowledge concerning the North and Baltic Sea was fairly extended during a campaign by [[Tiberius]], reaching as far as the [[Elbe]]: Plinius describes how Roman naval formations came past [[Heligoland]] and set sail to the north-eastern coast of Denmark, and Augustus himself boasts in his ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]'': "My fleet sailed from the mouth of the Rhine eastward as far as the lands of the Cimbri to which, up to that time, no Roman had ever penetrated either by land or by sea...".<ref>''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html Res Gestae]'', 26.4</ref> The multiple naval operations north of Germania had to be abandoned after the [[battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in the year 9 AD.

==== Julio-Claudian dynasty ====
In the years 15 and 16, [[Germanicus]] carried out several fleet operations along the rivers Rhine and Ems, without permanent results due to grim Germanic resistance and a disastrous storm.<ref>Webster & Elton (1998), pp. 160-161</ref> By 28, the Romans lost further control of the Rhine mouth in a succession of Frisian insurgencies. From 43 to 85, the Roman navy played an important role in the [[Roman conquest of Britain]]. The ''classis Germanica'' rendered outstanding services in multitudinous landing operations. In 46, a naval expedition made a push deep into the [[Black Sea]] region and even travelled on the [[Don River, Russia|Tanais]]. In 47 a revolt by the [[Chauci]], who took to piratical activities along the Gallic coast, was subdued by [[Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo]].<ref>Webster & Elton (1998), p. 161</ref> By 57 an expeditionary corps reached [[Chersonesos Taurica|Chersonesos]] (see [[Charax, Crimea]]).

It seems that under [[Nero]], the navy obtained strategically important positions for trading with India; but there was no known fleet in the [[Red Sea]]. Possibly, parts of the [[Alexandria]]n fleet were operating as escorts for the Indian trade. In the [[First Jewish-Roman War|Jewish revolt]], from 66 to 70, the Romans were forced to fight Jewish ships, operating from a harbour in the area of modern [[Tel Aviv]], on [[Israel]]'s Mediterranean coast. In the meantime several flotilla engagements on the [[Sea of Galilee]] took place.

In 68, as his reign became increasingly insecure, Nero raised [[Legio I Adiutrix|''legio'' I ''Adiutrix'']] from sailors of the praetorian fleets. After Nero's overthrow, in 69, the "[[Year of the four emperors]]", the praetorian fleets supported Emperor [[Otho]] against the usurper [[Vitellius]],<ref>[[Tacitus]], [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#12|''The Histories'', II.12]]</ref> and after his eventual victory, [[Vespasian]] formed another legion, [[Legio II Adiutrix|''legio'' II ''Adiutrix'']], from their ranks.<ref>[[Tacitus]], [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#67|''The Histories'', II.67]]</ref> Only in the [[Pontus]] did [[Anicetus (pirate)|Anicetus]], the commander of the ''Classis Pontica'', support Vitellius. He burned the fleet, and sought refuge with the [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberian]] tribes, engaging in piracy. After a new fleet was built, this revolt was subdued.<ref name="WE164">Webster & Elton (1998), p. 164</ref>

==== Flavian, Antonine and Severan dynasties ====
[[File:Mosaïque d'Ulysse et les sirènes.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Mosaic of a Roman galley, [[Bardo Museum]], [[Tunisia]], 2nd century AD.]]
During the [[Batavian rebellion]] of [[Gaius Julius Civilis]] (69-70), the rebels got hold of a squadron of the Rhine fleet by treachery,<ref>[[Tacitus]], [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4#16|''The Histories'', IV.16]]</ref> and the conflict featured frequent use of the Roman Rhine flotilla. In the last phase of the war, the British fleet and [[Legio XIV Gemina|''legio'' XIV]] were brought in from Britain to attack the Batavian coast, but the [[Cananefates]], allies of the Batavians, were able to destroy or capture a large part of the fleet.<ref>[[Tacitus]], [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4#79|''The Histories'', IV.79]]</ref> In the meantime, the new Roman commander, [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]], advanced north and constructed a new fleet. Civilis attempted only a short encounter with his own fleet, but could not hinder the superior Roman force from landing and ravaging the [[Betuwe|island of the Batavians]], leading to the negotiation of a peace soon after.<ref>[[Tacitus]], [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 5#23|''The Histories'', V.23-25]]</ref>

In the years 82 to 85, the Romans under [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] launched a campaign against the [[Caledonians]] in modern [[Scotland]]. In this context the Roman navy significantly escalated activities on the eastern Scottish coast.<ref>[[Tacitus]], [[s:Agricola|''Agricola'', 25; 29]]</ref> Simultaneously multiple expeditions and reconnaissance trips were launched. During these the Romans would capture the [[Orkney Islands]] (''Orcades'') for a short period of time and obtained information about the [[Shetland Islands]].<ref>[[Tacitus]], [[s:Agricola#10|''Agricola'', 10]]</ref> There is some speculation about a Roman landing in Ireland, based on Tacitus reports about Agricola contemplating the island's conquest,<ref>[[Tacitus]], [[s:Agricola#24|''Agricola'', 24]]</ref> but no conclusive evidence to support this theory has been found.

Under the [[Nerva–Antonine dynasty#Five Good Emperors|Five Good Emperors]] the navy operated mainly on the rivers; so it played an important role during [[Trajan]]'s conquest of [[Dacia]] and temporarily an independent fleet for the [[Euphrates]] and [[Tigris]] rivers was founded. Also during the [[Marcomannic Wars|wars against the Marcomanni confederation]] under [[Marcus Aurelius]] several combats took place on the [[Danube]] and the [[Tisza]].

Under the aegis of the [[Severan dynasty]], the only known military operations of the navy were carried out under [[Septimius Severus]], using naval assistance on his campaigns along the [[Euphrates]] and [[Tigris]], as well as in [[Scotland]]. Thereby Roman ships reached ''inter alia'' the [[Persian Gulf]] and the top of the [[British Isles]].

==== 3rd century crisis ====
As the 3rd century dawned, the Roman Empire was at its peak. In the Mediterranean, peace had reigned for over two centuries, as piracy had been wiped out and no outside naval threats occurred. As a result, complacency had set in: naval tactics and technology were neglected, and the Roman naval system had become moribund.<ref>Lewis & Runyan (1985), p. 3</ref> After 230 however and for fifty years, the situation changed dramatically. The so-called "[[Crisis of the Third Century]]" ushered a period of internal turmoil, and the same period saw a renewed series of seaborne assaults, which the imperial fleets proved unable to stem.<ref name="LR4">Lewis & Runyan (1985), p. 4</ref> In the West, [[Picts]] and Irish ships raided Britain, while the [[Saxons]] raided the North Sea, forcing the Romans to abandon [[Frisia]].<ref name="LR4"/> In the East, the Goths and other tribes from modern Ukraine raided in great numbers over the Black Sea.<ref name=Casson213>Casson (1991), p. 213</ref> These invasions began during the rule of [[Trebonianus Gallus]], when for the first time [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes built up their own powerful fleet in the Black Sea. Via two surprise attacks (256) on Roman naval bases in the [[Caucasus]] and near the [[Danube]], numerous ships fell into the hands of the Germans, whereupon the raids were extended as far as the [[Aegean Sea]]; [[Byzantium]], [[Athens]], [[Sparta]] and other towns were plundered and the responsible provincial fleets were heavily debilitated. It was not until the attackers made a tactical error, that their onrush could be stopped.

In 267&ndash;270 another, much fiercer series of attacks took place. A fleet composed of [[Heruli]] and other tribes raided the coasts of [[Thrace]] and the [[Pontus]]. Defeated off [[Byzantium]] by general Venerianus,<ref>''Scriptores Historiae Augustae'', [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Gallieni_duo*.html#13.6 ''Vita Gallienii'', 13.6-7]</ref> the barbarians fled into the Aegean, and ravaged many islands and coastal cities, including [[Athens]] and [[Corinth]]. As they retreated northwards over land, they were defeated by Emperor [[Gallienus]] at [[River Nestos|Nestos]].<ref>''Scriptores Historiae Augustae'', [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Gallieni_duo*.html#13.8 ''Vita Gallienii'', 13.8-9]</ref> However, this was merely the prelude to an even larger invasion that was launched in 268/269: several tribes banded together (the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'' mentions Scythians, [[Greuthungi]], [[Tervingi]], [[Gepids]], Peucini, Celts and [[Heruli]]) and allegedly 2,000 ships and 325,000 men strong,<ref>''Scriptores Historiae Augustae'', ''Vita Divi Claudii'', [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Claudius*.html#6.2 6.2-4]; [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Claudius*.html#8.1 8.1]</ref> raided the Thracian shore, attacked Byzantium and continued raiding the Aegean as far as [[Crete]], while the main force approached [[Thessalonica]]. Emperor [[Claudius II]] however was able to defeat them at the [[Battle of Naissus]], ending the Gothic threat for the time being.<ref>[[Zosimus]], ''Historia Nova'', I.42-45</ref>

Barbarian raids also increased along the Rhine frontier and in the [[North Sea]]. [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]] mentions that during the 280s, the sea along the coasts of the provinces of Belgica and Armorica was "infested with Franks and Saxons". To counter them, [[Maximian]] appointed [[Carausius]] as commander of the [[Classis Britannica|British Fleet]].<ref>[[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]], ''Breviarium'', [http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans9.html#21 IX.21]</ref> However, Carausius rose up in late 286 and [[Carausian Revolt|seceded from the Empire]] with Britannia and parts of the northern Gallic coast.<ref>''[[Panegyrici Latini]]'', 8.6</ref> With a single blow Roman control of the channel and the North Sea was lost, and emperor [[Maximinus]] was forced to create a completely new Northern Fleet, but in lack of training it was almost immediately destroyed in a storm.<ref>''[[Panegyrici Latini]]'', 8.12</ref> Only in 293, under ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'' [[Constantius Chlorus]] did Rome regain the Gallic coast. A new fleet was constructed in order to cross the Channel,<ref>''[[Panegyrici Latini]]'', 6.5; 8.6-8</ref> and in 296, with a concentric attack on [[Londinium]] the insurgent province was retaken.<ref>[[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]], ''Breviarium'' [http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans9.html#22 9.22]; [[Aurelius Victor]], ''Book of Caesars'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/victor.caes.html#39 39.42]</ref>

===Late Antiquity===
By the end of the 3rd century, the Roman navy had declined dramatically. Although Emperor [[Diocletian]] is held to have strengthened the navy, and increased its manpower from 46,000 to 64,000 men,<ref>Treadgold (1997), p. 145</ref> the old standing fleets had all but vanished, and in the civil wars that ended the [[Tetrarchy]], the opposing sides had to mobilize the resources and commandeered the ships of the Eastern Mediterranean port cities.<ref name=Casson213/> These conflicts thus brought about a renewal of naval activity, culminating in the [[Battle of the Hellespont]] in 324 between the forces of [[Constantine I]] under Caesar [[Crispus]] and the fleet of [[Licinius]], which was the only major naval confrontation of the 4th century. [[Vegetius]], writing at the end of the 4th century, testifies to the disappearance of the old praetorian fleets in Italy, but comments on the continued activity of the Danube fleet.<ref name=MacGeorge1>MacGeorge (2002), pp. 306-307</ref> In the 5th century, only the eastern half of the Empire could field an effective fleet, as it could draw upon the maritime resources of Greece and the Levant. Although the ''[[Notitia Dignitatum]]'' still mentions several naval units for the [[Western Roman Empire|Western Empire]], these were apparently too depleted to be able to carry out much more than patrol duties.<ref>Lewis & Runyan (1985), pp. 4-8</ref> At any rate, the rise of the naval power of the Vandal Kingdom under [[Geiseric]] in North Africa, and its raids in the Western Mediterranean, were practically uncontested.<ref name=Casson213/> Although there is some evidence of West Roman naval activity in the first half of the 5th century, this is mostly confined to troop transports and minor landing operations.<ref name=MacGeorge1/> The historian [[Priscus]] and [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] affirm in their writings that by the mid-5th century, the Western Empire essentially lacked a war navy.<ref>MacGeorge (2002), p. 307</ref> Matters became even worse after the disastrous failure of the fleets mobilized against the Vandals in 460 and 468, under the emperors [[Majorian]] and [[Anthemius]].

For the West, there would be no recovery, as the last Western Emperor, [[Romulus Augustulus]], was deposed in 476. In the East however, the classical naval tradition survived, and in the 6th century, a standing navy was reformed.<ref name=Casson213/> The [[Byzantine navy|East Roman (Byzantine) navy]] would remain a formidable force in the Mediterranean until the 11th century.

== Organization ==
=== Crews ===
[[File:Denarius Mark Anthony-32BC-legIII.jpg|thumb|200px|Roman warship on a [[Mark Antony]] denarius.]]
The bulk of a galley's crew was formed by the rowers, the ''remiges'' (sing. ''remex'') or ''eretai'' (sing. ''eretēs'') in Greek. Despite popular perceptions, the Roman fleet, and ancient fleets in general, relied throughout their existence on rowers of free status, and not on [[galley slave]]s. Slaves were employed only in times of pressing manpower demands or extreme emergency, and even then, they were freed first.<ref name=Casson188>Casson (1991), p. 188</ref> In Imperial times, non-[[Roman citizen|citizen]] freeborn provincials (''[[Peregrinus (Roman)|peregrini]]''), chiefly from nations with a maritime background such as Greeks, Phoenicians, Syrians and Egyptians, formed the bulk of the fleets' crews.<ref name=Casson188/><ref>Starr (1960), p. 75 Table 1</ref>

During the early Principate, a ship's crew, regardless of its size, was organized as a ''[[centuria]]''. Crewmen could sign on as [[Marines (military)|marines]], rowers/seamen, craftsmen and various other jobs, though all personnel serving in the imperial fleet were classed as ''milites'' ("soldiers"), regardless of their function; only when differentiation with the army was required, were the adjectives ''classiarius'' or ''classicus'' added. Along with several other instances of prevalence of army terminology, this testifies to the lower social status of naval personnel, considered inferior to the [[Auxiliaries (Roman military)|auxiliaries]] and the legionaries.<ref name=Casson188/> Emperor [[Claudius]] first gave legal privileges to the navy's crewmen, enabling them to receive [[Roman citizenship]] after their period of service.<ref>{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|p=212}}</ref> This period was initially set at a minimum of 26 years (one year more than the legions), and was later expanded to 28. Upon honorable discharge (''honesta missio''), the sailors received a sizable cash payment as well.<ref name=Galley80/>

As in the army, the ship's ''centuria'' was headed by a [[centurion]] with an ''[[optio]]'' as his deputy, while a ''beneficiarius'' supervised a small administrative staff.<ref name="WE166"/> Among the crew were also a number of ''principales'' (junior officers) and ''[[immunes]]'' (specialists exempt from certain duties). Some of these positions, mostly administrative, were identical to those of the army auxiliaries, while some (mostly of Greek provenance) were peculiar to the fleet. An inscription from the island of [[Kos|Cos]], dated to the [[First Mithridatic War]], provides us with a list of a ship's officers, the ''nautae'': the ''gubernator'' (''kybernētēs'' in Greek) was the helmsman or pilot, the ''celeusta'' (''keleustēs'' in Greek) supervised the rowers, a ''proreta'' (''prōreus'' in Greek) was the look-out stationed at the bow, a ''pentacontarchos'' was apparently a junior officer, and an ''iatros'' (Lat. ''medicus''), the ship's doctor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|pp=201–202}}</ref>

Each ship was commanded by a ''[[trierarch]]us'', whose exact relationship with the ship's centurion is unclear. Squadrons, most likely of ten ships each, were put under a ''[[Navarch|nauarchus]]'', who often appears to have risen from the ranks of the ''trierarchi''.<ref name=Casson188/><ref>Starr (1960), p. 39</ref><ref>Webster & Elton (1998), pp. 165-166</ref> The post of ''nauarchus archigubernes'' or ''nauarchus princeps'' appeared later in the Imperial period, and functioned either as a commander of several squadrons or as an executive officer under a civilian admiral, equivalent to the legionary ''[[primus pilus]]''.<ref name="Companion210">{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|p=210}}</ref><ref>Starr (1960), pp. 42-43</ref> All these were professional officers, usually ''peregrini'', who had a status equal to an auxiliary centurion (and were thus increasingly called ''centuriones [classiarii]'' after ca. 70 AD).<ref>{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|pp=210–211}}</ref> Until the reign of [[Antoninus Pius]], their careers were restricted to the fleet.<ref name="WE166"/> Only in the 3rd century were these officers equated to the legionary centurions in status and pay, and could henceforth be transferred to a similar position in the legions.<ref>Wesch-Klein (1998), p. 25</ref>

=== High Command ===
During the Republic, command of a fleet was given to a serving [[magistrate]] or [[promagistrate]], usually of [[Roman consul|consular]] or [[praetor]]ian rank.<ref>Rodgers (1976), p. 60</ref> In the Punic Wars for instance, one consul would usually command the fleet, and another the army. In the subsequent wars in the Eastern Mediterranean, praetors would assume the command of the fleet. However, since these men were political appointees, the actual handling of the fleets and of separate squadrons was entrusted to their more experienced legates and subordinates. It was therefore during the Punic Wars that the separate position of ''praefectus classis'' ("fleet prefect") first appeared.<ref>[[Livy]], ''[[Ab urbe condita (book)|AUC]]'' XXVI.48; XXXVI.42</ref>

Initially subordinate to the magistrate in command, after the fleet's reorganization by Augustus, the ''praefectus classis'' became a [[procurator (Roman)|procurator]]ial position in charge of each of the permanent fleets. These posts were initially filled either from among the [[Equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] class, or, especially under [[Claudius]], from the Emperor's [[freedmen]], thus securing imperial control over the fleets.<ref name="WE165">Webster & Elton (1998), p. 165</ref> From the period of the [[Flavian dynasty|Flavian emperors]], the status of the ''praefectura'' was raised, and only equestrians with military experience who had gone through the ''militia equestri'' were appointed.<ref name="Companion210">''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 210</ref><ref name="WE165" /> Nevertheless, the prefects remained largely political appointees, and despite their military experience, usually in command of army auxiliary units, their knowledge of naval matters was minimal, forcing them to rely on their professional subordinates.<ref name="Galley80">{{Harvnb|Gardiner|2000|p=80}}</ref> The difference in importance of the fleets they commanded was also reflected by the rank and the corresponding pay of the commanders. The prefects of the two praetorian fleets were ranked ''procuratores ducenarii'', meaning they earned 200,000 [[sesterces]] annually, the prefects of the ''Classis Germanica'', the ''Classis Britannica'' and later the ''Classis Pontica'' were ''centenarii'' (i.e. earning 100,000 sesterces), while the other fleet prefects were ''sexagenarii'' (i.e. they received 60,000 sesterces).<ref>[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/equesproc.html Pflaum, H.G. (1950). ''Les procurateurs équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain'', pp. 50-53]</ref>

===Ship types===
{{details|Hellenistic-era warships}}
[[File:Trireme 1.jpg|thumb|200px|Model of a Roman ''bireme'']]

The generic Roman term for an oar-driven galley warship was "long ship" (Latin: ''navis longa'', Greek: ''naus makra''), as opposed to the sail-driven ''navis oneraria'', a merchant vessel, or the minor craft (''navigia minora'') like the ''scapha''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|pp=202–203}}</ref>

The navy consisted of a wide variety of different classes of warships, from heavy polyremes to light raiding and scouting vessels. Unlike the rich Hellenistic [[Diadochi|Successor kingdoms]] in the East however, the Romans did not rely on heavy warships, with [[quinquereme]]s (Gk. ''pentērēs''), and to a lesser extent [[quadrireme]]s (Gk. ''tetrērēs'') and [[trireme]]s (Gk. ''triērēs'') providing the mainstay of the Roman fleets from the Punic Wars to the end of the Civil Wars.<ref name="Potter77">{{Harvnb|Potter|2004|p=77}}</ref> The heaviest vessel mentioned in Roman fleets during this period was the [[hexareme]], of which a few were used as flagships.<ref name="Galley70">{{Harvnb|Gardiner|2000|p=70}}</ref> Lighter vessels such as the [[Liburnian (ship)|liburnians]] and the [[Hellenistic-era warships#Hemiolia|hemiolia]], both swift types invented by pirates, were also adopted as scouts and light transport vessels.

During the final confrontation between Octavian and Mark Antony, Octavian's fleet was composed of quinqueremes, together with some "sixes" and many triremes and liburnians, while Antony, who had the resources of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] to draw upon,<ref name="Potter77"/> fielded a fleet also mostly composed of quinqueremes, but with a sizeable complement of heavier warships, ranging from "sixes" to "tens" (Gk. ''dekērēs'').<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''Historia Romana'', L.23.2</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Gardiner|2000|pp=70, 77}}</ref> Later historical tradition made much of the prevalence of lighter and swifter vessels in Octavian's fleet,<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Antony'', 62</ref> with [[Vegetius]] even explicitly ascribing Octavian's victory to the liburnians.<ref>[[Vegetius]], ''[[De Re Militari]]'', [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/vegetius4.html IV.33]</ref>

[[File:Roemerschiff1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Reconstruction of a late Roman ''navis lusoria'' at [[Mainz]]]]

This prominence of lighter craft in the historical narrative is perhaps best explained in light of subsequent developments. After Actium, the operational landscape had changed: for the remainder of the Principate, no opponent existed to challenge Roman naval hegemony, and no massed naval confrontation was likely. The tasks at hand for the Roman navy were now the policing of the Mediterranean waterways and the border rivers, suppression of piracy, and escort duties for the grain shipments to Rome and for imperial army expeditions. Lighter ships were far better suited to these tasks, and after the reorganization of the fleet following Actium, the largest ship kept in service was a hexareme, the flagship of the ''[[Classis Misenensis]]''. The bulk of the fleets was composed of the lighter triremes and liburnians (Latin: ''liburna'', Greek: ''libyrnis''), with the latter apparently providing the majority of the provincial fleets.<ref>Casson (1995), p. 141</ref> In time, the term "liburnian" came to mean "warship" in a generic sense.<ref name=Connolly273>Connolly (1998), p. 273</ref>

In addition, there were smaller oared vessels, such as the ''navis actuaria'', with 30 oars (15 on each bank), a ship primarily used for transport in coastal and fluvial operations, for which its shallow draught and flat keel were ideal. In late Antiquity, it was succeeded in this role by the ''[[navis lusoria]]'' ("playful ship"), which was extensively used for patrols and raids by the legionary flotillas in the Rhine and Danube frontiers.

Roman ships were commonly named after gods (''[[Mars (mythology)|Mars]]'', ''[[Jupiter (mythology)|Iuppiter]]'', ''[[Minerva]]'', ''[[Isis]]''), mythological heroes (''[[Hercules]]''), geographical maritime features such as ''[[Rhine|Rhenus]]'' or ''[[Oceanus]]'', concepts such as Harmony, Peace, Loyalty, Victory (''Concordia'', ''Pax'', ''Fides'', ''Victoria'') or after important events (''Dacicus'' for the [[Trajan's Dacian Wars]] or ''Salamina'' for the [[Battle of Salamis]]).<ref>Casson (1995), pp. 357–358; Casson (1991), pp. 190–191</ref> They were distinguished by their [[Figurehead (object)|figurehead]] (''insigne'' or ''parasemum''),<ref>{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|p=203}}</ref> and, during the Civil Wars at least, by the paint schemes on their turrets, which varied according to each fleet.<ref>Warry (2004), p. 183</ref>

=== Armament and tactics ===
[[File:Ballistae on roman ship.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Ballista]]e on a Roman ship]]

In Classical Antiquity, a ship's main weapon was the [[Ram (ship)|ram]] (''rostra'', hence the name ''navis rostrata'' for a warship), which was used to sink or immobilize an enemy ship by holing its hull. Its use, however, required a skilled and experienced crew and a fast and agile ship like a trireme or quinquereme. In the Hellenistic period, the larger navies came instead to rely on greater vessels. This had several advantages: the heavier and sturdier construction lessened the effects of ramming, and the greater space and stability of the vessels allowed the transport not only of more marines, but also the placement of deck-mounted [[ballista]]e and [[catapult]]s.<ref>Warry (2004), p. 98</ref> Although the ram continued to be a standard feature of all warships and ramming the standard mode of attack, these developments transformed the role of a warship: from the old "manned missile", designed to sink enemy ships, they became mobile artillery platforms, which engaged in missile exchange and [[boarding (attack)|boarding actions]]. The Romans in particular, being initially inexperienced at sea combat, relied upon boarding actions through the use of the ''corvus''. Although it brought them some decisive victories, it was discontinued because it tended to unbalance the quinqueremes in high seas; two Roman fleets are recorded to have been lost during storms in the [[First Punic War]].<ref>Warry (2004), p. 118</ref>

During the Civil Wars, a number of technical innovations, which are attributed to Agrippa,<ref>[[Appian]], ''The Civil Wars'', [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/5*.html#106 V.106] & [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/5*.html#118 V.118]</ref> took place: the ''[[harpax]]'', a catapult-fired [[grappling hook]], which was used to clamp onto an enemy ship, reel it in and board it, in a much more efficient way than with the old ''corvus'', and the use of collapsible fighting towers placed one apiece bow and stern, which were used to provide the boarders with supporting fire.<ref>Warry (2004), pp. 182–183</ref>

=== Fleets ===
==== Principate period ====
[[File:Roman harbors and fleets Augustus-Severus.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of the Roman fleets and major naval bases during the [[Principate]]]]
After the end of the civil wars, Augustus reduced and reorganized the Roman armed forces, including the navy. A large part of the fleet of Mark Antony was burned, and the rest was withdrawn to a new base at Forum Iulii (modern [[Fréjus]]),<ref>[[Tacitus]], [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#5|''The Annals'', IV.5]]; [[Strabo]], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/4A*.html ''Geography'', IV.1.9]</ref> which remained operative until the reign of Claudius.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gardiner|2000|p=78}}</ref> However, the bulk of the fleet was soon subdivided into two praetorian fleets at [[Misenum]] and [[Ravenna]], supplemented by a growing number of minor ones in the provinces, which were often created on an ''ad hoc'' basis for specific campaigns. This organizational structure was maintained almost unchanged until the 4th century.

===== Praetorian fleets =====
The two major fleets were stationed in Italy and acted as a central naval reserve, directly available to the Emperor (hence the designation "praetorian"). In the absence of any naval threat, their duties mostly involved patrolling and transport duties. These were not confined to the waters around Italy, but throughout the Mediterranean. There is epigraphic evidence for the presence of sailors of the two praetorian fleets at Piraeus and Syria. These two fleets were:

* The ''[[Classis Misenensis]]'', established in 27 BC and based at [[Portus Julius]]. Later ''Classis praetoria Misenesis Pia Vindex''. Detachments of the fleet served at secondary bases, such as [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]], [[Puteoli]], [[Centumcellae]] and other harbors.<ref>Webster & Elton (1998), p. 158</ref>

* The ''[[Classis Ravennas]]'', established in 27 BC and based at [[Ravenna]]. Later ''Classis praetoria Ravennatis Pia Vindex''.

===== Provincial fleets =====
The various provincial fleets were smaller than the praetorian fleets and composed mostly of lighter vessels. Nevertheless, it was these fleets that saw action, in full campaigns or raids on the periphery of the Empire.

* The ''Classis Africana Commodiana Herculea'', established by [[Commodus]] in 186 to secure the grain shipments (''[[Grain supply to the city of Rome|annona]]'') from North Africa to Italy,<ref>''Scriptores Historiae Augustae'', [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Commodus*.html#17 ''Vita Commodi'', 17.7]</ref> after the model of the ''Classis Alexandrina''.

* The ''Classis Alexandrina'', based in [[Alexandria]], it controlled the eastern part of the Mediterranean sea. It was founded by [[Caesar Augustus]] around 30 BC, probably from ships that fought at the [[battle of Actium]] and manned mostly by Greeks of the [[Nile Delta]].<ref name="WE159">Webster & Elton (1998), p. 159</ref> Having supported emperor [[Vespasian]] in the [[Year of the Four Emperors|civil war of 69]], it was awarded of the ''[[cognomen]]'' ''Augusta''.<ref name="WE159"/> The fleet was responsible chiefly for the escort of the grain shipments to Rome (and later Constantinople), and also apparently operated the Nile river patrol.<ref name="Companion215">{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|p=215}}</ref>

* The ''[[Classis Britannica]]'', established in 40 or 43 AD at Gesoriacum ([[Boulogne-sur-Mer]]).<ref>Cleere (1977), pp. 16; 18-19</ref> It participated in the [[Roman invasion of Britain]] and the subsequent campaigns in the island.<ref name="WE159"/> The fleet was probably based at [[Rutupiae]] ([[Richborough]]) until 85 AD, when it was transferred to Dubris ([[Dover]]). Other bases were [[Portus Lemanis]] ([[Lympne]]) and [[Anderitum]] ([[Pevensey]]), while Gesoriacum on the Gallic coast likely remained active.<ref name=Cleere19>Cleere (1977), p. 19</ref> During the 2nd-3rd centuries, the fleet was chiefly employed in transport of supplies and men across the English Channel. The ''Classis Britannica'' disappears (at least under that name) from the mid-3rd century, and the sites occupied by it were soon incorporated into the [[Saxon Shore]] system.<ref name=Cleere19/>

* The ''Classis Germanica'' was established in 12 BC by [[Drusus]] at [[Xanten#History|Castra Vetera]].<ref name=Cleere16>Cleere (1977), p. 16</ref> It controlled the [[Rhine river]], and was mainly a fluvial fleet, although it also operated in the [[North Sea]]. It is noteworthy that the Romans' initial lack of experience with the tides of the ocean left Drusus' fleet stranded on the Zuyder Zee.<ref>Webster & Elton (1998), p. 160</ref> After ca. 30 AD, the fleet moved its main base to the ''[[castrum]]'' of Alteburg, some 4&nbsp;km south of ''[[Cologne|Colonia Agrippinensis]]'' (modern Cologne).<ref>[http://www.livius.org/cn-cs/cologne/alteburg.html Köln-Alteburg] at ''livius.org''</ref> Later granted the honorifics ''Augusta Pia Fidelis Domitiana'' following the suppression of the [[Revolt of Saturninus]].<ref name="WE162">Webster & Elton (1998), p. 162</ref>

* The ''Classis nova Libyca'', first mentioned in 180, based most likely at [[Ptolemais, Cyrenaica|Ptolemais]] on the [[Cyrenaica]].

* The ''Classis Mauretanica'', based at Caesarea Mauretaniae (modern [[Cherchell]]), it controlled the African coasts of the western Mediterranean sea. Established on a permanent basis after the raids by the Moors in the early 170s.

[[File:058 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel LVIII.jpg|thumb|250px|Two-banked lburnians of the Danube fleets during [[Trajan's Dacian Wars]]. Casts of reliefs from [[Trajan's Column]], Rome.]]
* The ''[[Classis Flavia Moesica|Classis Moesica]]'' was established sometime between 20 BC and 10 AD.<ref name=Cleere16/> It was based in [[Isaccea|Noviodunum]] and controlled the Lower Danube from the [[Iron Gates]] to the northwestern [[Black Sea]] as far as the [[Crimea]].<ref>Webster & Elton (1998), pp. 162-165</ref> The honorific ''Flavia'', awarded to it and to the ''Classis pannonica'', may indicate its reorganization by [[Vespasian]].<ref name="WE163">Webster & Elton (1998), p. 163</ref>

* The ''Classis Pannonica'', a fluvial fleet controlling the Upper Danube from Castra Regina in [[Raetia]] (modern [[Regensburg]]) to [[Singidunum]] in [[Moesia]] (modern [[Belgrade]]). Its exact date of establishment is unknown. Some trace it to Augustus' campaigns in Pannonia in ca. 35 BC, but it was certainly in existence by 45 AD.<ref name="WE162"/><ref name="Companion214">{{Harvnb|Saddington|2007|p=214}}</ref> Its main base was probably Taurunum (modern [[Zemun]]) at the confluence of the river [[Sava]] with the Danube. Under the [[Flavian dynasty]], it received the ''cognomen'' ''Flavia''.<ref name="Companion214"/>

* The ''Classis Perinthia'', established after the annexation of [[Thrace]] in 46 AD and based in [[Perinthus]]. Probably based on the indigenous navy, it operated in the [[Propontis]] and the [[Thracia]]n coast.<ref name="WE164"/> Probably united with the ''Classis Pontica'' at a later stage.

* The ''Classis Pontica'', founded in 64 AD from the [[Pontus|Pontic]] royal fleet,<ref name=Cleere16/><ref>Starr (1989), p. 76</ref> and based in [[Trabzon|Trapezus]], although on occasion it was moved to [[Byzantium]] (in ca. 70),<ref>[[Tacitus]], [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#83|''The Histories'', II.83]]; [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 3#47|III.47]]</ref> and in 170, to [[Cyzicus]].<ref>Starr (1989), p. 77</ref> This fleet was used to guard the southern and eastern [[Black Sea]], and the entrance of the [[Bosporus]].<ref name="WE165"/> According to the historian [[Josephus]], in the latter half of the 1st century, it numbered 40 warships and 3,000 men.<ref>[[Josephus]], [[s:The War of the Jews/Book II#Chapter 16|''The Jewish War'', II.16.4]]</ref>

* The ''Classis Syriaca'', established probably under [[Vespasian]], and based in [[Seleucia Pieria]] (hence the alternative name ''Classis Seleucena'')<ref>[[Codex Theodosianus]], X.23.1</ref> in [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]].<ref name="Companion215"/> This fleet controlled the Eastern Mediterranean and the [[Aegean sea]].

In addition, there is significant archaeological evidence for naval activity by certain legions, which in all likelihood operated their own squadrons: [[Legio XXII Primigenia|''legio'' XXII ''Primigenia'']] in the Upper [[Rhine]] and [[Main (river)|Main]] rivers, [[Legio X Fretensis|''legio'' X ''Fretensis'']] in the [[Jordan River]] and the [[Sea of Galilee]], and several legionary squadrons in the Danube frontier.<ref name=Borders>[http://www2.rgzm.de/Navis/Themes/Flotte/FleetsAndBorder.htm ''Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz'': The Fleets and Roman Border Policy]</ref>

==== Dominate period ====
Our main source for the structure of the [[Late Roman army|late Roman military]] is the ''[[Notitia Dignitatum]]'', which corresponds to the situation of the 390s for the Eastern Empire and the 420s for the Western Empire. Notable in the ''Notitia'' is the large number of smaller squadrons that have been created, most of these fluvial and of a local operational role.

===== Fleets of the Danube frontier =====
[[File:Limes4.png|thumb|right|250px|The Upper Danube (Pannonian) ''limes'']]
[[File:Limes5.png|thumb|right|250px|The Lower Danube (Moesian) ''limes'']]
The ''Classis Pannonica'' and the ''Classis Moesica'' were broken up into several smaller squadrons, collectively termed ''Classis Histrica'',authority of the frontier commanders (''[[dux|duces]]'').<ref>[[Pauly-Wissowa]], XXII.1300–1301</ref> with bases at [[Mursa]] in [[Pannonia II]],<ref name=Occ32>''Notitia Dignitatum'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0212/_PU.HTM ''Pars Occ.'', XXXII.]</ref> Florentia in [[Pannonia Valeria]],<ref name=Occ33>''Notitia Dignitatum'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0212/_PV.HTM ''Pars Occ.'', XXXIII.]</ref> Arruntum in [[Pannonia I]],<ref name=Occ34>''Notitia Dignitatum'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0212/_PW.HTM ''Pars Occ.'', XXXIV.]</ref> [[Viminacium]] in [[Moesia I]]<ref name=Ori41>''Notitia Dignitatum'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0212/_P26.HTM ''Pars Orient.'', XLI.]</ref> and Aegetae in [[Dacia ripensis]].<ref name=Ori42>''Notitia Dignitatum'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0212/_P27.HTM ''Pars Orient.'', XLII.]</ref> Smaller fleets are also attested on the tributaries of the Danube: the ''Classis Arlapensis et Maginensis'' (based at [[Pöchlarn|Arelape]] and [[Comagena]]) and the ''Classis Lauriacensis'' (based at [[Enns (city)|Lauriacum]]) in Pannonia I,<ref name=Occ34/> the ''Classis Stradensis et Germensis'', based at Margo in Moesia I,<ref name=Ori41/> and the ''Classis Ratianensis'', in Dacia ripensis.<ref name=Ori42/> The naval units were complemented by port garrisons and marine units, drawn from the army. In the Danube frontier these were:

* In Pannonia I and Noricum ripensis, naval detachments (''milites liburnarii'') of the [[Legio XIV Gemina|''legio'' XIV ''Gemina'']] and the [[Legio X Gemina|''legio'' X ''Gemina'']] at [[Carnuntum]] and Arrabonae, and of the [[Legio II Italica|''legio'' II ''Italica'']] at Ioviacum.<ref name=Occ34/>

* In Pannonia II, the I ''Flavia Augusta'' (at [[Sirmium]]) and the II ''Flavia'' are listed under their prefects.<ref name=Occ32/>

* In [[Moesia II]], two units of sailors (''milites nauclarii'') at Appiaria and Altinum.<ref name=Ori40>''Notitia Dignitatum'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0212/_P25.HTM ''Pars Orient.'', XL.]</ref>

* In [[Scythia Minor]], marines (''muscularii'')<ref>''musculus'' (meaning "small mouse") was a kind of small ship</ref> of [[Legio II Herculia|''legio'' II ''Herculia'']] at Inplateypegiis and sailors (''nauclarii'') at Flaviana.<ref name=Ori39>''Notitia Dignitatum'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0212/_P24.HTM ''Pars Orient.'', XXXIX.]</ref>

===== Fleets in Western Europe =====
In the West, and in particular in [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], several fluvial fleets had been established. These came under the command of the ''[[magister peditum]]'' of the West, and were:<ref name=Occ42>''Notitia Dignitatum'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0212/_P13.HTM ''Pars Occ.'', XLII.]</ref>

* The ''Classis Anderetianorum'', based at Parisii (Paris) and operating in the [[Seine]] and [[Oise River|Oise]] rivers.

* The ''Classis Ararica'', based at Caballodunum ([[Chalon-sur-Saône]]) and operating in the [[Saône]] River.

* A ''Classis barcariorum'', composed of small vessels, at Eburodunum (modern [[Yverdon-les-Bains]]) at [[Lake Neuchâtel]].

* The ''Classis Comensis'' at [[Lake Como]].

* The old praetorian fleets, the ''Classis Misenatis'' and the ''Classis Ravennatis'' are still listed, albeit with no distinction indicating any higher importance than the other fleets. The "praetorian" surname is still attested until the early 4th century, but absent from [[Vegetius]] or the ''Notitia''.<ref>[[Pauly-Wissowa]], III.2639 & XXII.1300</ref>

* The ''Classis fluminis Rhodani'', based at [[Arelate]] and operating in the [[Rhône River]]. It was complemented with a marine detachment (''milites muscularii'') based at [[Marseilles]].

* The ''Classis Sambrica'', based at Locus Quartensis (unknown location) and operating in the [[Somme River]] and the Channel. It came under the command of the ''dux Beligae Secundae''.<ref name=Occ38>''Notitia Dignitatum'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0212/_P10.HTM ''Pars Occ.'', XXXVIII.]</ref>

* The ''Classis Venetum'', based at [[Aquileia]] and operating in the northern Adriatic Sea. This fleet may have been established to ensure communications with the imperial capitals in the [[Po Valley]] ([[Ravenna]] and [[Milan]]) and with [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]].<ref>Lewis & Runyan (1985), p. 6</ref>

[[File:Litus Saxonicum.png|thumb|right|250px|Bases and command sectors of the [[Saxon Shore]] system]]
It is notable that, with the exception of the praetorian fleets (whose retention in the list does not necessarily signify an active status), the old fleets of the Principate are missing. The ''Classis Britannica'' vanishes under that name after the mid-3rd century;<ref>[http://www.roman-britain.org/military/classis.htm#CILxii686 ''Classis Britannica''] at RomanBritain.org</ref> its remnants were later subsumed in the [[Saxon Shore]] system.

By the time of the ''Notitia Dignitatum'', the ''Classis Germanica'' has ceased to exist (it is last mentioned under [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] in 359),<ref>[[Pauly-Wissowa]], III.2645–2646 & XXII.1300</ref> most probably due to the collapse of the [[Limes Germanicus|Rhine frontier]] after the [[Crossing of the Rhine]] by the barbarians in winter 405-406, and the Mauretanian and African fleets had been disbanded or taken over by the [[Vandals]].

===== Fleets in the Eastern Mediterranean =====
As far as the East is concerned, we know from legal sources that the ''Classis Alexandrina''<ref>''[[Codex Justinianus]]'', [http://webu2.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/Corpus/CJ11.htm#2 XI.2.4]</ref> and the ''Classis Seleucena''<ref>''[[Codex Justinianus]]'', [http://webu2.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/Corpus/CJ11.htm#13 XI.13.1]</ref> continued to operate, and that in ca. 400 a ''Classis Carpathia'' was detached from the Syrian fleet and based at the Aegean island of [[Karpathos]].<ref>[[Codex Theodosianus]], XIII.5.32</ref> A fleet is known to have been stationed at Constantinople itself, but no further details are known about it.<ref name="Casson213"/>

=== Ports ===
Major Roman ports were:

* [[Misenum]]
* Classis, near [[Ravenna]]
* [[Alexandria]]
* [[Leptis Magna]]
* [[Ostia Antica (archaeological site)|Ostia]]
* [[Port of Mainz]] (Mogontiacum, river navy on the Rhine)

==See also==
{{Portal|Military of ancient Rome}}

*[[Nemi ships]]
*[[Caligula's Giant Ship]]
* [[Classis Flavia Moesica]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{citation | first = Lionel | last = Casson | title = The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-691-01477-7 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=4Ls6MczXvBEC }}
* {{citation | first = Lionel | last = Casson | title = Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-8018-5130-0}}
* {{citation |last=Cleere |first=Henry |year=1977 |title=The Classis Britannica |journal=[[Council for British Archaeology|CBA]] Research Report |issue=18 |pages=16–19 |url=http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/cbaresrep/pdf/018/01804001.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=2008-10-11 }}
* {{citation | first = Peter | last = Connolly | title = Greece and Rome at War | publisher = Greenhill | year = 1998 | isbn =}}
* {{citation | first = Robert (Ed.) | last = Gardiner | title = AGE OF THE GALLEY: Mediterranean Oared Vessels since pre-Classical Times | publisher = Conway Maritime Press | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-85177-955-3}}
* {{citation | first = Adrian | last = Goldsworthy | title = The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC | publisher = Cassell | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-304-36642-0}}
* {{citation | first = Adrian | last = Goldsworthy | title = The Complete Roman Army | publisher = Thames & Hudson Ltd. | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-500-05124-0}}
* {{citation |title=In the name of Rome: The men who won the Roman Empire |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian |isbn=978-0-7538-1789-6 |year=2007 |publisher=Phoenix|chapter=A Roman Alexander: Pompey the Great}}
* {{citation | last=Gruen | first=Erich S. | title=The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome: Volume II | year=1984 | publisher=[[University of California Press]] | isbn=0-520-04569-6}}
* {{citation | first = Archibald Ross | last = Lewis | coauthors = Runyan, Timothy J. | title = European Naval and Maritime History, 300-1500 | publisher = Indiana University Press | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-253-20573-5}}
* {{citation | last=MacGeorge | first=Penny | title=Late Roman Warlords | year=2002 | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | isbn=978-0-19-925244-2 | chapter = Appendix: Naval Power in the Fifth Century}}
* {{citation | last=Meijer | first=Fik | title=A History of Seafaring in the Classical World | year=1986 | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-0-7099-3565-0 }}
* {{citation | last=Potter | first=David | chapter=The Roman Army and Navy | title=The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic | editor-last=Flower | editor-first=Harriet I. | pages=66–88 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-521-00390-2}}
* {{citation | last=Rodgers | first=William L. | title=Naval Warfare Under Oars, 4th to 16th Centuries: A Study of Strategy, Tactics and Ship Design | year=1967 | publisher=Naval Institute Press| isbn=978-0-87021-487-5 }}
* {{de icon}} {{citation | first = Georg Alexander | last = Rost | title = Vom Seewesen und Seehandel in der Antike | publisher = John Benjamins Publishing Company| year = 1968 | isbn = 90-6032-361-0}}
* {{citation | last=Saddington | first=D.B.| title=A Companion to the Roman Army | chapter=''Classes''. The Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets | editor-last=Erdkamp |editor-first=Paul | year=2007 | publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] Ltd. | isbn=978-1-4051-2153-8}}
* {{citation |last=Starr |first=Chester G. |title=The Roman Imperial Navy: 31 B.C.-A.D. 324 (2nd Edition) |year=1960 |publisher=Cornell University Press }}
* {{citation |last=Starr |first=Chester G. |title=The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History | year=1989 | publisher=Oxford University Press US | isbn=978-0-19-505667-9 }}
* {{citation |last=Treadgold |first=Warren T. |title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society |year=1997 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-2630-2 }}
* {{citation | first = John | last = Warry | title = Warfare in the Classical World | publisher = Salamander Books Ltd. | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-8061-2794-5}}
* {{citation | first = Graham | last = Webster | coauthors = Elton, Hugh | title = The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Centuries A.D. | publisher = University of Oklahoma Press | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-8061-3000-8}}
* {{de icon}} {{citation | first = Gabriele | last = Wesch-Klein | title = Soziale Aspekte des römischen Heerwesens in der Kaiserzeit | publisher = Franz Steiner Verlag | year = 1998 | isbn = 3-515-07300-0}}
* {{citation | first = Bradley | last = Workman-Davies | title = Corvus: A Review of the Design and Use of the Roman Boarding Bridge During the First Punic War 264 -241 B.C. | publisher = Lulu.com | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1-84728-882-0 |url = http://books.google.com/?id=V5TZSAVLIMcC }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* {{it icon}} [http://digilander.libero.it/agenziagiornalisti/ The Imperial fleet of Misenum]
* [http://www.classis-britannica.co.uk/sml/index.htm The Classis Britannica]
* [http://www.roman-empire.net/army/leg-fleet.html The Roman Fleet], ''Roman-Empire.net''
* [http://www.historynet.com/the-roman-navy-masters-of-the-mediterranean.htm The Roman Navy: Masters of the Mediterranean], ''HistoryNet.com''
* ''[http://www.romaeterna.org/galleria/index.html Galleria Navale]'' on [http://www.romaeterna.org/navigare.html Navigare Necesse Est]
* ''[http://www2.rgzm.de/navis/Musea/Ostia/Fiumicino_English.htm Port of Claudius]'', the museum of Roman merchant ships found in Fiumicino (Rome)
* ''[http://nemiship.multiservers.com/ Diana Nemorensis]'', Caligula's ships in the lake of Nemi.
* [http://www2.rgzm.de/Navis/Themes/Flotte/FleetsAndBorder.htm ''Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz'': The Fleets and Roman Border Policy]
* [http://terraromana.org/navis/Forum/index.php Forum Navis Romana]

{{Ancient Rome topics}}


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Sea Octopuses ruled the Romans
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Sea Octopuses ruled the Romans

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