Jump to content

Religious affiliations of presidents of the United States

Checked
Page protected with pending changes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Religious affiliations of United States Presidents)

The majority of American presidents have belonged to Protestant faiths. St. John's Church, an Episcopal church in Washington, D.C., has been visited by every sitting president since James Madison.[1]

Religious affiliations can affect the electability of the presidents of the United States and shape their stances on policy matters and their visions of society and also how they want to lead it. While no president has ever openly identified as an atheist, Thomas Jefferson,[2] Abraham Lincoln,[3][4] and William Howard Taft[5] were speculated to be atheists by their opponents during political campaigns; in addition, a survey during the presidency of Donald Trump showed that 63% of Americans did not believe he was religious, despite his professed Christian affiliation.[6] Conspiracy theorists also falsely circulated rumors that Barack Obama was a Muslim during his 2004 Senate campaign and later time as President. Conversely, other presidents, such as Jimmy Carter, have used their faith as a defining aspect of their campaigns and tenure in office.[7]

Essentially all of the presidents can be characterized as Christians, at least by upbringing, though some were unaffiliated with any specific religious body. Mainline Protestants predominate, with Episcopalians and Presbyterians being the most prevalent. John F. Kennedy was the first Catholic president, and Joe Biden, the current president, is the second.

Formal affiliation

[edit]

The pattern of religious adherence has changed dramatically over the course of United States history, so that the pattern of presidential affiliations is quite unrepresentative of modern membership numbers. For example, Episcopalians are extraordinarily well represented among the presidents compared to a current membership of about 2% of the population; this is partly because the Church of England, from which the Episcopal Church is derived, was the established church in some of the British Colonies (such as New York and Virginia) before the American Revolution. The Episcopal Church has been much larger previously, with its decline in membership occurring only in more recent decades.[8] The first seven presidents listed as Episcopalians were all from Virginia. Unitarians are also overrepresented, reflecting the importance of those colonial churches. Conversely, Baptists are underrepresented, a reflection of their quite recent expansion in numbers; the list includes only two Catholic presidents including the current president, although they are currently the largest single denomination. There have been no Adventist, Anabaptist, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Latter Day Saint, or Pentecostal presidents.

While many presidents did not formally join a church until quite late in life, there is a genre of tales of deathbed conversions. Biographers usually doubt these, though the baptism of James K. Polk is well documented.[9]

Personal beliefs

[edit]

On the other hand, there are several presidents who considered themselves aligned with a particular church, but who withheld from formal affiliation for a time. James Buchanan, for instance, held himself allied with the Presbyterian church, but refrained from joining it until he left office.[10]

Deism and the Founding Fathers

[edit]

Deism was a religious philosophy in common currency in colonial times, and some Founding Fathers (most notably Thomas Paine, who was an explicit proponent of it, and Benjamin Franklin, who spoke of it in his Autobiography) are identified more or less with this system. Thomas Jefferson became a deist in later life, and George Washington, James Madison, James Monroe, and John Tyler are often identified as having some degree of deistic beliefs.[11]

Unitarianism and Nontrinitarianism

[edit]

Four presidents are affiliated with Unitarian churches (not to be confused with Unitarian Universalism), and a fifth (Jefferson) was an exponent of ideas now commonly associated with Unitarianism. Unitarians fall outside of Trinitarian Christianity, and the question arises as to the degree to which the presidents themselves held Christian precepts. The information is generally available in the statements of the presidents themselves; for example, John Quincy Adams left detailed statements of his beliefs. William Howard Taft, a Unitarian, is noted to have said in a letter to a friend, "I am interested in the spread of Christian civilization, but to go into a dogmatic discussion of creed I will not do whether I am defeated or not. ... If the American electorate is so narrow as not to elect a Unitarian, well and good. I can stand it."[12]

While Abraham Lincoln never officially joined a church, there has been some research indicating that he may have had Quaker leanings. During his time in office, he had numerous meetings with Quakers and had investigated a supposed Quaker ancestry.[13]

The only other president with any association with a definitely non-Trinitarian body is Dwight D. Eisenhower, whose parents moved from the River Brethren to the antecedents of the Jehovah's Witnesses. Eisenhower himself was baptized in the Presbyterian church shortly after assuming the presidency, the only president thus far to undergo such a rite while in office; and his attendance at West Point was in sharp opposition to the tenets of the groups to which his parents belonged.[14][15]

Nonreligious presidents

[edit]

There are some presidents for whom there is little evidence as to the importance of religion in their lives. For example, almost no evidence exists for Monroe's personal religious beliefs, though this may be the result of the destruction of most of his personal correspondence, in which religious sentiments may have been recorded. As with claims of deism, these identifications are not without controversy. No president has declared himself to be atheist.[16]

Civic religion

[edit]

St. John's Episcopal Church (built 1815–1816) just across Lafayette Square and north of the White House, is the church nearest to the White House, and its services have been attended at least once by nearly every president since James Madison (1809–1817).[17] Another Episcopal church, Washington National Cathedral, chartered by Congress in 1893, has hosted many funeral and memorial services of presidents and other dignitaries, as well as the site of interfaith presidential prayer services after their inaugurations, and the burial place of Woodrow Wilson.[18]

Throughout history governmental proclamations often include religious language. In at least two cases, presidents saw fit to issue denials that they were atheists. At the same time, this was tempered, especially in early years, by a strong commitment to disestablishment. Several presidents especially stand out as exponents of this. Consideration of this has become increasingly contentious as topics such as civil rights and human sexuality have increasingly put churches at odds with each other and with the government.[19]

List of presidents by religious affiliation

[edit]
No. Name Religion Branch Further Branch Denomination Years in office
1 George Washington Christian Protestant Anglican Arms of the Episcopal Church Episcopalian 1789–1797
2 John Adams Christian Nontrinitarian Unitarian 1797–1801
3 Thomas Jefferson Unknown; possibly Deism 1801–1809
4 James Madison Christian Protestant Anglican Arms of the Episcopal Church Episcopalian 1809–1817
5 James Monroe Christian Protestant Anglican Arms of the Episcopal Church Episcopalian 1817–1825
6 John Quincy Adams Christian Nontrinitarian Unitarian Unitarian 1825–1829
7 Andrew Jackson Christian Protestant Reformed Presbyterian 1829–1837
8 Martin Van Buren Christian Protestant Reformed Dutch Reformed 1837–1841
9 William Henry Harrison Christian Protestant Anglican Arms of the Episcopal Church Episcopalian 1841–1841
10 John Tyler Christian Protestant Anglican Arms of the Episcopal Church Episcopalian 1841–1845
11 James K. Polk Christian Protestant Methodist Methodist Episcopal 1845–1849
12 Zachary Taylor Christian Protestant Anglican Arms of the Episcopal Church Episcopalian 1849–1850
13 Millard Fillmore Christian Nontrinitarian Unitarian 1850–1853
14 Franklin Pierce Christian Protestant Reformed Congregationalist 1853–1857
15 James Buchanan Christian Protestant Reformed Presbyterian 1857–1861
16 Abraham Lincoln Christian None specified 1861–1865
17 Andrew Johnson Christian Protestant Nondenominational 1865–1869
18 Ulysses S. Grant Christian[20] Protestant Methodist[20] Methodist Episcopal 1869–1877
19 Rutherford B. Hayes Christian Protestant Nondenominational[21] 1877–1881
20 James A. Garfield Christian Restorationist Stone–Campbell Churches of Christ 1881–1881
21 Chester A. Arthur Christian Protestant Anglican Arms of the Episcopal Church Episcopalian 1881–1885
22/24 Grover Cleveland Christian Protestant Reformed Presbyterian 1885–1889; 1893–1897
23 Benjamin Harrison Christian Protestant Reformed Presbyterian 1889–1893
25 William McKinley Christian Protestant Methodist Methodist Episcopal 1897–1901
26 Theodore Roosevelt Christian Protestant Reformed Dutch Reformed 1901–1909
27 William Howard Taft Christian Nontrinitarian Unitarian Unitarian 1909–1913
28 Woodrow Wilson Christian Protestant Reformed Southern Presbyterian 1913–1921
29 Warren G. Harding Christian Protestant Baptist Northern Baptist 1921–1923
30 Calvin Coolidge Christian Protestant Reformed Congregationalist 1923–1929
31 Herbert Hoover Christian Protestant Quaker[22] 1929–1933
32 Franklin D. Roosevelt Christian Protestant Anglican Arms of the Episcopal Church Episcopalian 1933–1945
33 Harry S. Truman Christian Protestant Baptist 1945–1953
34 Dwight D. Eisenhower Christian Protestant Reformed United Presbyterian 1953–1961
35 John F. Kennedy Christian Catholic Latin Church 1961–1963
36 Lyndon B. Johnson Christian Restorationist Stone–Campbell Disciples of Christ 1963–1969
37 Richard Nixon Christian Protestant Quaker[22] 1969–1974
38 Gerald R. Ford Christian Protestant Anglican Arms of the Episcopal Church Episcopalian 1974–1977
39 Jimmy Carter Christian Protestant Baptist Southern Baptist 1977–1981
40 Ronald Reagan Christian Protestant Reformed Presbyterian 1981–1989
41 George H. W. Bush Christian Protestant Anglican Arms of the Episcopal Church Episcopalian 1989–1993
42 Bill Clinton Christian Protestant Baptist Southern Baptist 1993–2001
43 George W. Bush Christian Protestant Methodist United Methodist 2001–2009
44 Barack Obama Christian Protestant Nondenominational[23] 2009–2017
45 Donald Trump Christian Protestant Nondenominational[24] 2017–2021
46 Joe Biden Christian Catholic Latin Church 2021–present

List of presidents with details on their religious affiliation

[edit]

For each president, the formal affiliation at the time of his presidency is listed first, with other affiliations listed after. Further explanation follows if needed, as well as notable detail.

  1. George Washington – Episcopalian and Deist[25]
    Main article: George Washington and religion
  2. John Adams – Unitarian[26]
  3. Thomas Jefferson – None specified, likely Deist[33][34]
    Main article: Thomas Jefferson and religion

    Like many others of his time (he died just one year after the founding of institutional Unitarianism in America), Jefferson was a Unitarian in theology, though not in church membership. He never joined a Unitarian congregation: there were none near his home in Virginia during his lifetime. He regularly attended Joseph Priestley's Pennsylvania church when he was nearby, and said that Priestley's theology was his own, and there is no doubt Priestley should be identified as Unitarian. Jefferson remained a member of the Episcopal congregation near his home, but removed himself from those available to become godparents, because he was not sufficiently in agreement with the Trinitarian theology. His work, the Jefferson Bible, was Unitarian in theology ...

    • In a letter to Benjamin Rush prefacing his "Syllabus of an Estimate of the Merit of the Doctrines of Jesus", Jefferson wrote:

    In some of the delightful conversations with you, in the evenings of 1798–99, and which served as an anodyne to the afflictions of the crisis through which our country was then laboring, the Christian religion was sometimes our topic; and I then promised you, that one day or other, I would give you my views of it. They are the result of a life of inquiry & reflection, and very different from that anti-Christian system imputed to me by those who know nothing of my opinions. To the corruptions of Christianity I am indeed opposed; but not to the genuine precepts of Jesus himself. I am a Christian, in the only sense he wished any one to be; sincerely attached to his doctrines, in preference to all others; ascribing to himself every human excellence; & believing he never claimed any other.[37]

    You are right in supposing, in one of yours, that I had not read much of Priestley's Predestination, his No-soul system, or his controversy with Horsley. but I have read his Corruptions of Christianity, & Early opinions of Jesus, over and over again; and I rest on them, and on Middleton's writings, especially his letters from Rome, and to Waterland, as the basis of my own faith. these writings have never been answered, nor can be answered, by quoting historical proofs, as they have done. for these facts therefore I cling to their learning, so much superior to my own.[38]

  4. James Madison – Episcopalian and Deist[39]
    • Although Madison tried to keep a low profile in regards to religion, he seemed to hold religious opinions, like many of his contemporaries, that were closer to deism or Unitarianism in theology than conventional Christianity. He was raised in the Church of England and attended Episcopal services, despite his personal disputes with the theology.[40]
  5. James Monroe – Episcopalian
    • Monroe was raised in a family that belonged to the Church of England when it was the state church in Virginia, and as an adult attended Episcopal churches.[41]
    • "When it comes to Monroe's ... thoughts on religion", Bliss Isely comments in his The Presidents: Men of Faith, "less is known than that of any other President." Monroe burned much of his correspondence with his wife, and no letters survive in which he discusses his religious beliefs; nor did his friends, family or associates write about his beliefs. Letters that do survive, such as ones written on the occasion of the death of his son, contain no discussion of religion.[41]
    • Some authors conclude that Monroe's writings show evidence of "deistic tendencies".[41]
  6. John Quincy Adams – Unitarian[42]
    • Adams's religious views shifted over the course of his life. In college and early adulthood he preferred trinitarian theology, and from 1818 to 1848 he served as vice president of the American Bible Society.[43] However, as he grew older his views became more typically Unitarian, though he rejected some of the views of Joseph Priestley and the Transcendentalists.[43]
    • He was a founding member of the First Unitarian Church of Washington (D.C.).[43] However he regularly attended Presbyterian and Episcopal services as well.[43]
    • Towards the end of his life, he wrote, "I reverence God as my creator. As creator of the world. I reverence him with holy fear. I venerate Jesus Christ as my redeemer; and, as far as I can understand, the redeemer of the world. But this belief is dark and dubious."[43]
  7. Andrew Jackson – Presbyterian[44]
    • He became a member of the Presbyterian Church about a year after leaving the presidency.[45]
  8. Martin Van Buren – Dutch Reformed[46]
  9. William Henry Harrison – Episcopalian[50]
  10. John Tyler – Episcopalian[52]
    • Although affiliated with the Episcopal church, he did not take "a denominational approach to God."[53] Tyler was a strong supporter of religious tolerance and separation of church and state.
  11. James K. Polk – Methodist[54]
    • Polk came from a Presbyterian upbringing but was not baptized as a child, due to a dispute with the local Presbyterian minister in rural North Carolina. Polk's father and grandfather were Deists, and the minister refused to baptize James unless his father affirmed Christianity, which he would not do.[55][56] Polk had a conversion experience at a Methodist camp meeting when he was thirty-eight, and thereafter considered himself Methodist. Nevertheless, he continued to attend Presbyterian services with his wife, though he went to the local Methodist chapel when she was ill or out of town. On his deathbed, he summoned the Rev. John B. McFerrin, who had converted him years before, to baptize him.[54]
  12. Zachary Taylor – Episcopalian[57]
    • Although raised an Episcopalian and married to a devout Episcopalian, he never became a full communicant member in the church.[57]
  13. Millard Fillmore – Unitarian[58]
  14. Franklin Pierce – Episcopalian[59]
  15. James Buchanan – Presbyterian[60]
    • Buchanan, raised a Presbyterian, attended and supported various churches throughout his life. He joined the Presbyterian Church after leaving the presidency.[61]
  16. Abraham Lincoln – Christianity, no branch specified.
    • Life before the presidency
      • Some believe that for much of his life, Lincoln was a Deist.[62]
      • Rev. Dr. Phineas D. Gurley, pastor of the New York Avenue Presbyterian church in Washington D.C., which Lincoln attended with his wife when he attended any church, never claimed a conversion. According to D. James Kennedy in his booklet, "What They Believed: The Faith of Washington, Jefferson, and Lincoln", "Dr. Gurley said that Lincoln had wanted to make a public profession of his faith on Easter Sunday morning. But then came Ford's Theater." (p. 59, Published by Coral Ridge Ministries, 2003) Though this is possible, we have no way of verifying the truth of the report. The chief evidence against it is that Dr. Gurley, so far as we know, never mentioned it publicly. The determination to join, if accurate, would have been extremely newsworthy. It would have been reasonable for Dr. Gurley to have mentioned it at the funeral in the White House, in which he delivered the sermon which has been preserved.[63] The only evidence we have is an affidavit signed more than sixty years later by Mrs. Sidney I. Lauck, then a very old woman. In her affidavit signed under oath in Essex County, New Jersey, February 15, 1928, she said, "After Mr. Lincoln's death, Dr. Gurley told me that Mr. Lincoln had made all the necessary arrangements with him and the Session of the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church to be received into the membership of the said church, by confession of his faith in Christ, on the Easter Sunday following the Friday night when Mr. Lincoln was assassinated." Mrs. Lauck was, she said, about thirty years of age at the time of the assassination.
  17. Andrew Johnson – No formal affiliation[64]
    • He accompanied his wife Eliza McCardle Johnson to Methodist services sometimes, belonged to no church himself, and sometimes attended Catholic services—remarking favorably that there was no reserved seating.[65]
  18. Ulysses S. Grant – Methodist[11]
    • Grant was never baptized into any church, though he accompanied his wife Julia Grant to Methodist services. Many sources list his religious affiliation as Methodist based on a Methodist minister's account of a deathbed conversion. He did leave a note for his wife in which he hoped to meet her again in a better world.
    • In his 1875 State of the Union address, during conflicts over Catholic parochial schooling, Grant called for a constitutional amendment that would require all states to establish free public schools while "forbidding the teaching in said schools of religious, atheistic, or pagan tenets; and prohibiting the granting of any school funds or school taxes ... for the benefit ... of any religious sect or denomination."[66] The proposed Blaine Amendment to the Constitution followed.
  19. Rutherford B. Hayes – Unspecified Protestant
    • Hayes came from a Presbyterian family, but attended Methodist schools as a youth.[67]
    • Many sources list him as Methodist; in general, however, it is agreed that he held himself to be a Christian, but of no specific church.[68]
    • In his diary entry for May 17, 1890, he states: "Writing a few words for Mohonk Negro Conference, I find myself using the word Christian. I am not a subscriber to any creed. I belong to no church. But in a sense, satisfactory to myself and believed by me to be important, I try to be a Christian, or rather I want to be a Christian and to help do Christian work."[69]
    • Hayes' wife, Lucy, was a Methodist, a temperance advocate, and deeply opposed to slavery; he generally attended church with her.[68]
  20. James Garfield – Churches of Christ[70]
    • He was baptized at age eighteen.[70]
    • Through his twenties, Garfield preached and held revival meetings, though he was never formally a minister within the church.[70]
    • Charles J. Guiteau attempted to assassinate Garfield at a sermon.[71]
  21. Chester A. Arthur – Episcopalian[72]
  22. Grover Cleveland – Presbyterian[74]
  23. Benjamin Harrison – Presbyterian[75]
    • Harrison became a church elder, and taught Sunday school.
  24. Grover Cleveland – Presbyterian
  25. William McKinley – Methodist[76]
    • Early in life, he planned to become a Methodist minister.[77]
    • James Rusling, a McKinley supporter, related a story that McKinley had addressed a church delegation and had stated that one of the objectives of the Spanish–American War was "to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them".[78] Recent historians have judged this account unreliable, especially in light of implausible[vague] statements Rusling made about Lincoln's religion.[79][80]
    • McKinley is the only president to include exclusively Christian language in his Thanksgiving Day proclamation.[81]
  26. Theodore Roosevelt – Dutch Reformed[82]
    • Roosevelt always stated that he was Dutch Reformed; however, he attended Episcopal churches where there was no Reformed church nearby. (His second wife Edith was Episcopalian from birth.)[82] As there was no Dutch Reformed church in Oyster Bay, New York, he attended Christ Church Oyster Bay when in residence there, and it was in that church that his funeral was held.[82]
    • His mother was Presbyterian and as a child he attended Presbyterian churches with her.[83]
  27. William Howard Taft – Unitarian[84]
    • Before becoming president, Taft was offered the presidency of Yale University, at that time affiliated with the Congregationalist Church; Taft turned the post down, saying, "I do not believe in the divinity of Christ."[85]
    • Taft's beliefs were the subject of some controversy, and in 1908 he found it necessary to refute a rumor that he was an atheist.[5]
    • During his presidency he attended All Souls Church[84]
  28. Woodrow Wilson – Presbyterian[86]
    • Wilson's father was a Presbyterian minister and professor of theology.[86]
    • Prior to being governor of New Jersey and president of the United States, Wilson served as president of Princeton University, which was at the time affiliated with the Presbyterian Church.[86]
  29. Warren G. Harding – Northern Baptist[87][88]
  30. Calvin Coolidge – Congregationalist[89][90]
    • Coolidge attended Edwards Congregational Church in Northampton, Massachusetts, which was affiliated with the National Council of Congregational Churches.
  31. Herbert Hoover – Quaker[91]
    • As Quakers customarily do not swear oaths, it was expected that Hoover would affirm the oath of office, and most sources state that he did so.[92][93] However, a Washington Post article dated February 27, 1929, stated that he planned to swear, rather than affirm, the oath.[94]
  32. Franklin D. Roosevelt – Episcopalian[95]
  33. Harry S. Truman – Baptist[96]
    • Truman kept his religious beliefs private and alienated some Baptist leaders by doing so.[97]
  34. Dwight D. Eisenhower – Presbyterian[14]
    • Eisenhower's religious upbringing is the subject of some controversy, due to the conversion of his parents to the Bible Student movement, the forerunner of the Jehovah's Witnesses, in the late 1890s. Originally, the family belonged to the River Brethren, a Mennonite sect.[14] According to the Eisenhower Presidential Library, there is no evidence that Eisenhower participated in either the Bible Student group or the Jehovah's Witnesses, and there are records that show he attended Sunday school at a River Brethren church.[14]
    • Until he became president, Eisenhower had no formal church affiliation, a circumstance he attributed to the frequent moves demanded of an Army officer. He was baptized, confirmed, and became a communicant in the Presbyterian church in a single ceremony February 1, 1953, just 12 days after his first inauguration, the only president to undergo any of these rites while in office.[14]
    • Eisenhower was instrumental in the addition of the words "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance in 1954 (an act highly promoted by the Knights of Columbus), and the 1956 adoption of "In God We Trust" as the motto of the US, and its 1957 introduction on paper currency. He composed a prayer for his first inauguration, began his Cabinet meetings with silent prayer, and met frequently with a wide range of religious leaders while in office.[14]
    • His presidential library includes an inter-denominational chapel in which he, his wife Mamie, and his firstborn son (who died in childhood) are buried.
  35. John F. Kennedy – Roman Catholic[98]
    • Kennedy was the first Catholic president.
  36. Lyndon B. Johnson – Disciples of Christ[99]
  37. Richard M. Nixon – Quaker[100]
    • Contrary to Quaker custom, Nixon swore the oath of office at both of his inaugurations. He also engaged in military service, contrary to the Quaker doctrine of pacifism.
  38. Gerald R. Ford – Episcopalian[101]
  39. Jimmy Carter – Baptist[102]
  40. Ronald Reagan – Presbyterian[108]
    • Reagan's father was Catholic,[109] but Reagan was raised in his mother's Disciples of Christ denomination and was baptized there on September 21, 1922.[110] Nancy and Ronald Reagan were married in the Disciples of Christ "Little Brown Church" in Studio City, California on March 4, 1952. Beginning in 1963 Reagan generally attended Presbyterian church services at Bel Air Presbyterian Church, Bel-Air, California. During his presidency he rarely attended church services, due to the inconvenience to others in the congregation.[111] He became an official member of Bel Air Presbyterian after leaving the presidency. Reagan stated that he considered himself a "born-again Christian".[108]
  41. George H. W. Bush – Episcopalian[112]
  42. Bill Clinton – Baptist[114]
    • Clinton, during his presidency, attended a Methodist church in Washington along with his wife Hillary Clinton, who is Methodist from childhood.[115]
  43. George W. Bush – Methodist[116]
    • Bush was raised in the Episcopal Church but converted to Methodism upon his marriage in 1977.[116]
    • Bush has been noted as one the most religious US presidents. He attributes his deep faith to a 1985 meeting with Billy Graham, an influential preacher in the evangelical movement, and researchers have debated his closeness to Evangelicals and his true religious views. Although considered an ally of the American evangelical movement in office, and claimed as an evangelical by some in the movement, Bush has never claimed to be born again and has not fully embraced standard evangelical doctrines. NBC News interviewed several theologians and colleagues of Bush, and their descriptions of his religious views varied, including "mainstream evangelical with a higher-than-normal tolerance of dissent", "conservative Christian [but] less doctrinaire than his faith would suggest", ecumenical "mere Christian", and "indigenous West Texas evangelical piety".[117]
  44. Barack Obama – Unspecified Protestant[23]
  45. Donald Trump – Unspecified Protestant[24]
  46. Joe Biden – Roman Catholic[129]

Affiliation totals

[edit]
Religion # Branch # Further branch # Denomination #
Christian 44 Protestant 37 Anglican 11 Arms of the Episcopal Church Episcopalian 11
Calvinist 10 Presbyterian 4
Southern Presbyterian 1
United Presbyterian 1
Presbyterian 1
Dutch Reformed 2
Congregationalist 1
Methodist 4 Methodist Episcopalian 3
United Methodist 1
Baptist 4 No specific denomination 1
Northern Baptist 1
Southern Baptist 2
Restorationist 2 Churches of Christ 1
Disciples of Christ 1
Quaker 2
Nondenominational 4
Nontrinitarian 4 Unitarian 4 No specific denomination 2
Unitarian 2
Roman Catholic 2 Latin Church 2
None Specified 1
None specified 1
Total individuals[132] 45[a]
  1. ^ Grover Cleveland, who was both the 22nd and 24th president, is only counted once.

See also

[edit]
Other countries

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "St. John's Church". WHHA. Archived from the original on October 5, 2020. Retrieved December 20, 2020.
  2. ^ Sanford, Charles B. (1984). The Religious Life of Thomas Jefferson. Charlottesville: Univ Press Of Virginia. p. 246. ISBN 0-8139-1131-1.
  3. ^ Richard N. Ostling. "Book lays out story of Lincoln' complex beliefs". Associated Press. Archived from the original on April 3, 2007. Retrieved May 26, 2007.
  4. ^ "Abraham Lincoln's Humanistic Religious Beliefs". Archived from the original on January 25, 2007. Retrieved May 26, 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  5. ^ a b "Taft as a Churchman; Belongs to Unitarian Church of Cincinnati, and Has a Pew in Washington" (PDF). New York Times. June 17, 1908. p. 2. Retrieved February 16, 2008. Word reached Washington to-day that the report is being energetically circulated that Secretary Taft is an atheist, and the Secretary's friends are indignant.
  6. ^ Fahmy, Dalia (March 25, 2020). "Most Americans don't see Trump as religious; fewer than half say they think he's Christian". Pew Research Center. Retrieved April 21, 2023.
  7. ^ "1980 - Bible". The Living Room Candidate. Museum of the Moving Image.
  8. ^ Colonial Williamsburg website has four articles on religion in colonial Virginia
  9. ^ Byrnes, Mark Eaton (2001). James K. Polk: A Biographical Companion. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 52. ISBN 9781576070567 – via Google Books. On his deathbed Polk was baptized into the Methodist church.
  10. ^ "Timeline | Articles and Essays | James Buchanan and Harriet Lane Johnston Papers | Digital Collections | Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Retrieved May 22, 2021.
  11. ^ a b "Religious Affiliation of U.S. Presidents". adherents.com. Archived from the original on May 9, 2007. Retrieved May 26, 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  12. ^ Terzian, Philip (November 4, 2011), Weekly Standard: Bigoted Against Brigham's Faith?, National Public Radio
  13. ^ Bassuk, Daniel. (1987). "Abraham Lincoln and the Quakers". Pendle Hill Quaker Center for Study and Contemplation.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Pankratz, Herbert (July 2001). "A Guide to Historical Holdings in the Dwight D. Eisenhower Library: Eisenhower and Religion" (PDF). United States Archives. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 16, 2008. Retrieved February 15, 2008.
  15. ^ Worship the Only True God, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 2002, p. 159.
  16. ^ Kurtzleben, Danielle (June 12, 2015). "'Religious Nones' Are Growing Quickly. Should Republicans Worry?". NPR. Retrieved September 30, 2016.
  17. ^ "History – St. John's Church". June 18, 2023.
  18. ^ "Timeline".
  19. ^ Miroff, Bruce; et al. (2011). Debating Democracy: A Reader in American Politics. Cengage Learning. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-495-91347-4. Retrieved February 14, 2017.
  20. ^ a b "Religion of Ulysses S Grant, U.S. President". adherents.com. Archived from the original on July 3, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  21. ^ "The religion of Rutherford B. Hayes, 19th U.S. President". adherents.com. Archived from the original on July 3, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  22. ^ a b There are no Quaker denominations as such to be compared with, for example, the United Methodist Church or the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and there never were. Quakers are independent of being affiliated with a specific denomination and Quaker membership can only be more or less estimated on their yearly meetings which provides a contentious image of how many Quakers there really are.
  23. ^ a b * "American President: Barack Obama". Charlottesville, VA: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. 2009. Archived from the original on January 23, 2009. Retrieved January 23, 2009. Religion: Christian * "The Truth about Barack's Faith" (PDF). Obama for America. Archived from the original on January 5, 2011. Retrieved July 1, 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) * Miller, Lisa (July 18, 2008). "Finding his faith". Newsweek. Archived from the original on February 6, 2010. Retrieved February 4, 2010. He is now a Christian, having been baptized in the early 1990s at Trinity United Church of Christ in Chicago. * Barakat, Matthew (November 17, 2008). "Obama's church choice likely to be scrutinized; D.C. churches have started extending invitations to Obama and his family". NBC News. Associated Press. Retrieved January 20, 2009. The United Church of Christ, the denomination from which Obama resigned when he left Wright's church, issued a written invitation to join a UCC denomination in Washington and resume his connections to the church. * "Barack Obama, long time UCC member, inaugurated forty-fourth U.S. President". United Church of Christ. January 20, 2009. Archived from the original on January 25, 2009. Retrieved January 21, 2009. Barack Obama, who spent more than 20 years as a UCC member, is the forty-fourth President of the United States. * Sullivan, Amy (June 29, 2009). "The Obama's find a church home – away from home". Time. New York. Retrieved February 5, 2010. instead of joining a congregation in Washington, D.C., he will follow in George W. Bush's footsteps and make his primary place of worship Evergreen Chapel, the nondenominational church at Camp David. * Kornblut, Anne E. (February 4, 2010). "Obama's spirituality is largely private, but it's influential, advisers say". The Washington Post. p. A6. Retrieved February 5, 2010. Obama prays privately ... And when he takes his family to Camp David on the weekends, a Navy chaplain ministers to them, with the daughters attending a form of Sunday school there.
  24. ^ a b c Jenkins, Jack (October 24, 2020). "Trump, confirmed a Presbyterian, now identifies as 'non-denominational Christian'". America Magazine.
  25. ^ "The Religion of George Washington". adherents.com. Archived from the original on July 3, 2014. Retrieved September 19, 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  26. ^ "American President: John Adams". Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Archived from the original on January 16, 2009. Retrieved January 23, 2009.
  27. ^ a b "Religion and the Founding of the American Republic: Religion and the Federal Government". Library of Congress. June 4, 1998. Retrieved January 23, 2009.
  28. ^ George Willis Cooke. "Unitarianism in America" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 17, 2012. Retrieved June 23, 2011.
  29. ^ Wesley White (2008). "The Roots of Our Belief" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2012. Retrieved June 23, 2011.
  30. ^ "Darlington Congregational Church: Our History". Retrieved June 23, 2011.
  31. ^ "John Adams". Unitarian Universalist Association. Archived from the original on December 31, 2002. Retrieved April 22, 2007.
  32. ^ "Founders Online: From John Adams to Benjamin Rush, 28 August 1811". founders.archives.gov. Retrieved February 22, 2019.
  33. ^ a b "The Religion of Thomas Jefferson". adherents.com. Archived from the original on July 3, 2014. Retrieved January 23, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  34. ^ "American President: Thomas Jefferson". Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Archived from the original on February 3, 2009. Retrieved January 23, 2009.
  35. ^ Gaustad, Edwin S. (1995). Sworn of the Altar of God: A Religious Biography of Thomas Jefferson. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-8028-0156-2. Retrieved October 7, 2013.
  36. ^ "Thomas Jefferson". Unitarian Universalist Association. Archived from the original on May 15, 2007. Retrieved May 26, 2007.
  37. ^ transcript from "Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Benjamin Rush". beliefnet. Retrieved December 30, 2008. The original letter may be viewed on the Library of Congress website here [1].
  38. ^ transcript from "Thomas Jefferson to John Adams". US National Archives. Retrieved December 5, 2018.
  39. ^ "American President: James Madison". Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Archived from the original on January 24, 2009. Retrieved January 26, 2009.
  40. ^ James Hutson (March 16, 2001). "James Madison and the Social Utility of Religion: Risks vs. Rewards". Library of Congress. Retrieved May 26, 2007.
  41. ^ a b c David Holmes (Autumn 2003). "The Religion of James Monroe". Virginia Quarterly Review. Retrieved May 26, 2007.
  42. ^ "American President: John Quincy Adams: Family Life". Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Archived from the original on May 2, 2008. Retrieved April 16, 2008.
  43. ^ a b c d e "John Quincy Adams". Unitarian Universalist Association. Retrieved April 16, 2008.
  44. ^ "American President: Andrew Jackson". Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Retrieved January 22, 2009.
  45. ^ Wilentz, Sean (2005). Andrew Jackson. Macmillan. p. 160.
  46. ^ "American President: Martin Van Buren". University of Virginia Miller Center of Public Affairs. Archived from the original on November 12, 2008. Retrieved October 8, 2008.
  47. ^ "Martin Van Buren". Kinderhook Connection. Retrieved October 8, 2008.
  48. ^ "Presidential portraits: Martin Van Buren". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on October 25, 2012. Retrieved October 8, 2008.
  49. ^ Lamb, Brian (February 9, 2010). Who's Buried in Grant's Tomb. PublicAffairs. ISBN 9781586488703.
  50. ^ "American President: William Henry Harrison". University of Virginia Miller Center of Public Affairs. Archived from the original on March 8, 2008. Retrieved April 9, 2008.
  51. ^ "The American Presidency: Harrison, William Henry". Encyclopedia Americana. Archived from the original on April 21, 2008. Retrieved April 9, 2008.
  52. ^ "American President: John Tyler". University of Virginia Miller Center of Public Affairs. Archived from the original on April 10, 2008. Retrieved April 22, 2008.
  53. ^ Seager II, Robert (1963). And Tyler too: A Biography of John and Julia Gardiner Tyler. McGraw-Hill. p. 109.
  54. ^ a b "American President: James Knox Polk: Family Life". University of Virginia Miller Center of Public Affairs. Archived from the original on May 2, 2008. Retrieved April 9, 2008.
  55. ^ "Religion of James Polk, U.S. President". Archived from the original on November 19, 2005.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  56. ^ Seigenthaler, John (2003). James K Polk. Times Books. ISBN 0-8050-6942-9. Retrieved July 24, 2008.
  57. ^ a b "The Religious Affiliation of 12th U.S. President Zachary Taylor". adherents.com. Archived from the original on February 15, 2006. Retrieved February 23, 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  58. ^ "American President: Millard Fillmore". Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Archived from the original on April 20, 2008. Retrieved May 22, 2008.
  59. ^ "Almost all U.S. presidents, including Trump, have been Christians". Pew Research Center. January 20, 2017. Retrieved February 4, 2017.
  60. ^ "American President: James Buchanan". Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Archived from the original on March 2, 2008. Retrieved March 19, 2008.
  61. ^ Baker, Jean H. (2004). James Buchanan. New York: Henry Holt and company. p. 143. ISBN 0805069461.
  62. ^ Six Historic Americans: Abraham Lincoln John E. Remsburg, 1906
  63. ^ White House Funeral Sermon for President Lincoln Abraham Lincoln Online
  64. ^ "American President: Andrew Johnson". Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Archived from the original on November 5, 2008. Retrieved October 8, 2008.
  65. ^ "American President: Andrew Johnson: Family Life". Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Archived from the original on July 19, 2008. Retrieved October 8, 2008.
  66. ^ "American Presidency Project: Ulysses S. Grant: Seventh Annual Message". December 7, 1875. Retrieved February 13, 2012.
  67. ^ Trefousse, Hans L. (2002). Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. (ed.). Rutherford B. Hayes. Macmillan. pp. 3–5.
  68. ^ a b "Frequently asked questions". Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center. Archived from the original on February 7, 2008. Retrieved February 25, 2008. The president never espoused a particular religion, but attended Methodist Church with his wife Lucy.
  69. ^ Charles Richard Williams, ed. (1922). "May 17, 1890". The Diary and Letters of Rutherford B. Hayes, Nineteenth President of the United States. Vol. IV. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State Archeological and Historical Society. Archived from the original on April 29, 2012.
  70. ^ a b c Green, F. M. (1906). "Some Pioneers, and Others Who Have Been Prominent in the Restoration Movement: James A. Garfield". In John T. Brown (ed.). Churches of Christ. Louisville, Kentucky: John P. Morton and Company. pp. 412–414. Retrieved February 19, 2008.
  71. ^ Millard, Candice (2011). Destiny of the Republic: A Tale of Madness, Medicine, and the Murder of a President. Doubleday. pp. 119–120. ISBN 978-0-385-52626-5.
  72. ^ a b "American President: Chester Alan Arthur". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on June 3, 2009. Retrieved February 27, 2008.
  73. ^ "Ellen Lewis Herndon Arthur". White House. Retrieved September 21, 2015.
  74. ^ "Biography of Grover Cleveland". whitehouse.gov. Archived from the original on August 3, 2010. Retrieved February 16, 2008 – via National Archives.
  75. ^ "The Religious Affiliation of Benjamin Harrison 23rd U.S. President". Adherents.com. Archived from the original on March 2, 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  76. ^ "American President: William McKinley". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on March 2, 2008. Retrieved February 26, 2008.
  77. ^ "President William McKinley: A Life in Brief". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on March 10, 2008. Retrieved February 26, 2008.
  78. ^ Rusling, James (January 22, 1903). "Interview with President William McKinley". The Christian Advocate: 17. ISBN 9780896082755. Reprinted in Daniel Schirmer; Stephen Rosskamm Shalom, eds. (1987). The Philippines Reader. Boston: South End Press. pp. 22–23.
  79. ^ Shenkman, Richard (1992). Legends, Lies, and Cherished Myths of American History. HarperCollins. p. 38. ISBN 9780062098870. Retrieved October 7, 2013.
  80. ^ Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Spanish–American War and President McKinley. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. pp. 107–108. ISBN 9780700602278. Retrieved October 7, 2013.
  81. ^ "1900 Thanksgiving Proclamation". Archived from the original on February 7, 2012. ... the sentiments of sympathy and Christian charity by virtue of which we are one united people.
  82. ^ a b c "The Religion of Theodore Roosevelt". Theodore Roosevelt Association. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved February 27, 2008.
  83. ^ Theodore Roosevelt (1913). "Boyhood and Youth". An Autobiography. United Kingdom: Dodo Press. ISBN 1-4065-0606-0.
  84. ^ a b "William Howard Taft". Unitarian Universalist Association. Archived from the original on May 15, 2007. Retrieved May 26, 2007.
  85. ^ Burton, David Henry (1998). Taft, Holmes, and the 1920s Court: An Appraisal. Madison, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 24. ISBN 9780838637685. Retrieved February 16, 2008.
  86. ^ a b c Smith, Gary Scott (2006). "Woodrow Wilson: Presbyterian Statesman". Faith and the Presidency: From George Washington to George W. Bush. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press US. pp. 159 ff. ISBN 9780198041153. Retrieved February 16, 2008.
  87. ^ "American President:Warren G. Harding". Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Retrieved February 21, 2012.
  88. ^ "Trinity Baptist Church – Marion, Ohio: History And Development" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 18, 2008. Retrieved February 16, 2008.
  89. ^ Thomas, Rushad L. (April 11, 2017). "The Pilgrim's Faith: Coolidge and Religion". Calvin Coolidge Presidential Foundation. Retrieved February 23, 2020.
  90. ^ Shlaes, Amity (March 10, 2013). "alvin Coolidge's faith was the secret to his success". Fox News. Retrieved February 23, 2020.
  91. ^ "The Religious Affiliation of U.S. President Herbert Hoover". adherents.com. Archived from the original on February 7, 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  92. ^ "Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies". Archived from the original on February 12, 2008. Retrieved February 15, 2008.
  93. ^ "U.S. Swearing-in Ceremonies Highlight Religious Freedom Legacy: Constitutionally, religion is not a qualification for office". U.S. Department of State's Bureau of International Information Programs. January 4, 2007. Archived from the original on February 13, 2008. Retrieved February 15, 2008.
  94. ^ "Hoover Plans to Swear on Bible, Taking Oath". Washington Post. February 27, 1929. p. 5. Archived from the original on April 28, 2015. Herbert Hoover, in taking the oath of office March 4, will swear – not affirm – with one hand on an old family Quaker Bible, that contains the date of his own birth.
  95. ^ "The Religious Affiliation of 32nd U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt". adherents.com. Archived from the original on February 15, 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  96. ^ "The Religious Affiliation of U.S. President Harry S. Truman". adherents.com. Archived from the original on February 20, 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  97. ^ Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, & World Affairs. "Harry S. Truman". Archived from the original on November 13, 2014. Retrieved November 12, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  98. ^ "The Religious Affiliation of U.S. President John F. Kennedy". adherents.com. Archived from the original on February 7, 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  99. ^ "The Religious Affiliation of U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson". adherents.com. Archived from the original on February 11, 2006.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  100. ^ "American President: Richard Nixon". Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Archived from the original on March 12, 2012. Retrieved February 21, 2012.
  101. ^ "Gerald R. Ford – Facts and Favorites". Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and Museum. Retrieved February 10, 2008.
  102. ^ "Jimmy Carter splits with Baptists". BBC. October 21, 2000. Retrieved May 26, 2007.
  103. ^ Newport, Frank (March 24, 2023). "Jimmy Carter and the Challenge of Identifying Evangelicals". Gallup. Retrieved August 17, 2023.
  104. ^ "Jimmy Carter Leaves Southern Baptists". ABC News. Retrieved August 17, 2023.
  105. ^ Yan, Holly (February 20, 2023). "Jimmy Carter's church asks for comfort for his family as the former president enters hospice care". CNN. Retrieved August 17, 2023.
  106. ^ Carla Hinton, Ex-president Jimmy Carter works to unite all Baptists, oklahoman.com, US, July 25, 2009
  107. ^ Cooperman, Alan (January 21, 2007). "Carter, Clinton Seek To Bring Together Moderate Baptists Exiles From Conservative Group Targeted". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 23, 2021. Retrieved August 23, 2021.
  108. ^ a b "Ronald Reagan Facts". Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation and Library. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved February 15, 2008.
  109. ^ "CNN Special: Ronald Reagan 1911–2004". CNN.com. Retrieved February 28, 2008.
  110. ^ "Timeline of Ronald Reagan's Life". PBS. Archived from the original on January 3, 2008. Retrieved February 15, 2008.
  111. ^ Kengor, Paul (2007). "Ronald Reagan's Faith and Attack on Soviet Communism". In Rozell, Mark J.; Whitney, Gleaves (eds.). Religion and the American Presidency. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 176–178. ISBN 978-1-4039-7771-7. Retrieved November 14, 2012.
  112. ^ "The Religious Affiliation of U.S. President George H. W. Bush". adherents.com. Archived from the original on December 30, 2005.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  113. ^ a b Johnson, Lori (December 1, 2018). "George H.W. Bush helped lead GOP toward evangelicalism". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 1, 2024.
  114. ^ "The Religious Affiliation of President William Jefferson Clinton". adherents.com. Archived from the original on November 19, 2005.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  115. ^ Feldmann, Linda (December 20, 2007). "Candidate Clinton goes public with her private faith". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved November 5, 2008.
  116. ^ a b Cooperman, Alan (September 15, 2004). "Openly Religious, to a Point". Washington Post. pp. A01. Archived from the original on May 24, 2012. Retrieved February 15, 2008.
  117. ^ Cooperman, Alan (September 16, 2004). "Bush leaves specifics of his faith to speculation". NBC News. Retrieved August 21, 2024.
  118. ^ "Barack Obama, long time UCC member, inaugurated forty-fourth U.S. President" (Press release). United Church of Christ. January 20, 2009. Retrieved January 21, 2009. Barack Obama, who spent more than 20 years as a UCC member, is the forty-fourth President of the United States.
  119. ^ www.gallup.com – many Americans can't name Obama's Religion
  120. ^ Sullivan, Amy (December 23, 2009). "Time (magazine)". Time.
  121. ^ Barker, Kim (March 25, 2007). "Obama madrassa myth debunked". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on November 10, 2010. Retrieved September 4, 2010.
  122. ^ Meyer, Holly (January 17, 2017). "What Bible did Donald Trump use on Inauguration Day?". The Tennesean.
  123. ^ Barron, James (September 5, 2016). "Overlooked Influences on Donald Trump: A Famous Minister and His Church". The New York Times. Retrieved October 13, 2016.
  124. ^ Scott, Eugene (August 28, 2015). "Church says Donald Trump is not an 'active member'". CNN. Retrieved September 14, 2022.
  125. ^ Shabad, Rebecca (August 29, 2015). "Church says Trump isn't an 'active member'". The Hill. Retrieved August 29, 2015.
  126. ^ "Trump in the Middle: Why America Needs a Middle Child This Time Around", by Heather Collins-Grattan Floyd, CreateSpace 2016, pp. 17–18.
  127. ^ Peters, Jeremy W.; Dias, Elizabeth (November 2, 2019). "Paula White, Newest White House Aide, Is a Uniquely Trumpian Pastor". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved November 5, 2019.
  128. ^ Peters, Jeremy W.; Haberman, Maggie (October 31, 2019). "Paula White, Trump's Personal Pastor, Joins the White House". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved November 5, 2019.
  129. ^ a b Gibson, Ginger (August 25, 2008). "Parishioners not surprised to see Biden at usual Mass". The News Journal. p. A.12. Archived from the original on June 1, 2013.
  130. ^ a b "Fact check: Repeated use of same photo of Biden at church does not prove he is lying about his church attendance or Catholic faith". Reuters. February 16, 2021. Retrieved November 20, 2023.
  131. ^ Guhin, Jeffrey (February 17, 2021). "Joe Biden Is a Different Kind of Catholic". Slate. Retrieved November 20, 2023.
  132. ^ "The Religious Affiliations of U.S. Presidents". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. January 15, 2009. Retrieved June 3, 2020.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=Religious_affiliations_of_presidents_of_the_United_States&oldid=1264242201"