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[[File:Martin Luther by Cranach-restoration.tif|200px|thumb|Portrait of Martin Luther by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]].]] |
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{{Christianity|state=collapsed}}{{Protestantism}} |
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'''Protestantism''' is one of the [[Christianity#Major denominations within Christianity|major divisions]] within [[Christianity]]. It has been defined as "any of several [[Christian denominations|church denominations]] denying the universal authority of the [[Pope]] and affirming the [[Reformation]] principles of [[Sola fide|justification by faith alone]], the [[priesthood of all believers]], and the [[Sola scriptura|primacy of the Bible]] as the only source of revealed truth" and, more broadly, to mean Christianity outside "of a [[Catholic Christianity|Catholic]] or [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]] church".<ref>{{cite web|title=Protestant, Protestantism |url=http://mw3.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/protestantism|accessdate=3 May 2012}}</ref> It is a movement that began in [[Germany]] in the early [[Christianity in the 16th century|16th century]] as a reaction against medieval [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] doctrines and practices, especially in regard to [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]], [[Justification (theology)|justification]], and [[ecclesiology]]. The doctrines of the over 33,000 Protestant denominations vary, but most include justification by [[Grace (Christianity)|grace]] through [[Faith in Christianity|faith]] alone, known as ''[[Sola Gratia]]'' and ''[[Sola Fide]]'' respectively, the [[priesthood of all believers]], and the [[Bible]] as the supreme authority in matters of faith and [[Christian ethics|morals]], known as ''[[Sola Scriptura]]'', [[Latin]] for "by scripture alone". |
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In the 16th century, the followers of [[Martin Luther]] established the [[evangelical]] ([[Lutheran]]) churches of Germany and Scandinavia. [[Reformed churches]] in [[Hungary]], [[Scotland]], [[Switzerland]] and [[France]] were established by [[John Calvin]] and other reformers such as [[Huldrych Zwingli]]. In addition, [[John Knox]] established a [[Presbyterian]] communion in the [[Church of Scotland]] and also the [[Reformed Church in Hungary]]{{Citation needed| date=September 2012}}. The [[Church of England]] became independent of papal authority, and was influenced by some Reformation principles. There were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the [[Radical Reformation]] which gave rise to the [[Anabaptist]], [[Moravian Church|Moravian]], and other [[Pietism|pietistic]] movements. |
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== Etymology == |
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[[File:Beeldenstorm.jpg|thumb|Protestant [[iconoclasm]]: the ''[[Beeldenstorm]]'' during the [[History of religion in the Netherlands#Reformation and counter-reformation|Dutch reformation]].]] |
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The exact origin of the term ''protestant'' is unsure, and may come either from [[French language|French]] ''[[:wikt:protestant#French|protestant]]'' or [[German language|German]] ''[[:wikt:Protestant#German|Protestant]]''. However, it is certain that both languages derived their word from the {{lang-la|protestantem}}, meaning "one who publicly declares/protests",<ref>{{cite web|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Protestant&allowed_in_frame=0|accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> which refers to the [[Protestation at Speyer|letter of protestation]] by [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] princes against the decision of the [[Second Diet of Speyer|Diet of Speyer]] in 1529, which reaffirmed the edict of the [[Diet of Worms]] in 1521, banning [[Martin Luther|Martin Luther's]] [[Protestantism#Luther's 95 theses|95 theses]] of protest against some beliefs and practices of the early 16th century [[Catholic Church]]. |
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The term Protestant was not initially applied to the Reformers, but later was used to describe all groups protesting Roman Catholic orthodoxy. Since that time, the term Protestant has been used in many different senses, often as a general term merely to signify [[Christians]] who belong to neither of the Churches of Catholic tradition ([[Roman Catholic Church|Roman]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Miaphysite]] or [[Assyrian Church of the East|Nestorian]] Churches). |
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== Luther's 95 theses == |
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In 1517, [[Martin Luther]], a [[Germany|German]] [[Augustinian Order|Augustinian]] [[friar]], published [[The Ninety-Five Theses|the 95 theses]]. Popular history holds that these were nailed to a church door in the university town of [[Wittenberg]] by Luther himself, but this claim has recently come under scrutiny (see article on [[Martin Luther]] for discussion). Luther's propositions challenged some portions of Roman Catholic doctrine and a number of specific practices. |
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Luther was particularly criticizing a common church practice of the day, the selling of [[indulgence]]s. In Catholic theology, an indulgence was the full or partial remission of temporal punishment due for sins which have already been forgiven. However, [[Pope Leo X]] had declared that indulgences were not only for the remission of temporal punishment, but also for guilt itself. To Luther, it appeared that selling indulgences was tantamount to selling salvation, something that he felt was against both biblical teaching and Roman Catholic doctrine. At the time, Rome was using the sale of indulgences as a means to raise money for a massive church project, the construction of [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. |
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The ''Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences'' (commonly known as ''the 95 theses'') <ref>{{cite book|last=Luther|first=Martin|title=Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences|year=1517|location=Wittenburg|url=http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/ninetyfive.txt}}</ref> was a request for a formal disputation that criticized the practice of selling indulgences. This kind of disputation was a common academic exercise during this era. Luther maintained that justification (salvation) was granted by faith alone, saying that good works and the sacraments were not necessary in order to be saved. |
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A copy of the disputation eventually made it to the hands of the regional bishop, who in turn forwarded the disputation to Rome.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Protestant Reformation|url=http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1136.html|accessdate=9 April 2012}}</ref> |
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== Protestant doctrines == |
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[[File:Destruction of icons in Zurich 1524.jpg|thumb|Destruction of icons in [[Zurich]], 1524.]] |
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Although the doctrines of Protestant denominations are far from uniform, some beliefs extending across Protestantism are the doctrines of ''sola scriptura'' and ''sola fide''. |
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* ''[[Sola scriptura]]'' maintains that the [[Bible]] (rather than church tradition or ecclesiastical interpretations of the Bible)<ref>O'Gorman, Robert T. and Faulkner, Mary. ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Understanding Catholicism''. 2003, page 317.</ref> is the primary and supreme source of binding authority for all Christians. This does not exclude other sources of binding authority, rather it places other forms of authority in subordination to the authority of Scripture. |
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* ''[[Sola fide]]'' holds that [[salvation]] comes by grace through faith alone in [[Jesus]] as the Christ, rather than through good works. |
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Protestant churches generally reject the Catholic doctrines of [[papal supremacy]] and [[magisterium|magisterial authority]], including both [[papal infallibility]] and the general infallibility of the Church. Because of this, Protestant ministers and church leaders have somewhat different roles and authority in their communities than do Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox priests and bishops. |
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== History == |
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{{Main|History of Protestantism}} |
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{{further|Protestant Reformation|English Reformation|Reformation in Switzerland|Scottish Reformation|European Wars of Religion}} |
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[[File:HolyRomanEmpire 1618.png|thumb|250px|Distribution of Protestantism (red) and Catholicism (blue) in Central Europe on the eve of the [[Thirty Years' War]].]] |
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The [[Protestant Reformation]] of the early 16th century began as an attempt to reform the [[Catholic Church]]. |
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German theologian [[Martin Luther]] wrote his ''[[Luther's 95 Theses|Ninety-Five Theses]]'' on the sale of indulgences in 1517. Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of [[Ulrich Zwingli]]. The political separation of the [[Church of England]] from Rome under [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], beginning in 1529 and completed in 1536, brought England alongside this broad Reformed movement. |
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The [[Scottish Reformation]] of 1560 decisively shaped the [[Church of Scotland]]<ref>Article 1, of the [[Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland]] 1921 states 'The Church of Scotland adheres to the Scottish Reformation'.</ref> and, through it, all other [[Presbyterian]] churches worldwide. |
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Following the [[excommunication]] of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of [[John Calvin]] were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in [[Switzerland]], [[Scotland]], [[Hungary]], [[Germany]] and elsewhere. |
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In the course of this religious upheaval, the [[German Peasants' War]] of 1524–1525 swept through the [[Bavaria]]n, [[Thuringia]]n and [[Swabia]]n principalities. |
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After the [[Eighty Years' War]] (1568–1648) in the [[Low Countries]] and the [[French Wars of Religion]] (1562–1598), the confessional division of the [[states of the Holy Roman Empire]] eventually erupted in the [[Thirty Years' War]] of 1618–1648. This left Germany weakened and [[Kleinstaaterei|fragmented]] for more than two centuries, until the unification of Germany under the [[German Empire]] of 1871. |
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The success of the [[Counter-Reformation]] on the Continent and the growth of a [[Puritan]] party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarized the [[Elizabethan Age]], although it was not until the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] of the 1640s that England underwent religious strife comparable to that which its neighbours had suffered some generations before. |
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The "[[Great Awakenings]]" were periods of rapid and dramatic [[Christian revival|religious revival]] in Anglo-American religious history, generally recognized as beginning in the 1730s. They have also been described as periodic revolutions in [[Christianity in the United States|colonial religious thought]]. |
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In the 20th century, Protestantism, especially [[Protestantism in the United States|in the United States]], was characterized by accelerating fragmentation. The century saw the rise of both liberal and conservative splinter groups, as well as a general secularization of Western society. |
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Notable developments in the 20th century of US Protestantism was the rise of [[Pentecostalism]], [[Christian fundamentalism]] and [[Evangelicalism]]. |
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While these movements have spilled over to Europe to a limited degree, the development of Protestantism in Europe was more dominated by secularization, leading to an increasingly "[[post-Christian Europe]]". |
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== Fundamental principles == |
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The three fundamental principles of traditional Protestantism are the following: |
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* Scripture Alone |
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: The belief in the Bible as the [[Sola scriptura|supreme source of authority]] for the church. The early churches of the Reformation believed in a critical, yet serious, reading of Scripture and holding the Bible as a source of authority higher than that of [[Sacred Tradition|Church Tradition]]. The many abuses that had occurred in the Western Church prior to the Protestant Reformation led the Reformers to reject much of the [[Sacred Tradition|Tradition]] of the Western Church, though some would maintain [[Sacred Tradition|Tradition]] has been maintained and reorganized in the liturgy and in the [[Confession of Faith|confessions]] of the Protestant Churches of the Reformation. In the early 20th century there developed a less critical reading of the Bible in the United States that has led to a "fundamentalist" reading of Scripture. Christian Fundamentalists read the Bible as the "inerrant, infallible" Word of God, as do the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican churches, to name a few, but interpret it in a more literal way. |
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* Justification by Faith Alone |
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: The subjective principle of the Reformation is [[Justification (theology)|justification]] by [[Sola fide|faith alone]], or, rather, by free grace through faith. It has reference to the personal appropriation of the Christian salvation, and aims to give [[soli deo gloria|all glory to Christ]], by declaring that the sinner is justified before God (i.e., is acquitted of guilt, and declared righteous) solely on the ground of the [[Solus Christus|all-sufficient merits of Christ]] as apprehended by a living faith, in opposition to the theory — then prevalent, and substantially sanctioned by the [[Council of Trent]] — which makes faith and good works co-ordinate sources of justification, laying the chief stress upon works. Protestantism does not depreciate good works; but it denies their value as sources or conditions of justification, and insists on them as the necessary fruits of faith, and evidence of justification."<ref name="SchaffHerzog">Johann Jakob Herzog, Philip Schaff, Albert. ''The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge''. 1911, page 419. http://books.google.com/books?id=AmYAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA419</ref>'' |
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* Universal Priesthood of Believers |
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: The universal [[Priesthood of all believers|priesthood of believers]] implies the right and duty of the Christian laity not only to read the Bible in the [[vernacular]], but also to take part in the government and all the public affairs of the Church. It is opposed to the hierarchical system which puts the essence and authority of the Church in an exclusive priesthood, and makes ordained priests the necessary mediators between God and the people.<ref name="SchaffHerzog" /> |
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== Denominations == |
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{{Main|Protestants by country}} |
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[[File:Antichrist1.jpg|thumb|right|''Passional Christi und Antichristi'', by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], from Luther's 1521 ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. The Pope as the Antichrist, signing and selling [[indulgence]]s.]] |
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Protestants refer to specific groupings of churches that share in common foundational doctrines and the name of their groups as "[[List of Christian Denominations#Protestant|denominations]]". They are differently named parts of the whole "church"; Protestants reject the Roman Catholic doctrine that it is the [[one true church]]. Some Protestant denominations are less accepting of other denominations, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. Because the five solas are the main tenets of the Protestant faith, [[Non-denominational]] groups and organizations are also considered Protestant. Due to all these factors, an exact count is not possible, but it is estimated that there are approximately 33,000 Protestant denominations.<ref>The World Christian Encyclopedia by David B. Barrt, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson (2001 edition)</ref> |
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Various [[Christian ecumenism|ecumenical movements]] have attempted cooperation or reorganization of the various divided Protestant denominations, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions, as there is no overarching authority to which any of the churches owe allegiance, which can authoritatively define the faith. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith, while differing in many secondary doctrines, although what is major and what is secondary is a matter of idiosyncratic belief. |
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There are about 800 million Protestants worldwide,<ref>Jay Diamond, Larry. Plattner, Marc F. and Costopoulos, Philip J. ''World Religions and Democracy''. 2005, page 119.( [http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/bmoraski/Democratization/Woodberry04_JOD.pdf also in PDF file], p49), saying "''Not only do Protestants presently constitute 13 percent of the world's population—about 800 million people—but since 1900 Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.''"</ref> among approximately 2.1 billion Christians.<ref>"between 1,250 and 1,750 million adherents, depending on the criteria employed": McGrath, Alister E. ''[http://books.google.com.hk/books?id=ZYN3Rowp8ZYC&pg=PR16&lpg=PR16&source=web&ots=bNVoHZwx6H&sig=D961IonSSKBgItV4v57UCeYhvs0 Christianity: An Introduction]''. 2006, page xv1.</ref><ref>"2.1 thousand million Christians": Hinnells, John R. ''The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion''. 2005, page 441.</ref> These include 170 million in North America, 160 million in Africa, 120 million in Europe, 70 million in Latin America, 60 million in Asia, and 10 million in Oceania. |
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Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the magisterial Reformation and the Puritan Reformation in England. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning later movements in the same groups. Only general ''families'' are listed here (due to the above-stated multitude of [[List of Christian denominations|denominations]]); some of these groups do not consider themselves as part of the Protestant movement, but are generally viewed as such by the public at large.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} |
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Since the term "Protestant" often refers to those Christians not of the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Oriental or Eastern Orthodox faiths, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints are occasionally called Protestant, but they do not adhere to most Protestant principles.{{Dubious|date=February 2012}} Neither do they follow Catholic traditions or creeds. Contrary to traditional Christian practice, Mormons believe in a Priesthood organization consisting of Prophets, Apostles, Seventy, Patriarchs, High Priests, Elders, Priests, Teachers, and Deacons.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/scriptures/pgp/a-of-f/1?lang=eng Articles of Faith, verse 6]</ref> Latter-day Saints do not hold to the ''sola scriptura'' principle of the Bible being the authority of God<ref>[http://www.lds.org/scriptures/pgp/a-of-f/1?lang=eng Articles of Faith, verse 8]</ref> but in a literal Priesthood authority given to worthy male members to teach the Gospel and administer its ordinances.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/scriptures/pgp/a-of-f/1?lang=eng Articles of Faith, verse 5]</ref> Neither do they hold to the ''sola fide'' concept of faith in Jesus Christ alone, but believe in the combined efforts of deity and man to achieve salvation, that salvation is through the Atonement of Jesus Christ ''and'' obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel, and that covenants are made to establish the standards necessary for salvation.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/scriptures/pgp/a-of-f/1?lang=eng Articles of Faith, verses 3-4]</ref> Latter-day Saints have fervent convictions in Jesus Christ, but due to the radical differences of their additional texts and belief structure, they are frequently not listed as Christian.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2012/06/21/opinion/obeidallah-christians-radicals/index.html "Where are the good Christians?", CNN.com, June 21, 2012.]</ref> |
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=== Anglicans and Episcopalians === |
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The original separation of the [[Church of England]] (then including the [[Church in Wales]]) and the [[Church of Ireland]] from Rome under [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]] largely took a Catholic form. Through the efforts of [[Thomas Cranmer]], Archbishop of Canterbury, and [[Thomas Cromwell]], both with Lutheran sympathies,<ref>Hall(2), Basil (1993), "Cranmer, the Eucharist, and the Foreign Divines in the Reign of Edward VI", in Ayris, Paul; Selwyn, David, Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar, Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: [[The Boydell Press]], [ISBN 0-85115-549-9]</ref> the churches later assumed a reformed character. |
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In the 19th century some of the [[Oxford Movement|Tractarians]] proposed that the Church of England and the other Anglican churches were not Protestant but a "Reformed Catholic" or middle path ''([[via media]])'' between Rome and Protestantism. This assertion was attacked by, among others, the [[Church Association]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.churchsociety.org/publications/tracts/CAT049_ProtestantCofE.pdf |title=Church Association Tract 049 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> Today, the [[Anglican Communion]] continues to be composed of theologically diverse traditions, from Reformed [[Sydney Anglicanism]] to High-Church [[Anglo-Catholicism]]. |
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=== Main denominational families === |
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{{Denominations of Christianity}} |
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(Alphabetical) |
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* [[Anglican]] |
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* [[Baptist]] |
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* [[Congregational church|Congregational]] |
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* [[Lutheranism]] |
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* [[Methodism]] |
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* [[Presbyterianism]] |
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* [[Reformed churches|Reformed]] |
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== Theological tenets of the Reformation == |
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{{Main|Five solas}} |
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The [[Five Solas]] are five [[Latin]] phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the [[Protestant Reformation]] and summarize the Reformers' basic differences in theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the [[Catholic Church]] of the day. The Latin word ''sola'' means "alone", "only", or "single". |
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The use of the phrases as summaries of teaching emerged over time during the reformation, based on the overarching principle of ''[[sola scriptura]]'' (by scripture alone). This idea contains the four main doctrines on the Bible: that its teaching is needed for salvation (necessity); that all the doctrine necessary for salvation comes from the Bible alone (sufficiency); that everything taught in the Bible is correct (inerrancy); and that, by the Holy Spirit overcoming sin, believers may read and understand truth from the Bible itself, though understanding is difficult, so the means used to guide individual believers to the true teaching is often mutual discussion within the church (clarity). |
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The necessity and inerrancy were well-established ideas, garnering little criticism, though they later came under debate from outside during the Enlightenment. The most contentious idea at the time though was the notion that anyone could simply pick up the Bible and learn enough to gain salvation. Though the reformers were concerned with ecclesiology (the doctrine of how the church as a body works), they had a different understanding of the process in which truths in scripture were applied to life of believers, compared to the Catholics' idea that certain people within the church, or ideas that were old enough, had a special status in giving understanding of the text. |
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The second main principle, ''[[sola fide]]'' (by faith alone), states that faith in Christ is sufficient alone for eternal salvation. Though argued from scripture, and hence logically consequent to ''sola scriptura'', this is the guiding principle of the work of Luther and the later reformers. As ''sola scriptura'' placed the Bible as the only source of teaching, ''sola fide'' epitomises the main thrust of the teaching the reformers wanted to get back to, namely the direct, close, personal connection between Christ and the believer, hence the reformers' contention that their work was Christocentric. |
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The other solas, as statements, emerged later, but the thinking they represent was also part of the early reformation. |
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* ''[[Solus Christus]]'': ''Christ Alone''. |
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: The Protestants characterize the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of works made meritorious by Christ, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of Christ and his saints, as a denial that Christ is the ''only'' mediator between [[God]] and man. Catholics, on the other hand, maintained the traditional understanding of Judaism on these questions, and appealed to the universal consensus of Christian tradition.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matt.|16:18}}, {{Bibleref2|1Cor.|3:11||1 Cor. 3:11}}, {{Bibleref2|Eph.|2:20}}, {{Bibleref2|1Pet.|2:5–6||1 Pet. 2:5–6}}, {{Bibleref2|Rev.|21:14}}</ref> |
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* ''[[Sola Gratia]]'': ''Grace Alone''. |
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: Protestants perceived Roman Catholic salvation to be dependent upon the grace of God and the merits of one's own works. The Reformers posited that salvation is a gift of God (i.e., God's act of free grace), dispensed by the Holy Spirit owing to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without regard for the merit of his works —for no one ''deserves'' salvation.{{Bibleref2c|Matt.|7:21}} |
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* ''[[Soli Deo Gloria]]'': ''Glory to God Alone'' |
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: All glory is due to God alone, since salvation is accomplished solely through his will and action —not only the gift of the all-sufficient [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement]] of [[Jesus]] on [[Christian cross|the cross]] but also the gift of faith in that atonement, created in the heart of the believer by the [[Holy Spirit]]. The reformers believed that human beings —even saints [[canonization|canonized]] by the Catholic Church, the popes, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy— are not worthy of the glory. |
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== Christ's presence in the Lord's Supper == |
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{{Main|Real Presence|Eucharist}} |
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The Protestant movement began to coalesce into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late 16th century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the Lord's Supper. Early Protestants rejected the Roman Catholic [[dogma]] of [[transubstantiation]], which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass lose their natural substance by being transformed into the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ. They disagreed with one another concerning the presence of Christ and his body and blood in Holy Communion. |
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* Lutherans hold that within the [[Eucharist#Lutherans: Sacramental union: "in, with, and under the forms of bread and wine"|Lord's Supper]] the consecrated elements of bread and wine are the true body and blood of Christ "in, with, and under the form" of bread and wine for all those who eat and drink it,{{bibleref2c|1Cor|10:16|47}} {{bibleref2c-nb|1Cor|11:20,27|47}} <ref>Engelder, T.E.W., ''[http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1 Popular Symbolics]. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 95, Part XXIV. "The Lord's Supper", paragraph 131.</ref> a doctrine that the [[Formula of Concord]] calls the [[Sacramental union]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bookofconcord.com/fc-sd/supper.html |title=The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article 8, The Holy Supper |publisher=Bookofconcord.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> God earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament,{{bibleref2c|Lk|22:19-20|50}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Graebner |first=Augustus Lawrence |url=http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt|title=Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology |page=162 |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1910}}</ref> forgiveness of sins,{{bibleref2c|Mt|26:28|50}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Graebner |first=Augustus Lawrence |url=http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt|title=Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology |page=163 |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1910}}</ref> and eternal salvation.<ref>[[Luther's Small Catechism]], [http://www.bookofconcord.org/smallcatechism.php#sacrament Part IV, The Sacrament of the Altar], "What is the benefit of such eating and drinking? That is shown us in these words: Given, and shed for you, for the remission of sins; namely, that in the Sacrament forgiveness of sins, life, and salvation are given us through these words. For where there is forgiveness of sins, there is also life and salvation." {{cite book |last=Graebner |first=Augustus Lawrence |url=http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt|title=Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology |page=163 |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1910}}</ref> |
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* The Reformed closest to Calvin emphasize the ''real presence'', or ''sacramental presence'', of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a means of saving grace through which only the elect believer actually partakes of Christ, but merely ''with'' the Bread and Wine rather than in the Elements. Calvinists deny the Lutheran assertion that all communicants, both believers and unbelievers, orally receive Christ's body and blood in the elements of the [[sacrament]], but instead affirm that Christ is united to the believer through faith—toward which the supper is an outward and visible aid. This is often referred to as ''dynamic presence''. |
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* A Protestant holding a popular simplification of the Zwinglian view, without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the Body of Christ (a view referred to somewhat derisively as ''memorialism''). |
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== Catholicism == |
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The official view of the [[Catholic Church]] on the matter is that Protestant denominations cannot be considered "churches", but rather that they are ''ecclesial communities'' or "specific faith-believing communities" because their ordinances, doctrines, are not historically the same as the Catholic sacraments and dogmas, and the Protestant communities have no sacramental/ministerial priesthood, and therefore lack true [[apostolic succession]].<ref>[[subsistit in|Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church]], June 29, 2007, Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.</ref><ref name=AFAC>{{cite book|last=Stuard-will|first=Kelly|title=A Faraway Ancient Country.|year=2007|publisher=Gardners Books|location=United States|isbn=978-0-615-15801-3|pages=216|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q469xc7mbksC&lpg=PA1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false|author=Emissary|editor=Karitas Publishing}}</ref> |
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Contrary to how the Protestant reformers were often characterized, the concept of a ''catholic'' or universal Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. On the contrary, the visible unity of the Catholic Church was an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial Reformers, such as [[Martin Luther]], [[John Calvin]], and [[Ulrich Zwingli]], believed that they were "reforming" the Catholic Church, which they viewed as having become corrupted. Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the Catholic Church that had left them.<ref>The Protestant Reformers formed a new and radically different theological opinion on ecclesiology, that the visible Catholic Church is "catholic" (lower-case "c") rather than "Catholic" (upper-case "c"). Accordingly, there is not an indefinite number of Parochial, or Congregational, or National churches, constituting, as it were, so many ecclesiastical individualities, but one great spiritual republic of which these various organizations form a part, although they each have very different opinions. This was markedly far-removed from the traditional and historic Catholic Christian understanding that the Catholic Church is the one true Church of Christ. |
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Yet in the Protestant understanding, the "visible church" is not a genus, so to speak, with so many species under it. It is thus you may think of the State, but the visible church is a ''totum integrale,'' it is an empire, with an ethereal emperor, rather than a visible one. The churches of the various nationalities constitute the provinces of this empire; and though they are so far independent of each other, yet they are so one, that membership in one is membership in all, and separation from one is separation from all.... This conception of the church, of which, in at least some aspects, we have practically so much lost sight, had a firm hold of the Scottish theologians of the seventeenth century. Dr. James Walker in ''The Theology of Theologians of Scotland.'' (Edinburgh: Rpt. Knox Press, 1982) Lecture iv. pp.95-6.</ref> In order to justify their departure from the Catholic Church, Protestants often posited a new argument, saying that there was no real visible Church with divine authority, only a "spiritual", "invisible", and "hidden" church— this notion began in the early days of the Protestant Reformation. |
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Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national Protestant church envisioned to be a part of the whole "invisible church", but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine-linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters, namely the Papacy and central authority of the [[Catholic Church]]. The Reformed churches thus believed in some form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visible [[ecclesiastical]] organization based on the 14th and 15th century [[Conciliarism|Conciliar movement]], rejecting the [[Papacy]] and [[Papal Infallibility]] in favor of [[Ecumenical council]]s, but rejecting the latest ecumenical council, the [[Council of Trent]]. Religious unity therefore became not one of doctrine and identity, but one of invisible character, wherein the unity was one of faith in Jesus Christ, not common identity, doctrine, belief, and collaborative action. |
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Today there is a growing movement of Protestants, especially of the [[Calvinist|Reformed]] tradition, that reject the designation "Protestant" because of its negative "anti-catholic" connotations, preferring the designation "Reformed", "Evangelical" or even "Reformed Catholic" expressive of what they call a "Reformed Catholicity"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reformedcatholicism.com/?p=424 |title=reformedcatholicism.com |publisher=reformedcatholicism.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> and defending their arguments from the traditional Protestant [[Confession of Faith|Confessions]].<ref>''The Canadian Reformed Magazine,'' 18 (September 20–27, October 4–11, 18, November 1, 8, 1969) http://spindleworks.com/library/faber/008_theca.htm</ref> |
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== Radical Reformation == |
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{{Main|Radical Reformation}} |
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Unlike mainstream Evangelical ([[Lutheran]]), Reformed ([[Huldrych Zwingli|Zwinglian]] and [[Calvinist]]) Protestant movements, the [[Radical Reformation]], which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the "Church Visible" as distinct from the "Church Invisible". It was a rational extension of the State-approved Protestant dissent, which took the value of independence from constituted authority a step further, arguing the same for the civic realm. |
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Protestant ecclesial leaders such as [[Balthasar Hubmaier|Hubmaier]] and [[Melchior Hoffman|Hofmann]] preached the invalidity of infant baptism, advocating baptism as following conversion, called [[Believers baptism|"believer's baptism"]], instead. This was not a doctrine new to the reformers, but was taught by earlier groups, such the Albigenses in 1147. |
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In the view of many associated with the Radical Reformation, the [[Magisterial Reformation]] had not gone far enough, with radical reformer, [[Andreas Karlstadt|Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt]], for example, referring to the Lutheran theologians at [[Wittenberg]] as the "new papists".<ref>[http://www.reformationhappens.com/movements/magisterial/ The Magisterial Reformation].</ref> A more political side of the Radical Reformation can be seen in the thought and practice of [[Hans Hut]], although typically Anabaptism has been associated with pacifism. |
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Early Anabaptists were severely persecuted by Lutheran, Reformed, and Roman Catholic civil authorities. |
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== Movements == |
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=== Pietism and Methodism === |
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{{Main|Pietism|Methodism}} |
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The German [[Pietism|Pietist]] movement, together with the influence of the [[Puritan]] Reformation in England in the 17th century, were important influences upon [[John Wesley]] and [[Methodism]], as well as new groups such as the [[Religious Society of Friends]] ("Quakers") and the [[Moravian Church|Moravian]] Brethren from [[Herrnhut]], [[Saxony]], Germany. |
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The practice of a spiritual life, typically combined with social engagement, predominates in classical Pietism, which was a protest against the doctrine-centeredness ''Protestant Orthodoxy'' of the times, in favor of depth of religious experience. Many of the more conservative Methodists went on to form the [[Holiness movement]], which emphasized a rigorous experience of holiness in practical, daily life. |
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=== Evangelicalism === |
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{{Main|Evangelicalism}} |
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Beginning at the end of 18th century, several international revivals of Pietism (such as the [[First Great Awakening|Great Awakening]] and the [[Second Great Awakening]]) took place across denominational lines, largely in the English-speaking world. Their teachings and successor groupings are referred to generally as the Evangelical movement. The chief emphases of this movement were individual conversion, personal piety and Bible study, [[public morality]] often including [[Temperance (virtue)|Temperance]] and [[Abolitionism]], de-emphasis of formalism in worship and in doctrine, a broadened role for laity (including women) in worship, evangelism and teaching, and cooperation in evangelism across denominational lines. Some of the Major figures in this movement include [[Billy Graham]], [[Harold John Ockenga]], [[John Stott]], and [[Martyn Lloyd-Jones]]. |
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=== Adventism === |
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{{Main|Adventism}} |
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Adventism is a [[Christianity|Christian]] movement which began in the 19th century, in the context of the [[Second Great Awakening]]revival in the [[United States]]. The name refers to belief in the imminent [[Second Coming of Christ|Second Coming (or "Second Advent") of Jesus Christ]]. It was started by [[William Miller (preacher)|William Miller]], whose followers became known as [[Millerism|Millerites]]. Today, the largest church within the movement is the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]. |
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The Adventist family of churches is regarded today as conservative [[Protestant]]s.<ref name="Handbook">"Adventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches" section (p. 256–276) in Frank S. Mead, Samuel S. Hill and Craig D. Atwood, ''Handbook of Denominations in the United States'', 12th edn. Nashville: Abingdon Press</ref> Although these churches hold much in common, their [[Christian theology|theology]] differs on whether the [[intermediate state]] is [[Soul sleep|unconscious sleep]] or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is [[annihilationism|annihilation]] or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether or not the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of {{bibleverse||Daniel|8|NKJV}} refers to the one in [[heavenly sanctuary|heaven]] or one on earth.<ref name="Handbook"/> The movement has encouraged the examination of the [[New Testament]], leading them to observe the [[Sabbath in Seventh-day Adventism|Sabbath]]. |
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=== Modernism and Liberalism === |
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{{Main|Liberal Christianity}} |
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Modernism and Liberalism do not constitute rigorous and well-defined schools of theology, but are rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology. |
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=== Pentecostalism === |
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{{Main|Pentecostalism}} |
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Pentecostalism, as a movement, began in the United States early in the 20th century, starting especially within the Holiness movement. Seeking a return to the operation of New Testament gifts of the Holy Spirit, speaking in tongues as evidence of the "baptism of the Holy Ghost" or to make the unbeliever believe became the leading feature. Divine healing and miracles were also emphasized. Pentecostalism swept through much of the Holiness movement, and eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations in the United States. A later [[Charismatic movement|"charismatic"]] movement also stressed the gifts of the Spirit, but often operated within existing denominations, rather than by coming out of them. |
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=== Fundamentalism === |
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{{Main|Christian fundamentalism}} |
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In reaction to liberal Bible critique, [[fundamentalism]] arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. |
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=== Neo-orthodoxy === |
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{{Main|Neo-orthodoxy}} |
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A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with [[Karl Barth]] and [[Jürgen Moltmann]], neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called "Crisis theology", according to the influence of philosophical [[existentialism]] on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called ''neo-evangelicalism''. |
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=== New Evangelicalism === |
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{{Main|Evangelicalism}} |
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Evangelicalism is a movement from the middle of the 20th century, that reacted to perceived excesses of Fundamentalism, adding to concern for biblical authority, an emphasis on liberal arts, cooperation among churches, Christian [[Apologetics]], and non-denominational evangelization. |
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=== Paleo-orthodoxy === |
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{{Main|Paleo-orthodoxy}} |
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Paleo-orthodoxy is a movement similar in some respects to Neo-evangelicalism but emphasizing the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided Church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early Creeds and councils of the [[Catholic Church|Church]] as a means of properly understanding the Scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational and the theological giant of the movement is [[United Methodist]] theologian [[Thomas Oden]]. |
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=== Ecumenism === |
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{{Main|Christian ecumenism}} |
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The ecumenical movement has had an influence on [[Mainline (Protestant)|mainline]] churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the [[Edinburgh Missionary Conference]]. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the [[World Council of Churches]] has been influential, but ineffective in creating a united Church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the [[Church of South India]], the [[Church of North India]], The US-based [[United Church of Christ]], The [[United Church of Canada]], [[Uniting Church in Australia]] and the [[United Church of Christ in the Philippines]] which have rapidly declining memberships. There has been a strong engagement of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] churches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0804/__P1T.HTM |title=Orthodox Church: text - IntraText CT |publisher=Intratext.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> |
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A Protestant [[baptism]] is held to be valid by the Roman Catholic Church if given with the trinitarian formula and with the intent to baptize. However, as the ordination of Protestant ministers is not recognized due to the lack of [[apostolic succession]] and the disunity from the [[Catholic Church]], all other sacraments (except marriage) performed by Protestant denominations and ministers are not recognized as valid. Therefore, Protestants desiring full communion with the Catholic Church are not re-baptized (although they are confirmed) and Protestant ministers who convert are ordained to the [[Catholic priesthood]] after a period of study (cf [[Apostolicae Curae]]). |
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In 1999, the representatives of [[Lutheran World Federation]] and Catholic Church signed The [[Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification]], apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of [[Justification (theology)|Justification]] which was at the root of the [[Protestant Reformation]], although [[Confessional Lutheran]]s reject this statement.<ref>[http://arkiv.lbk.cc/faq/site.pl@1518cutopic_topicid19cuitem_itemid6741.htm WELS Topical Q&A: Justification], stating: "''A document which is aimed at settling differences needs to address those differences unambiguously. The Joint Declaration does not do this. At best, it sends confusing mixed signals and should be repudiated by all Lutherans.''"</ref> This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. |
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On July 18, 2006 Delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umc.org/site/c.gjJTJbMUIuE/b.1863123/k.FF49/World_Methodists_approve_further_ecumenical_dialogue.htm |title=News Archives |publisher=UMC.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0604186.htm |title=CNS STORY: Methodists adopt Catholic-Lutheran declaration on justification |publisher=Catholicnews.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-19}}</ref> |
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===Biblical Unitarian Movement=== |
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In the mainstream of the Protestant Reformation there is the Biblical Unitarian Movement.<ref name="cf. SocinianismServetus">cf. [[Socinianism]][[Servetus]]</ref> Today, biblical Unitarianism (or "Biblical Unitarianism" or "biblical unitarianism")<ref>Generally capitalized "b. U." - Dowley 1977 Larsen 2011 Robertson 1929 BFER 1882 PTR 1929 New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1987. See [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (capital letters)]], article [[English capitalisation]] cites source: L. Sue Baugh Essentials of English Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of English (9780844258218) Second Edition 1994 p59 "Religious Names and Terms: The names of all religions, denominations, and local groups are capitalized." Uncapitalized: Ankerberg.</ref> identifies the [[Christianity#Beliefs|Christian belief]] that the [[Bible]] teaches God is a singular person—the Father—and that [[Jesus]] is a distinct being, his son. [[Biblical_Unitarianism#Denominations|A few denominations]] use this term to describe themselves, clarifying the distinction between them and those churches<ref>Tuggy, Dale, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/trinity/unitarianism.html'Unitarianism' (2009). ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'']. Accessed 10-30-2010</ref> which, from the late 19th century, evolved into [[General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches|modern British Unitarianism]] and, primarily in the United States, [[Unitarian Universalism]]. |
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====Italy==== |
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In Italy the Biblical Unitarian Movement powered by the ideas of Sozzini and others<ref name="cf. SocinianismServetus"/> is represented today by the churches associated with the [[Christian Church in Italy]].<ref>cf. [http://www.chiesadifrosinone.it/cosa_crediamo.html Christian Church in Italy beliefs]</ref> This Movement in Italy claims a strong Christian and biblical soul. From the analysis of documents that you can find on the official site of the CCI,<ref name="Sito-CCI">[http://www.chiesadifrosinone.it Chiesa Cristiana di Frosinone], Una delle Chiese o gruppi associati alla CCI.</ref><ref name="Chiesa Cristiana in Italia">[http://www.chiesacristianainitalia.it Chiesa Cristiana in Italia]</ref> it is clear that the doctrinal position of this Christian confession of faith is therefore akin to the so-called Biblical Unitarian movement <ref name="Christadelphians">[[Christadelphians]]</ref><ref name="Socinianism">[[Socinianism]]</ref><ref name="Polish Brethren">[[Polish Brethren]]</ref> and on the other hand, far from that of [[Unitarian Universalist Association]] who, although they have the same origin in 1500 AD, through the centuries have suffered the influence of many non-biblical ideas (cf. [[Universalism]]). |
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The Christian Church in Italy has significant similarities with the Biblical Unitarian movement, although it maintains a cautious position on some doctrinal points. Wilbur wrote about the Unitarian Movement: "The religious movement whose history we are endeavoring to trace...became fully developed in thought and polity in only four countries, one after another, namely Poland, Transylvania, England and America. But in each of these it showed, along with certain individual characteristics, a general spirit, a common point of view, and a doctrinal pattern that tempt one to regard them as all outgrowths of a single movement which passed from one to another; for nothing could be more natural than to presume that these common features implied a common ancestry. Yet such is not the fact, for in each of these four lands the movement, instead of having originated elsewhere, and been translated only after attaining mature growth, appears to have sprung independently and directly from its own native roots, and to have been influenced by other and similar movements only after it had already developed an independent life and character of its own.".<ref>Earl Morse Wilbur, A History of Unitarianism, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1952), p. 166.</ref> From the analysis of documents that you can find on the official site of the CCI,<ref name="Sito-CCI"/><ref name="Chiesa Cristiana in Italia"/> it is clear that the doctrinal position of this Christian confession of faith is therefore akin to the so-called Biblical Unitarian movement <ref name="Christadelphians"/><ref name="Socinianism"/><ref name="Polish Brethren"/> and on the other hand, far from that of [[Unitarian Universalist Association]] who, although they have the same origin in 1500 AD, through the centuries, have suffered the influence of many non-biblical ideas (cf. [[Universalism]]). |
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The Christian Church in Italy believes that God is only One Person<ref>as [http://www.abc-coggc.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4&Itemid=22 Atlanta Bible College] and [http://www.scatteredbrethren.org/index.html The Worldwide Scattered Brethren Network]</ref> in direct contrast with the doctrine of the Trinity which defines God as Three coexisting Persons in one Substance (Essence), merged into one being.<ref>Knight, Kevin, ed.,[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15047a.htm "The dogma of the Trinity"], Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent.</ref> So CCI adheres to strict monotheism by believing that Jesus was a perfect and holy man,<ref>[http://www.chiesadifrosinone.it/doc/Chi_è_Gesù_rev01.pdf Chi è Gesù?]</ref> virginally begotten in Mary, the promised Christ, the Son of God and that, as the glorified man, now is at the right hand of God praying for the whole Church.<ref>Miano, David (2003), An Explanation of Unitarian Christianity, AUC, p. 15.</ref><ref>J. Gordon Melton Encyclopedia of Protestantism 2005 p543 "Unitarianism - The word unitarian [italics] means one who believes in the oneness of God; historically it refers to those in the Christian community who rejected the doctrine of the Trinity (one God expressed in three persons). Non-Trinitarian Protestant churches emerged in the 16th century in ITALY, POLAND, and TRANSYLVANIA."</ref> |
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The movement the Christian Church in Italy was inspired from, rejects other doctrines taught for centuries,<ref>Joseph Priestley, one of the founders of the Unitarian movement, defined Unitarianism as the belief of primitive Christianity before later corruptions set in. Among these corruptions, he included not only the doctrine of the Trinity, but also various other orthodox doctrines and usages (Earl Morse Wilbur, A History of Unitarianism, Harvard University Press 1952, pp. 302-303).</ref> including the [[soteriological]] doctrines of [[original sin]] and [[predestination]].<ref>From The Catechism of the Hungarian Unitarian Church in Transylvanian Romania: "Unitarians do not teach original sin. We do not believe that through the sin of the first human couple we all became corrupted. It would contradict the love and justice of God to attribute to us the sin of others, because sin is one's own personal action" (Ferencz Jozsef, 20th ed., 1991. Translated from Hungarian by Gyorgy Andrasi, published in The Unitarian Universalist Christian, FALL/WINTER, 1994, Volume 49, Nos.3-4; VII:107).</ref><ref>In his history of the Unitarians, David Robinson writes: "At their inception, both Unitarians and Universalists shared a common theological enemy: Calvinism." He explains that they "consistently attacked Calvinism on the related issues of original sin and election to salvation, doctrines that in their view undermined human moral exertion." (D. Robinson, The Unitarians and the Universalists, Greenwood Press, 1985, pp. 3, 17).</ref> |
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The CCI for its peculiarity has no common trait with other religious movements which exalt Jesus as the only true God, as for example the [[Oneness Pentecostalism]], the [[United Pentecostal Church International]] and the [[True Jesus Church]]. |
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== Founders: the first major reformers and theologians == |
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<!-- (in alphabetical order by century.) --> |
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=== Proto-Reformation === |
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; 12th century |
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* [[Peter Waldo]], founder of the [[Waldensians]], a proto-Reformed group that continues to exist to this day in Italy. |
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; 14th century |
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* [[John Wycliffe]], English reformer, the "Morning Star of the Reformation". |
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; 15th century |
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* [[Jan Hus]], Catholic Priest and Professor, influenced by John Wycliffe's writings, father of an early Protestant church (Moravianism), Czech reformist/dissident; burned to death in [[Constance]], [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1415 by Roman Catholic Church authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy. After the devastation of the [[Hussite Wars]] some of his followers founded the [[Unitas Fratrum]] in 1457, "Unity of Brethren", which was renewed under the leadership of Count [[Zinzendorf]] in [[Herrnhut]], [[Saxony]] in 1722 after its almost total destruction in the [[30 Years War]] and [[Counter Reformation]]. Today it is usually referred to in English as the [[Moravian Church]], in [[German language|German]] the [[Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine]]. |
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=== Reformation Proper === |
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; 16th century |
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* [[Jacobus Arminius]], Dutch theologian, founder of school of thought known as [[Arminianism]]. |
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* [[Heinrich Bullinger]], successor of [[Zwingli]], leading reformed theologian. |
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* [[John Calvin]], French theologian, [[Protestant Reformation|Reformer]] and resident of [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], he founded the school of theology known as Calvinism. |
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* [[Balthasar Hubmaier]], influential Anabaptist theologian, author of numerous works during his five years of ministry, tortured at Zwingli's behest, and executed in Vienna. |
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* [[John Knox]], Scottish Calvinist reformer. |
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* [[Martin Luther]], church reformer, Father of Protestantism,<ref>Challenges to Authority: The Renaissance in Europe: A Cultural Enquiry, Volume 3, by Peter Elmer, page 25.</ref><ref>"What ELCA Lutherans Believe." Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. 26 July 2008 .</ref> theological works guided those now known as [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]]. |
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* [[Philipp Melanchthon]], early Lutheran leader. |
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* [[Menno Simons]], founder of [[Mennonitism]]. |
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* [[John Smyth (1570-1612)|John Smyth]], early [[Baptist]] leader. |
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* [[Huldrych Zwingli]], founder of Swiss reformed tradition. |
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==See also== |
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* [[Anti-Catholicism]] |
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* [[Anti-Protestantism]] |
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* [[Islam and Protestantism]] |
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* [[List of Protestant churches]] |
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* [[Protestant work ethic]] |
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== References == |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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== External links == |
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{{External links|date=August 2010}} |
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{{Wiktionary|Protestant|Protestantism|evangelical}} |
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{{Commons category|Protestantism}} |
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; Supporting |
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* [http://www.inplainsite.org/html/sola_scriptura.html#Concoction "Is Sola Scriptura a Protestant Concoction?"] by [[Greg Bahnsen]] |
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* [http://www.ianpaisley.org European Institute of Protestant Studies] |
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; Critical |
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* [http://homepages.paradise.net.nz/mischedj/ct1_solascript.html Catholic websites on ''sola scriptura''] |
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* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12495a.htm "Protestantism"] from the 1917 ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' |
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* [http://catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0097.html "Why Only Catholicism Can Make Protestantism Work"] by Mark Brumley |
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; Miscellaneous |
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* [http://catalystresources.org/issues/303balmer.html The Future of American Protestantism] from ''Catalyst'' ([[United Methodist Church|United Methodist perspective]]) |
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* [http://protestant.christianityinview.com/ Protestantism—Christianity in View] |
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* [http://day1.org/ Archive of mainline protestant sermons and preaching] |
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* [http://www.oikoumene.org World Council of Churches] World body for mainline Protestant churches |
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[[io:Protestanteso]] |
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[[id:Protestanisme]] |
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[[ia:Protestantismo]] |
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[[is:Mótmælendatrú]] |
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[[it:Protestantesimo]] |
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[[he:נצרות פרוטסטנטית]] |
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[[jv:Protèstan]] |
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[[ka:პროტესტანტიზმი]] |
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[[sw:Uprotestanti]] |
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[[ku:Protestanî]] |
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[[la:Protestantes]] |
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[[lv:Protestantisms]] |
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[[lb:Protestantismus]] |
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[[lt:Protestantizmas]] |
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[[li:Protestantisme]] |
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[[ln:Misíoni]] |
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[[lmo:Prutestantesim]] |
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[[hu:Protestantizmus]] |
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[[mk:Протестантство]] |
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[[mg:Fiangonana ohatra]] |
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[[arz:بروتيستانتيه]] |
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[[ms:Protestan]] |
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[[mwl:Portestantismo]] |
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[[mn:Протестант урсгал]] |
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[[nah:Protestantismo]] |
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[[nl:Protestantisme]] |
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[[nds-nl:Protestantisme]] |
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[[ja:プロテスタント]] |
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[[no:Protestantisme]] |
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[[nn:Protestantisme]] |
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[[nrm:Récriauntisme]] |
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[[oc:Protestantisme]] |
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[[pap:Protestantismo]] |
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[[tpi:Protestan]] |
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[[nds:Protestantismus]] |
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[[pl:Protestantyzm]] |
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[[pt:Protestantismo]] |
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[[crh:Protestantlıq]] |
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[[ro:Protestantism]] |
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[[rm:Protestantissem]] |
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[[qu:Protestantismu]] |
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[[ru:Протестантизм]] |
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[[sco:Protestantism]] |
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[[nso:Seporotestante]] |
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[[sq:Protestantët e lirë]] |
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[[scn:Chiesi Prutistanti]] |
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[[simple:Protestantism]] |
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[[sk:Protestantizmus]] |
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[[sl:Protestantizem]] |
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[[szl:Protestantyzm]] |
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[[ckb:پڕۆتێستانت]] |
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[[sr:Протестантизам]] |
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[[sh:Protestantizam]] |
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[[fi:Protestantismi]] |
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[[sv:Protestantism]] |
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[[tl:Protestantismo]] |
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[[ta:சீர்திருத்தத் திருச்சபை]] |
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[[te:ప్రొటెస్టంటు]] |
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[[th:โปรเตสแตนต์]] |
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[[tr:Protestanlık]] |
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[[uk:Протестантизм]] |
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[[ug:پروتېستانت دىنى]] |
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[[vi:Tin Lành]] |
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[[diq:Protestantizm]] |
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[[bat-smg:Pruotestantėzmos]] |
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[[zh:新教]] |
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