Manohara

Manohara is the kinnari (half-woman, half-bird) heroine of one of the Jataka tales. Typically referred to as Manohara and Prince Sudhana,^[1] the legend appears in the Divyavadana and is documented by stone reliefs at Borobodur.^[2]^[3] Versions of the story are reported in the literature of Southeast Asian countries, and similar stories about a bird maiden and a mortal man can be found in East Asia.

Synopsis

Manohara, the youngest of seven daughters of the Kimnara king, lives on Mount Kailash. One day, she travels to the human realm. She is caught by a hunter (using a magic noose in some versions) who gives her to Prince Sudhana. Son of King Adityavamsa and Queen Chandradevi, Sudhana is a renowned archer and heir to the Panchala kingdom. The prince falls in love with Manohara, and they get married.

Later, when the prince is away in battle, Manohara is accused by the royal counselor of bringing bad luck to the city and is threatened with death. She flies away, back to the Kimnara kingdom. She leaves behind a ring and the directions to reach the Kimnara kingdom so that Prince Sudhana can follow her.

Prince Sudhana returns to Panchala and follows her. From a hermit, he learns the language of animals to locate the Kimnara kingdom, and the necessary prayers to win back the princess. The journey takes seven years, seven months, and seven days. Along the way, Sudhana confronts a Yaksha (ogre), a river of flames, and a gigantic tree. After the long and arduous ordeal, he meets the Kimnara king who asks the prince to prove his sincerity with various tests assessing strength, perseverance, and wit. In the first test, Sudhana is made to lift a stone bench in the garden. The second task tested his skill with the bow and arrow. The final test is to identify which of seven identical women is Manohara, who he recognizes by the ring on her finger. Satisfied, the Kimnara king consents to their marriage and the couple returns to Panchala.

Distribution

This story features in the folklore of Myanmar, Cambodia,^[4]^[5] Thailand,^[6] Laos, Sri Lanka, northern Malaysia and Indonesia.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10] The tale has also spread to China, Kucha, Khotan, Java, Tibet, and Bengal.^[11]

The Pannasjataka, Pali text written by a Buddhist monk/sage in Chiangmai around AD 1450–1470, also told the story of Sudhana and Manohara.^[12] There are also many similar versions told in China (where it is known as Chinese: 悅意; pinyin: Yuèyì), Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, including the Chinese story of the Princess and the Cowherd. In these stories, seven women who can fly descended to earth to take a bath, the youngest and prettiest of whom was captured by a human, and subsequently became a wife of a male human (either her captor or the prince-hero of the story). Later in the stories, the heroine put on some magical thing that enabled her to fly or transform into a bird, and flew away; prompting the quest by the hero in pursuit of his flying wife.

Adaptations

Theatre

According to James R. Brandon, the story of Manohara is a popular theme in Southeast Asian theatre.^[13]

The tale of Manora was adapted as play in Burma (Myanmar), where the character was known as Manoharī, one of the nine royal daughters that live in a silver mountain, located after "a belt of prickly cane", "a stream of liquid copper" and a "Beloo"(Yaksha). Her future husband, Prince Sudhana Sudhanu (Meaning: Golden Bow) was prince of panchala. ^[14] In this version, the princesses fly by the use of an enchanted girdle, and the Manohara-like maiden is captured by a magical slipknot.^[15]

Literature

The characters of the tale are also known in Southeast Asia as Kev Monora and Prah Sothon.^[16]

The tale was also found in the Sanskrit Buddhist literature of Nepal, with the name Story of Suchandrima and a Kinnarí, where the main couple were named Mahonará and Sudhanusha.^[17] In another version from Nepal, Kinnarí Avadána, hunter Utpala captures a Kinnari (unnamed in the tale) with a magical noose. Prince Sudhana of Hastiná arrives with his hunting excursion and falls in love with the Kinnari.^[18]

Another translation named the prince as Sudhanu and the kinnari as Manohara, daughter of King Druma.^[19]

The tale is also known as Sithon and Manola in Laos.^[20]

Legacy

The story of Manohara and Prince Sudhana may have inspired the Manora^[21] type of drama dancing, performed in Thailand and Malaysia.^[22]

References

^ Schiefner, Anton; Ralston, William Shedden. Tibetan tales, derived from Indian sources. London, K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & co. ltd. 1906. pp. xlviii-l and 44-74.
^ "The Story of Prince Sudhana and Manohara". 5 February 2003. Archived from the original on 5 February 2003.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ Miksic, John N. (1994). Borobudur: golden tales of the Buddhas. Berkeley, CA: Periplus Editions. pp. 77–81.
^ Porée-Maspero, Eveline (1962). "III. Le cycle des douze animaux dans la vie des Cambodgiens". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. 50 (2): 311–365. doi:10.3406/befeo.1962.1536.
^ Jacob, Judith M. (1996). The traditional literature of Cambodia: a preliminary guide. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 177–178.
^ Toth, Marian Davies (1971). Tales from Thailand. Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle. p. 106.
^ Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1966). "The Story of Sudhana and Manoharā: An Analysis of the Texts and the Borobudur Reliefs". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 29 (3): 533–558. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00073407. JSTOR 611473. S2CID 190756276.
^ Jaini, Padmanabh S. (2001). Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1776-0.^{[page needed]}
^ "Sandakinduru Katava | Ceylonese dance-drama". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2017-04-16.
^ Yousof, Ghulam-sarwar (1 January 1982). "Nora Chatri in Kedah: A Preliminary Report". Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 55 (1 (242)): 53–61. JSTOR 41492911.
^ Chen, Ruixuan (2016). "The Khotanese Sudhanāvadāna, written by Matteo De Chiara [review]". Indo-Iranian Journal. 59 (2): 188. doi:10.1163/15728536-05902001.
^ Terrai, G. (1956). "VI. Samuddaghosajâtaka. Conte pâli tiré du Pannâsajataka". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. 48 (1): 249–351. doi:10.3406/befeo.1956.1291.
^ Brandon, James R. Theatre in Southeast Asia. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1974 [1967]. pp. 23-24. ISBN 0-674-87587-7.
^ Smith, J. (1839). "Specimen of the Burmese Drama". Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 8 (91): 535–551.
^ Hartland, E. Sidney (1888). "The Physicians of Myddfai". The Archaeological Review. 1 (1): 24–32. JSTOR 24707779.
^ Porée-Maspero, Eveline. Étude sur les rites agraires des Cambodgiens. Tome I. École Pratique de Hautes Studes - Paris. Paris: Mouton & Co./La Haye. 1962. pp. 657-658.
^ Mitra, Rājendralāla, Raja; Asiatic Society. The Sanskrit Buddhist literature of Nepal. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1882. pp. 129-131.
^ Mitra, Rājendralāla, Raja; Asiatic Society. The Sanskrit Buddhist literature of Nepal. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1882. pp. 62-63.
^ The Mahavastu. Volume II. Translated from the Buddhist Sanskrit by J. J. Jones. London: Luzac and Company LTD. 1952. pp. 91-111.
^ Diamond, Catherine (February 2005). "Red Lotus in the Twenty-First Century: Dilemmas in the Lao Performing Arts". New Theatre Quarterly. 21 (1): 34–51. doi:10.1017/S0266464X04000326. S2CID 191461101.
^ Plowright, Poh Sim (November 1998). "The Art of Manora: an Ancient Tale of Feminine Power Preserved in South-East Asian Theatre". New Theatre Quarterly. 14 (56): 373–394. doi:10.1017/S0266464X00012458.
^ Sooi-Beng, Tan (1988). "The Thai 'Menora' in Malaysia: Adapting to the Penang Chinese Community". Asian Folklore Studies. 47 (1): 19–34. doi:10.2307/1178249. JSTOR 1178249.

Bibliography

Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1966). "The Story of Sudhana and Manoharā: An Analysis of the Texts and the Borobudur Reliefs". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 29 (3): 533–558. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00073407. JSTOR 611473. S2CID 190756276.
Toshiharu, Yoshikawa (1984). A Comparative Study of the Thai, Sanskrit, and Chinese Swan Maiden (PDF). International Conference on Thai Studies. Chulalongkorn University. pp. 197–213.

Available translations

Haribhatta (2017). "SUDHANA AND THE FAIRY PRINCESS. As Prince Sudhana, the Bodhisattva undergoes many trials to be reunited with his fairy wife". Once a Peacock, Once an Actress: Twenty-Four Lives of the Bodhisattva from Haribhatta's "Jatakamala". Translated by Khoroche, Peter. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 147–175. doi:10.7208/9780226486017-021 (inactive 1 November 2024).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
Schiefner, Anton; Ralston, William Shedden. Tibetan tales, derived from Indian sources. London, K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & co. ltd. 1906. pp. xlviii-l and 44–74.
Tatelman, Joel (2005). "The Story of Prince Sudhana". Heavenly Exploits: Buddhist Biographies from the Dívyavadána. New York University Press. pp. 219–308. ISBN 978-0-8147-8288-0.

Bagchi, P. C. (1940). "A Nepalese Pata of the Sudhanakumaravadana". Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art. 8: 181–184.
Bailey, H. W. (1966). "The Sudhana Poem of Ṛddhiprabhāva". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 29 (3): 506–532. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00073390. JSTOR 611472. S2CID 170831109.
O’Brien, Kate (2016). "The Tale of Sudhana and Manoharā on Candi Jago: An Interpretation of a Series of Narrative Bas-reliefs on a 13th-Century East Javanese Monument". In Acri, Andrea (ed.). Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia: Networks of Masters, Texts, Icons. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing. pp. 275–320. doi:10.1355/9789814695091-015.
De Chiar, Matteo (2013). "The Two Recensions of the Khotanese Sudhanāvadāna". Multilingualism and History of Knowledge: Vol. I: Buddhism among the Iranian Peoples of Central Asia. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. pp. 71–102. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1vw0pkz.7. ISBN 978-3-7001-7274-1. JSTOR j.ctt1vw0pkz.7.
Degener, Almuth (2013). "Mighty Animals and Powerful Women: On the Function of Some Motifs from Folk Literature in the Khotanese Sudhanavadana". Multilingualism and History of Knowledge: Vol. I: Buddhism among the Iranian Peoples of Central Asia. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. pp. 103–130. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1vw0pkz.8. ISBN 978-3-7001-7274-1. JSTOR j.ctt1vw0pkz.8.
Dezső, Csaba (2014). "Inspired Poetry: Śāntākaragupta's Play on the Legend of Prince Sudhana and the Kinnarī". Indo-Iranian Journal. 57 (1/2): 73–104. doi:10.1163/15728536-05701016. JSTOR 24665889.
Foucher, A. (1909). "Notes d'archéologie bouddhique". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. 9 (1): 1–50. doi:10.3406/befeo.1909.1911.
Ginsburg, Henry (1971). The Sudhana-Manohara tale in Thai: A comparative study based on two texts from the National Library, Bangkok and Wat Machimawat, Songkhla (Thesis). doi:10.25501/SOAS.00029528.
JACQUESSON, François (2018). "Sudhana et Manohara: L'amour est utile aux récits". Journal Asiatique (in French). 306 (1): 101–114. doi:10.2143/JA.306.1.3284958.
Schlingloff, Dieter [in German] (1973). "Prince Sudhana and the Kinnarī". Indologica Taurinesia. 1. Torino: 155–67.
Simmonds, E. H. S. (1967). "'Mahōrasop' in a Thai Manōrā Manuscript". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 30 (2): 391–403. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00062297. JSTOR 611002. S2CID 177913499.
Simmonds, E. H. S. (1971). "'Mahōrasop' II: The Thai National Library Manuscript". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 34 (1): 119–131. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00141618. JSTOR 614627. S2CID 162819400.

[1] Schiefner, Anton; Ralston, William Shedden. Tibetan tales, derived from Indian sources. London, K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & co. ltd. 1906. pp. xlviii-l and 44-74.

[2] "The Story of Prince Sudhana and Manohara". 5 February 2003. Archived from the original on 5 February 2003.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)

[3] Miksic, John N. (1994). Borobudur: golden tales of the Buddhas. Berkeley, CA: Periplus Editions. pp. 77–81.

[4] Porée-Maspero, Eveline (1962). "III. Le cycle des douze animaux dans la vie des Cambodgiens". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. 50 (2): 311–365. doi:10.3406/befeo.1962.1536.

[5] Jacob, Judith M. (1996). The traditional literature of Cambodia: a preliminary guide. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 177–178.

[6] Toth, Marian Davies (1971). Tales from Thailand. Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle. p. 106.

[7] Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1966). "The Story of Sudhana and Manoharā: An Analysis of the Texts and the Borobudur Reliefs". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 29 (3): 533–558. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00073407. JSTOR 611473. S2CID 190756276.

[8] Jaini, Padmanabh S. (2001). Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1776-0.^{[page needed]}

[9] "Sandakinduru Katava | Ceylonese dance-drama". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2017-04-16.

[10] Yousof, Ghulam-sarwar (1 January 1982). "Nora Chatri in Kedah: A Preliminary Report". Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 55 (1 (242)): 53–61. JSTOR 41492911.

[11] Chen, Ruixuan (2016). "The Khotanese Sudhanāvadāna, written by Matteo De Chiara [review]". Indo-Iranian Journal. 59 (2): 188. doi:10.1163/15728536-05902001.

[12] Terrai, G. (1956). "VI. Samuddaghosajâtaka. Conte pâli tiré du Pannâsajataka". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. 48 (1): 249–351. doi:10.3406/befeo.1956.1291.

[13] Brandon, James R. Theatre in Southeast Asia. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1974 [1967]. pp. 23-24. ISBN 0-674-87587-7.

[14] Smith, J. (1839). "Specimen of the Burmese Drama". Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 8 (91): 535–551.

[15] Hartland, E. Sidney (1888). "The Physicians of Myddfai". The Archaeological Review. 1 (1): 24–32. JSTOR 24707779.

[16] Porée-Maspero, Eveline. Étude sur les rites agraires des Cambodgiens. Tome I. École Pratique de Hautes Studes - Paris. Paris: Mouton & Co./La Haye. 1962. pp. 657-658.

[17] Mitra, Rājendralāla, Raja; Asiatic Society. The Sanskrit Buddhist literature of Nepal. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1882. pp. 129-131.

[18] Mitra, Rājendralāla, Raja; Asiatic Society. The Sanskrit Buddhist literature of Nepal. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1882. pp. 62-63.

[19] The Mahavastu. Volume II. Translated from the Buddhist Sanskrit by J. J. Jones. London: Luzac and Company LTD. 1952. pp. 91-111.

[20] Diamond, Catherine (February 2005). "Red Lotus in the Twenty-First Century: Dilemmas in the Lao Performing Arts". New Theatre Quarterly. 21 (1): 34–51. doi:10.1017/S0266464X04000326. S2CID 191461101.

[21] Plowright, Poh Sim (November 1998). "The Art of Manora: an Ancient Tale of Feminine Power Preserved in South-East Asian Theatre". New Theatre Quarterly. 14 (56): 373–394. doi:10.1017/S0266464X00012458.

[22] Sooi-Beng, Tan (1988). "The Thai 'Menora' in Malaysia: Adapting to the Penang Chinese Community". Asian Folklore Studies. 47 (1): 19–34. doi:10.2307/1178249. JSTOR 1178249.

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