Potential superpower: Difference between revisions
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The problem of India's social divide is often linked to its millenia-old [[Indian caste system|caste system]].<ref>[http://www.ambedkar.org/News/hl/Castesystem.htm Caste system main barrier to India's IT superpower ambitions?] Express India</ref> In an attempt to eliminate the caste system, the Indian government has introduced special [[Reservations in India|quota]]s for low-caste Indians in educational institutions and jobs. The measure is with the motive of helping lower-caste Indians to pursue higher education and thereby elevate their standard of life. However, the system is often criticised about its effectiveness as so called creamy layer (rich among the lower caste) get non-needed advantage & leave other lower caste groups poor only.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4998274.stm Furore reflects India's caste complexities] BBC News</ref> <ref>[http://www.indiadaily.com/editorial/4672.asp World Bank warning India] India Daily</ref> There also have been cases of reverse-discrimination and persecution of upper castes by lower castes <ref>[http://www.outlookindia.com/full.asp?fodname=20050411&fname=Brahmins%20%28F%29&sid=2 'We Are Like The Jews: Politics apart, Brahmin-bashing is rampant in literary and cultural worlds too']</ref><ref>[http://in.rediff.com/news/2006/may/23franc.htm Are Brahmins the Dalits of Today?]</ref>. |
The problem of India's social divide is often linked to its millenia-old [[Indian caste system|caste system]].<ref>[http://www.ambedkar.org/News/hl/Castesystem.htm Caste system main barrier to India's IT superpower ambitions?] Express India</ref> In an attempt to eliminate the caste system, the Indian government has introduced special [[Reservations in India|quota]]s for low-caste Indians in educational institutions and jobs. The measure is with the motive of helping lower-caste Indians to pursue higher education and thereby elevate their standard of life. However, the system is often criticised about its effectiveness as so called creamy layer (rich among the lower caste) get non-needed advantage & leave other lower caste groups poor only.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4998274.stm Furore reflects India's caste complexities] BBC News</ref> <ref>[http://www.indiadaily.com/editorial/4672.asp World Bank warning India] India Daily</ref> There also have been cases of reverse-discrimination and persecution of upper castes by lower castes <ref>[http://www.outlookindia.com/full.asp?fodname=20050411&fname=Brahmins%20%28F%29&sid=2 'We Are Like The Jews: Politics apart, Brahmin-bashing is rampant in literary and cultural worlds too']</ref><ref>[http://in.rediff.com/news/2006/may/23franc.htm Are Brahmins the Dalits of Today?]</ref>. |
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== Japan == |
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{{Expand-section|date=May 2008}} |
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{{Superpower |
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| full_name = Japan |
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| flag_image = Flag of Japan.svg |
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| location_image = LocationMapJapan.png |
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| economics = Y |
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| political = N |
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| military = N |
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| energy = N |
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| cultural = Y |
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| nuclear = N |
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}} |
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[[Japan]] has been called a potential superpower since the 1980s. By all measures, Japan is a current economic superpower and political superpower. The [[yen]] is one of the most powerful currencies in the world. |
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<blockquote>"But what kind of superpower will Japan be? How quickly will the country's economic strength turn, as it eventually may, into political muscle? How will the Japanese use that newfound might, and what are the consequences for its closest ally, the U.S.? Can Japan become a truly powerful nation without acquiring a military capability that would frighten and antagonize its friends and neighbors and violate its own constitution? Will the world see a Pax Japonica 25 years from now, or will Japan the banker form a partnership with America the policeman to create a sort of Pax Amerippon?" <ref name="Japan From Superrich To Superpower"/></blockquote> |
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{{clear}} |
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== Mexico == |
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{{Expand-section|date=May 2008}} |
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{{Superpower |
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| full_name = United Mexican States |
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| flag_image = Flag of Mexico.svg |
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| location_image = Mexico location.svg |
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| economics = Y |
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| political = N |
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| military = N |
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| energy = N |
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| cultural = Y |
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| nuclear = N |
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}} |
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As a regional power<ref>{{cite web|title=Japan's Regional Diplomacy, Latin America and the Caribbean|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan|url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/other/bluebook/2006/05.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2007-10-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Latin America:Region is losing ground to competitors|publisher=Oxford Analytica|url=http://www.oxanstore.com/displayfree.php?NewsItemID=130098|accessdate=2007-10-01}}</ref> and only Latin American member of the [[OCDE]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Japan's Regional Diplomacy, Latin America and the Caribbean|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan|url=http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/other/bluebook/2006/05.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2007-10-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Latin America:Region is losing ground to competitors|publisher=Oxford Analytica|url=http://www.oxanstore.com/displayfree.php?NewsItemID=130098|accessdate=2007-10-01}}</ref> '''[[Mexico]]''' has the second largest defence budget ($6.07 billion USD)<ref>{{cite web|title=Military Expeditures Rank Order|work=CIA The World Factbook|publisher=CIA|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2067rank.html|accessdate=2007-09-16}}</ref> and armed forces<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Fire Power World Ranking|publisher=Global Fire Power|url=http://www.globalfirepower.com/list_avail_mil_manpower.asp|accessdate=2007-09-16}}</ref> in the region, despite the fact that it is considered an emerging world power<ref>http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=38056</ref> the country's social and security problems keep it away from being effective. |
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=== Economy === |
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[[Image:Santa_fe1mxc.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mexico City]]]] |
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Mexico has a free market mixed economy, and is firmly established as an upper middle-income country.<ref name="World Bank">{{cite web|title=List of upper middle-income countries|publisher=The World Bank|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20421402~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html#Upper_middle_income|accessdate=2007-10-02}}</ref> It is the 12th largest economy in the world as measured in [[Gross Domestic Product]] in [[purchasing power parity]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Countries Ranked by GDP|work=World Bank Report|date=2007-04|publisher=The World Bank|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP_PPP.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2007-10-02}}</ref> According to the latest information available from the World Bank, Mexico had the highest [[Gross National Income]] per capita in [[Latin America]], both in nominal terms and in [[purchasing power parity]](PPP), at $7,830 and $11,990 respectively in 2006.<ref>[http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf GNI Per capita Atlas Method and PPP]. The World Bank. Accessed: 2008-04-25</ref> After the [[1994 economic crisis in Mexico|1994 economic debacle]], Mexico has made an impressive recovery, building a modern and diversified economy.<ref name="World Bank"/> Recent administrations have also improved infrastructure and opened competition in seaports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity generation, natural gas distribution and airports. Oil is Mexico's largest source of foreign income.<ref>{{cite web|title="Mexico" (Economy, Mining)|publisher=Microsoft Encarta Online|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576758_7/Mexico.html|accessdate=2007-10-02}}</ref> According to [[Goldman Sachs]] [[BRIMC]] review of emerging economies, by 2050 the largest economies in the world will be as follows: [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[United States]], [[India]], [[Japan]], [[Brazil]], and [[Mexico]].<ref>[http://www2.goldmansachs.com/hkchina/insight/research/pdf/BRICs_3_12-1-05.pdf Goldman Sachs Paper No.134 Relevant Emerging Markets ]</ref> |
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=== Military === |
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[[Image:Ejercitomexicano-desfile.PNG|thumb|Mexican troops in Mexico City in the Independence Day Parade.]] |
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Mexico's military strength includes 503,777 total personnel, of which around 192,770 are active in the frontline.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mexico Military Strength|publisher=Global Fire Power|url=http://www.globalfirepower.com/country_detail.asp?country_id=28|accessdate=2007-09-16}}</ref> The Mexican Military has three branches; the [[Mexican Army]], the [[Mexican Air Force]], and the [[Mexican Navy]]. |
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There are three main components of the Army: a national headquarters, territorial commands, and independent units. The Minister of Defense commands the Army by means of a very centralized system and a large number of general officers. The Army uses a modified continental staff system in its headquarters. The Army is the largest branch of Mexico's armed services. At present there are 12 "Military Regions", which are further broken down into 44 subordinate "Military Zones". |
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[[Image:Clase Allende.jpg|thumb|A photograph of the [[ARM Allende]] (FF-211) frigate.]] |
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The Air Force national headquarters is embedded in the Army headquarters in Mexico City. It also follows the continental staff system, with the usual A1, A2, A3, and A4 sections. The tactical forces form what is loosely called an Air Division, but it is dispersed in four regions—Northeast, Northwest, Central, and Southern. The Air Force maintains a total of 18 air bases, and has the additional capability of opening temporary forward operating bases in austere conditions for some of the rotary wing and light fixed-wing assets. |
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The Ministry of the Navy, the Navy’s national headquarters, is located in [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz City]]. The “Junta (or Council) of Admirals” plays a unique consultative and advisory role within the headquarters, an indication of the institutional importance placed on seniority and “year groups” that go back to the admirals’ days as cadets in the naval college. They are a very tightly knit group, and great importance is placed on consultation among the factions within these year groups. |
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=== Foreign relations === |
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[[Image:North American Summit Calderon Harper.jpg|thumb|President [[Felipe Calderón|Calderón]] and Canadian Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper|Harper]] at the 2007 [[North American Leaders' Summit]].]] |
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Traditionally, the Mexican government has sought to maintain its interests abroad and project its influence largely through moral persuasion rather than through political or economical pressure. |
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Since the Mexican Revolution, and until the administration of President [[Ernesto Zedillo]], Mexico had been known for its foreign policy or "doctrine" known as the ''Doctrina Estrada'' ("[[Estrada Doctrine]]", named after its creator [[Genaro Estrada]]). The Estrada Doctrine was a foreign policy guideline of an enclosed view of [[sovereignty]]. It claimed that foreign governments should not judge, positively or negatively, the governments or changes in government of other nations, in that such action would imply a breach to their sovereignty.<ref>{{es_icon}} {{cite web|last=Rodríguez|first=Itzel|title=De actualidad política: ¿Qué dice la doctrina Estrada?|url=http://sepiensa.org.mx/contenidos/h_mexicanas/s.xx/estrada/estrada1.htm|accessdate=2007-10-01}}</ref> This policy was said to be based on the principles of Non-Intervention, Pacific Solution to Controversies, and Self-Determination of all nations. |
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During his presidency, [[Vicente Fox]] appointed [[Jorge Castañeda Gutman|Jorge Castañeda]] to be his [[Secretary of Foreign Affairs (Mexico)|Secretary of Foreign Affairs]]. Castañeda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the "[[Castañeda Doctrine]]".<ref>{{cite web|last = Menéndez Quintero|first = Marina|title = Adiós, Castañeda| url= http://www.worldpress.org/Americas/909.cfm|accessdate = 2007-10-01}}</ref> The new foreign policy called for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of Mexican involvement in foreign affairs.<ref>{{cite web|last = Ramírez|first = Carlos|title = Doctrina Estrada; doctrina Castañeda| url= http://mx.geocities.com/cencoalt/110901/doctrina.htm|accessdate = 2007-10-01}}</ref> |
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== Russia == |
== Russia == |
Revision as of 00:08, 16 May 2008
![]() | This article possibly contains original research. (May 2008) |
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![]() | It has been suggested that this article be merged with Superpower and Talk:Potential superpowers#Merge proposal. (Discuss) Proposed since May 2008. |
Academics predict the possible rise of potential superpowers in the 21st century, mentioning several candidates. Whether Brazil,[1] Russia,[2] China,[3] India[4], the European Union,[5] or Russia will be future superpowers is a matter of ongoing debate.
The record of such predictions has not been complete. For example in the 1980s some commentators thought Japan would become a superpower, due to its large GDP and high economic growth at the time.[6]
Brazil
The Federative Republic of Brazil has been suggested as a potential candidate for superpower status,[1][7][8][9][10][11][12] and the country has a good chance of emerging as the world’s first superpower without nuclear weapons.[13][14] Brazil will become an economic superpower by 2050 if its growth rate remains at 3.5 percent per year, Jim O'Neill said at the Goldman Sachs report called BRIC.[15] He said an annual growth rate of 5 percent, which the Brazilian government aims to achieve in the next few years, would be fabulous; if Brazil sticks to an inflation target of 4.5 percent per year for the next five years, it will certainly help the country accomplish this goal, O'Neill added.[10][16] It was Charles de Gaulle who once said, "Brazil has a great future. But it always will have."[7] The country is currently considered an "agricultural superpower"[17][18] and an "oil superpower"[19][17] due to its vast resources and production in those areas.[20][21]
Brazil's economic potential has been anticipated for decades, but it had until recently consistently failed to achieve investor expectations. Only in recent years has the country established a framework of political, economic, and social policies[22] that allowed it to resume consistent growth.[7][14] The result has been solid and paced economic development that rival its early 1970's "miracle years", as reflected in its expanding capital markets, lowest unemployment rates in decades, and consistent international trade surpluses - that led to the accumulation of reserves and liquidation of foreign debt.[7][8][14] During the last three years of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva's tenure, which dates back to the year 2000, Brazil’s gross domestic product growth rate has skyrocketed from a passable one percent to an impressive nearly six percent.[9] Free trade, an idea toyed with during the late 1990s, finally became a solidified certainty for the nation’s businesses.[9] Many, viewing the dismal inflation-consumed performance of the 1980s and early 1990s, with a currency adding zeros faster than the printing presses could turn, believed Brazil could never make it, especially with a former sociology professor, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, becoming president followed by a leftist populist, the present president, Lula. But indeed it is happening.[23] Cardoso practised fiscal prudence, stabilized the currency, and initiated the first real reforms of Brazil’s bloated bureaucracy and feudal inefficiencies.[7] Brazil’s diversity places it in a position of distinction in the South American continent and strongly influences the attraction of foreign investment.[24] As a result, Brazil has invested heavily in sub-Saharan Africa as to both set an example to its fellow South American nations and reap the economic benefits of a diversified economy.[9][25]
The South American nation has a head start on India and China. It has been developing in its sometime madcap way for over 100 years. Between 1960 and 1980, Brazil doubled its per capita income, an achievement that was only surpassed by the later growth spurts of the East Asian countries.[14][13] Unlike China and India, Brazil is primed to be a world superpower. This is because Brazil possesses something both Indian and Chinese entrepreneurs long for: a stable platform upon which to trade.[9][1][26]
Economy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/CENU_SaoPaulo_Brazil.jpg/220px-CENU_SaoPaulo_Brazil.jpg)
Brazil has a moderate free market and export-oriented economy. Measured nominally, its Gross Domestic Product surpasses a trillion dollars with USD 1.313 trillion, the tenth in the world and the third in the Americas;[27] measured by purchasing power parity, $1.835 trillion, making it the nineth largest economy in the world and the second largest in the Americas, after the United States.[28] Brazil's currency, the real, recently hit a nine-year-high against the dollar, inflation is under control and millions of Brazilians are being propelled towards a new middle class.[8] Last week, meanwhile, Brazil was awarded "investment grade" status by the financial rating agency Standard & Poor's, sending the country's stocks soaring to an all-time high.[29][30][31] Its nominal GDP per capita has surpassed USD 6,937 in 2007[32] and according PPP, USD 9,695.[33]
The country’s scientific and technological development is argued to be attractive to foreign direct investment, which has averaged US$ 20 billion per year the last years, compared to only USD 2 billion/year last decade,[34] thus showing a remarkable growth. The agricultural sector, locally called the agronegócio sector, has also been remarkably dynamic: for two decades this sector has kept Brazil amongst the most highly productive countries in areas related to the rural sector.[34][35] The owner of a sophisticated technological sector, Brazil develops projects that range from submarines to aircraft and has an advanced space program: with significant capabilities to launch vehicles, launch sites and satellite manufacturing,[36][37][38][39] and was the only country in the Southern Hemisphere to integrate the team responsible for the construction of the International Space Station (ISS).[40] On 2006 AEB astronaut Marcos Pontes became the first Brazilian and the first native Portuguese-speaking person to go into space, where he stayed on the International Space Station for a week.[41]
Politics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/National_Congress_of_Brazil.jpg/220px-National_Congress_of_Brazil.jpg)
Brazil is the fifth-largest country by geographical area, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. It is the most important political and economic power in Latin America.[42][43][44] Brazilian foreign policy has recently aimed to strengthen ties with other South American countries, engage in multilateral diplomacy through the United Nations and the Organization of American States. Brazil's foreign policy is a byproduct of the country's unique position as a great power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries and an emerging superpower.[45][46][47]
Brazil has a large global network of diplomatic missions, and maintains diplomatic relations with every country in the world, with the exception of seven countries. The country is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in many of its specialized agencies. It has contributed troops to UN peacekeeping efforts in the Middle East, the former Belgian Congo, Cyprus, Mozambique, Angola, and more recently East Timor and Haiti (MINUSTAH).[48] Brazil has been a member of the UN Security Council nine times, most recently 2004-2005. The nation is currently seeking a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. It is a member of the G4, an organization of Brazil, Germany, Japan, and India, all nations who are currently seeking permanent representation.[49] Brazilian Antarcticaa is the name of the Antarctic territory south of 60°S, and from 28°W to 53°W, designated by the country as its Zone of Interest.[50][51] Brazil's Antarctic geopolitics are reinforced by the notion of Brazilian grandeza which, Brazilians feel, will be part of the country's eventual status as a world superpower. Brazilian analysts and officials have often stressed Brazil's special geopolitical status as a superpower sitting astride key navigation sea lanes of communication in the Atlantic from the Equator to Antarctica.[52]
Military
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/EB_Haiti.jpg/220px-EB_Haiti.jpg)
Brazil has one of the largest defense budgets(12th) and armed forces(18th) in the the world.[53][54] The Armed forces of Brazil comprise the Brazilian Army, the Brazilian Navy, and the Brazilian Air Force.[55] It is the largest army, navy and air force in Latin America, with 91,314,740 available military manpower, 66 missile defense weapons and 1,676 armored vehicles; a 27,307-ton aircraft carrier, the NAe São Paulo and other 89 naval units; and 1,272 aircrafts.[53][56][57] Brazil's history after independence is marked by early territorial wars against its neighboring countries which have greatly affected the formation of current political boundaries. For example, the Argentina-Brazil War, fought over the present day territory of Uruguay established that nation's independence.[58] An armed conflict with Paraguay led to an establishment of Brazil's current border with that nation after a decisive victory.[59] Modern activity includes participation in both World Wars along with internal struggles due to military rule, and participation in right wing military operations, such as Operation Condor.[60] Recent developments include participation in peacekeeping efforts after the 2004 Haiti rebellion.[48]
Based on Brazil's history, it is believed that the country does not possess any weapons of mass destruction. Although a covert nuclear weapons program was pursued by Brazil under a military government in the 1980s, it was ended after the rise of an elected government in 1985. Brazil has a program to produce enriched uranium for power plants using Zippe-type centrifuges, officially opening the Resende enrichment plant in 2006.[61][62] If Brazil decided to pursue a nuclear weapon, the centrifuges at the Resende plants could easily be reconfigured to produce enough highly enriched uranium to make a bomb quite quickly - possibly around six bombs per year.[63][64] Brazil wishes to develop a nuclear submarine fleet, and in 2007 authorised the construction of a prototype submarine propulsion reactor.[65][66][67]
Energy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Itaipu_Dam.jpg/220px-Itaipu_Dam.jpg)
Brazil is considered to have the greatest biodiversity of any country on the planet, containing more than one-third of all flora and fauna in the world.[68][69] The country is known to possess extremely rich mineral deposits, although the country's resources are still not yet completely surveyed. Brazil has the world’s largest reserves of niobium (86.9 %) and tantalite (62.5 %); the second largest reserve of graphite; the sixth largest reserves of iron ore, manganese, bauxite and uranium, with only 25 percent of the territory surveyed. Brazil produces 90 percent of the world's supply of gems, such as diamonds, aquamarines, topazes, amethysts, tourmalines, and emeralds.[68][70]
Brazil is one of the largest energy consumers in the world(10th) and the largest in South America. It is also a pioneer in many fields, including ethanol[71][72] production and deepwater and ultra-deep water oil production. The nation is the world's second largest producer of ethanol and the world's largest exporter, and it is considered to have the world's first sustainable biofuels economy and the biofuel industry leader.[73][74][75][76] In 2006, Brazil had 11.2 billion barrels (1.78×109 m3) of proven oil reserves, second-largest in South America after Venezuela. The vast majority of proven reserves are located at Campos and Santos offshore basins on the southeast coast of Brazil.[77][78] In November 2007, Petrobras announced that it believes the offshore Tupi oil field has between 5 and 8 billion barrels (1.3×109 m3) of recoverable light oil, which could result in Brazil becoming one of the largest producers of oil in the world.[79][80][81] On January 2008, Petrobras announced the discovery of the Jupiter field, a huge natural gas and condensate (very light oil) field which could equal the Tupi oil field in size (5-8 billion BOE).[82][83]
Culture
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/CorcovadofotoRJ.jpg/220px-CorcovadofotoRJ.jpg)
Brazil is an influential country in music, cuisine and sports.[84] Brazil's cultural tradition extends to its music styles which include samba, bossa nova, forró, frevo, pagode and many others. Brazil has also contributed to classical music, which can be seen in the works of many composers like Heitor Villa-Lobos. Brazil is also the land of the São Paulo State Symphony, regarded as one of the outstanding orchestras in Latin America and in the world.[85] In the 1950's, Antônio Carlos Jobim, Vinícius de Moraes, Baden Powell and João Gilberto popularized the Bossa Nova sound, which was followed by Brazilian Popular Music.[86] In the late 1960s, Tropicalismo was popularized by Caetano Veloso and Gilberto Gil.[87]
Sports in Brazil which are widely practiced and popular in the country, as well as others which originated there or have some cultural significance. The Brazilian people are very involved in sports, and the most popular one is football by a wide margin, and can be considered a cultural phenomenon.[88] The Brazilian national football team is currently ranked second in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings.[89] They have been victorious in the World Cup tournament a record five times. Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil. Beach football, futsal (official version of indoor football) and footvolley emerged in the country as variations of football. In martial arts, Brazilians have developed Capoeira,[90] Vale tudo,[91] and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.[92] Brazil has undertaken the organization of large-scale sporting events: the country organized and hosted the 1950 FIFA World Cup[93] and is chosen to host the 2014 FIFA World Cup event.[94] São Paulo organized the IV Pan American Games in 1963[95] and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV Pan American Games in 2007.[96] Brazil also tried for the fourth time to host the Summer Olympics with Rio de Janeiro in 2016.[97]
China
The People's Republic of China receives continual coverage in the popular press of its potential superpower status,[98][99] and has been identified as a rising or emerging economic and military superpower by academics and other experts.[100][101][102][103] Professor Shujie Yao of Nottingham University has said "China will overtake the United States to become the world's largest economy by 2038 if current growth rates continue," and that China's GDP will overtake that of Japan by 2017 or 2018, and Germany's by 2008. Professor Yao thinks that "under an optimistic scenario," "China could become a real superpower in 30 years time."[104] Though in late 2007, China's economic power 'shrank' when the World Bank reported that they had overestimated China's economy by about 40%. Although the finding was based on a PPP estimation of the Chinese GDP, which the above estimations do not depend on.[105]
Geoffrey Murphay's China: The Next Superpower argues that while the potential for China is high, this is fairly perceived only by looking at the risks and obstacles China faces in managing its population and resources. The political situation in China is too fragile to survive into superpower status according to Susan Shirk in China: Fragile Superpower.[106] Other factors that could constrain China's ability to become a superpower in the future include: limited supplies of energy and raw materials, questions over its innovation capability, inequality and corruption, and risks to social stability and the environment.[107]
Factors
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Prc1952-2005gdp.gif/220px-Prc1952-2005gdp.gif)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/UNSC_2007.png/220px-UNSC_2007.png)
The People's Republic of China covers a total area of approximately 9.6 millions km² [108][109] which is the third or fourth largest in the world. [110] China's land possesses vast wealths of valuable natural resources such as coal, oil, and minerals [111] [112]. In view of PRC's extensive river network and mountainous terrain, there is ample potential for the production of hydroelectric power [113] [114]. Most areas of China enjoy a temperate climate and China has one of the world's largest land masses within the temperate zone. According to a report by Jeffrey Sachs, nations in temperate climate zones generally have higher agricultural productivity and face lower rates of infectious diseases than tropical regions (particularly endemic water-borne and parasitic diseases). Moderate advantages in geography can lead to big differences in long-term economic performance through the development of innovation from excess labor productivity. Sachs believes this climate makes most economies in this region high-income, but categorizes China, Russia and much of Eastern Europe as middle-income economies because of their socialist past.[115] "Geography as destiny" and the benefits of a temperate climate toward economic development were first proposed by Adam Smith and recently by David Landes in his The Wealth and Poverty of Nations. [116]
China's population is the world's largest, with about 1.3 billion citizens [117]. With the global human population currently estimated at about 6.5 billion, China is home to approximately 20%. China's controversial One-Child Policy has enabled families to devote more resources to their offspring and has been beneficial in terms of curbing population growth, aiding economic growth, and improving the health and welfare of women and children. [118] The youth (ages 15-24) literacy rate in China today stands at 20.9% with near gender parity.[119] However, some believe population control may eventually have a detrimental effect on mainland China's aging demographics (see factors against section).
The 2.25-million-strong People's Liberation Army makes it the largest military in the world, in terms of sheer number of troops (13.25 million if the People's Armed Police and the Militia are included [120][121]). However, the PLA is behind advanced Western militaries in many areas. Recognizing this fact, the PRC is undergoing a massive effort to improve and modernize its military technology, equipment, and power projection capabilities. As part of its overall program of naval modernization, the Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy has a long-term plan of developing a blue water navy. [122] - all fueled by a rapidly growing defense budget. [123]
As one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with veto power, the PRC possesses influence in world politics. The PRC is gradually increasing its influence in areas which are traditionally dominated by the influence of Western countries. This is in part due to the PRC's non-ideological approach to foreign affairs and offer of no-strings-attached assistance, which thus presents an alternative for seeking foreign aid and potential allies. Its ties with these countries have become closer driven by strengthening economic bond through trade and strategic investment, and to a much lesser extent, military cooperation [124][125].
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Prcflagphogel.jpg/220px-Prcflagphogel.jpg)
Mainland China is Japan's, South Korea's and Taiwan's largest trading partner.[126][127][128] Growing trade and investment have given the PRC a greater politico-economic leverage over Mongolia.[129] The PRC also has a considerable influence in the military, economy, and politics of North Korea.[130] As the Chinese economy grows, a major priority is securing natural resources to keep pace with demand. China has made energy trading deals with Central Asian nations. In addition to trade ties, the PRC has contributed aid and funding to the region's countries.[131] The Shanghai Cooperation Organization, of which the PRC is a founding member, is also becoming increasingly important in Central Asian security and politics. Some observers believe the PRC is primarily concerned with securing its borders as it emerges as a world power.[132] The Middle East is a strategically important region as it not only possesses vast oil reserves, but large portions of its population are opposed to the United States, the world's only superpower. China has sought out these oil reserves and has also provided security deals to Middle Eastern nations in the face of global condemnation of Middle Eastern terrorism. China's fast economic growth also means that China is consuming more energy. China is now the second largest consumer of petroleum products in the world after the United States. The PRC has recently been trying to secure and diversify sources of its energy (oil and gas) supplies from around the world. The Middle Eastern region, which contains the world's largest proven oil reserve, has been the focus of that policy. Roughly half of China's imported oil comes from the Middle East. At the same time, these energy-producing Middle Eastern nations are keen to diversify their customer base away from overdependence on the Western market (Europe and North America) as a demand source and so they have begun to look at other rapidly growing markets such as China. In addition to the deepening bilateral relationship in the trade and energy sectors, the PRC has an expanding body of other strategic interests in the greater Middle East region. This is manifested in its security relationships with Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Iran, which entail WMD and ballistic missile cooperation. These include contentious arms deals which included providing Saudi Arabia and Iran with weapons which could not only harass oil tankers and American aircraft carriers, but also carry nuclear warheads. There are concerns that nothing is being done to stop these arms from falling into terrorist hands. [133] In fact, some of the weapons being used in Iraq by the growing insurgency there are based on Chinese designs.[134].As one of the only sources of such technology to the region, China has placed itself in a strong position to further exert influence on Middle Eastern nations.[135] Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Pakistan are pivotal states in the region. They are somewhat likely to view the PRC in coming years as an alternate source of security and as a counterbalance to American power [136] [137] [138]. While China runs a trade deficit with India, it has trade surpluses with other South Asian economies (including Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Pakistan). It has conducted large arms deals with Pakistan. After the United States's nuclear deal with India, the PRC controversially offered Pakistan and Bangladesh nuclear power plants. To maintain relations with India, the PRC has decided to lay down its claims to the Indian state of Sikkim, although this political stance of appeasement is detrimental to China's power. The PRC has also contributed to the improvement of the development sector of all South Asian economies apart from India [139]. China's investment in the said economies has gained a strategic foothold and build a" diplomatic profile in the region, having transformed the region from India's purported "near abroad" into China's own backyard [139]. Some of the PRC's geopolitical ambitions focus on Southeast Asia, where the PRC is intent upon establishing a preeminent sphere of influence. The PRC has pursued this ambition with a diplomatic campaign designed to increase its influence politically and economically. In November 2006, the PRC conducted several agreements with Southeast Asian countries to increase free trade, cultural ties, military and security cooperations, and solutions to settle the disputes regarding the ownership of the Spratley Isles. The talks also discussed a possibility to form a political, economic, and security bloc between the PRC and the ASEAN in the near future. [140] [141] [142] Since the 1960s and 70s the PRC has set out to improve relations with Africa. The PRC's interest centered on building ideological solidarity with other underdeveloped nations to advance communism and on repelling so called, Western "imperialism". Following the Cold War, the PRC's interests evolved into more pragmatic pursuits such as trade, investment, and energy [143]. In November 2006, China hosted the heads of states of 48 African countries in Beijing's Forum on China-Africa Cooperation Summit to strengthen its economic and political influence in the continent. [144] African leaders now regularly cite China as the ideal development model for their countries.[145] Recent years have seen the PRC's growing economic and political influence in South America and the Caribbean. During a visit to Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and Cuba in November 2004, PRC President Hu Jintao announced US$100 billion worth of investment over the next decade [146] [147] [148]. For instance, Cuba is turning to Chinese companies rather than Western ones to modernize its crippled transportation system at a cost of more than US$1 billion, continuing a trend of favoring the fellow communist country that has made China Cuba's second-largest trading partner after Venezuela in 2005 [149]. In addition, The PRC is expanding its military-to-military contacts in the region. The PRC is training increasing numbers of Latin American military personnel, taking advantage of a three-year old U.S. law that has led to a sharp decline in U.S.-run training programs for the region [150].
China's GDP has grown at a rate of at least 10% per year for more than 25 years (although recently the government has sought to slow this growth to curtail overheating and waste), one of the fastest growth rates for a major economy in recorded history [151]. In 2005, China became the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of market exchange value [152] and the second largest when measured by purchasing power parity, with a GDP (PPP) of US$8.8 trillion in 2006. In the same period of time, it has moved 300 million people out of poverty and raised the average Chinese person's income by a factor of 8. [153] [154]. China’s population is so large and its economy growing so quickly that the Chinese are set to take over second place in the league table of the world’s wealthy people in the next decade, second only to the United States.[155]
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China has many cities with large populations; 170 cities have a population of over one million people.[156] Most of them are encircled with expressways (for example, the Ring Roads of Beijing).[157] These metropolises are national or regional centers of industrial, financial, and cultural activities. Shanghai, China's largest city, is an important financial center in Asia and has the world's busiest port.[158] China's international trade grew at an annual average rate of 29.5% in the last four years [159]. China’s export share is 7.3% and import share is 6.3% in world trade in 2005 [160] [161]. China is currently the world's third largest trading power (after the United States and Germany) [162] [163]. The PRC government also put great efforts to push for exporting medical supplies and software. China's foreign exchange reserves reached $1 trillion (October 2006), becoming the largest in the world [164]. China's infrastructure has radically improved in last two decades. The total expressway length was about 41,000 kilometers at the end of 2005, the world's second longest only after the United States. [165] [166] Several thousands of kilometers of new expressways are added to form the nationwide expressway network every year [167]. China has the world's first commercially operational maglev train and also has plans to build several other high speed train railways, including the 1300-kilometer Beijing-Shanghai Express Railway and the Shanghai-Hangzhou Maglev Train. China is home of many of the world's busiest ports. Communication infrastructure in China has also rapidly risen in the last decade, and today China has more main telephone lines and mobile cellular telephones than any other economy [168] [169]. As of 2005, there are more than 459 million cellphone subscribers in China and China is currently second only to the United States in number of internet users. Currently, China's infrastructure leads significantly when compared to that of India, which is also considered as a potential superpower.[170] [171] [172]. China is the world's second biggest spender on research and development, and is expected to invest over $136 billion in 2006 after growing more than 20% in 2005.[173] China currently has an estimated 926,000 researchers, second in number only to the 1.3 million in the United States.[174] R&D spending by the PRC government has more than tripled since 1998. Moreover, the numbers of the scientific research paper doubled in the same period. According to experts, China might produce more engineering doctorates than the U.S. in 2010. Many foreign companies are setting up R&D centres in China due to official government support and to tap lower-cost Chinese talents. [175].
Space technology The PRC launched its first satellite Dong Fang Hong I to Earth orbit on its own Long March rocket in 1970, becoming the fifth nation to achieve independent launch capability. The PRC also became the third country (after the former Soviet Union and the USA) to send humans into space on its own in 2003. The PRC has said that it plans to launch its own space station and to send a manned mission to the moon by 2020. [176]
China has an extensive historical culture and philosophy. Chinese novelist Gao Xingjian won Chinese first Nobel Prize for Literature in 2000, and the Chinese-language film Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon became the highest grossing non-English film. Many Chinese actors such as Jackie Chan and Jet Li have gained international recognition. Jackie Chan in particular has come in the spotlight for his performance in English language films such as Rush Hour, The Tuxedo and Shanghai Noon. Yao Ming, who plays in the U.S. National Basketball Association's Houston Rockets, has rapidly advanced in fame, and the PRC is set to host the 2008 Summer Olympics. The enrollment of foreign students in mainland China has tripled to 110,000 from 36,000 over the past decade [177], and the number of foreign tourists has also increased to 41.8 million in 2004 [178] [179]. The PRC has created 26 Confucius Institutes around the world to teach its language and culture, and while the Voice of America was cutting its Chinese broadcasts to 14 from 19 hours a day, China Radio International was increasing its broadcasts in English to 24 hours a day [180].
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China has a long history spanning many thousands of years and stood as a leading civilization in Asia. Many Asian countries were a part of the century-old Chinese tributary system. China strongly influenced its neighbors in politics, arts, philosophy, religion, and culture until the rise of the Western powers and Imperial Japan.[181] [182] [183]. The PRC government has always put strong emphasis on developing a strong primary educational system. China has over a 90% literacy rate according to 2002 statistics.[184] China's youth (age 15 to 24) literacy rate is 98.9% (99.2% for males and 98.5% for females) in 2000.[185] The PRC has also put science and technology as priorities in its education.[186] Such emphasis may explain the performance of mainland Chinese high school students in the mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology areas of the International science olympiad.[187] [188] [189] [190]
Another important factor is the strong and economically influential Overseas Chinese around the world, especially in Southeast Asian countries like Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, and throughout the United States and the Western world [191] [192]. There are more than 60 million overseas Chinese spread throughout the world. The overseas Chinese have a GDP equivalent to about US$1.1 trillion, or one of the top 10 world economies if combined and are a large economic contributor to China's growing economy. [193] Some of these overseas Chinese (particularly older emmigrants from China) preserve their cultural identity and form communities in the host nations known as "Chinatowns", which help to raise awareness of Chinese culture in those foreign countries. Chinese culture also strongly influences and forms the basis of the regional cultures of East Asia. East Asian countries adopted much of the Chinese essence in philosophy, language, and ancient technology. An example is Confucianism - a philosophical thought originated from China - which holds a great influence on not only the Chinese but also the Japanese, Koreans, Vietnamese, and other East Asians.[194]
Problems
PRC's military capabilities (technology and power projection) are still small compared to that of the United States (and the European Union as a unit). The PRC has little confirmed force projection capabilities and lacks vital components of a blue water navy and a long range air force. For example, in terms of operational land-based ICBM systems, the USA possesses the second most lethal strategic capability after Russia, which includes a more reliable arsenal and a massive numerical edge in ICBMs over the PRC. In space technology, the PRC is currently lagging behind the level of development of the United States and Russia, though that in part can be attributed to a late start.
Two major factors contribute to PRC's late remodernization campaign. For one, PRC's previous long-term dependence on Soviet-era military technology has produced a significant lag of indigenously produced hardware. It was not up until the 1960s Sino-Soviet split that the PRC was forced to rely on their own scientists, rather than Soviet engineers to help modernize PRC's military technology. Furthermore, the surge of violence and bloodshed against intellectuals during the Cultural Revolution during this time period, resulted in a shortage of trained and skilled engineers and military leaders to tackle the task of rebuilding PRC's military. These two factors combined help explain why PRC military hardware is currently not up to par with Western armies.[195]
Malaysian strategic thinker Bunn Nagara has claimed that "The Chinese armed forces are technologically backward, compared even to the Russians -- which in turn are backward compared to NATO", while Sakanaka Tomohisa calls the "so-called Chinese military threat more psychological than real-world". [196]
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The PRC has had difficult relationships with many world powers. A major ongoing dispute is the issue of Taiwan. The PRC has threatened to use force to impose reunification with the Republic of China (ROC) and to thwart any declaration of Taiwanese independence. Most countries in the world maintain diplomatic relations with the PRC and are obligated to follow its One China policy, but the United States is obliged by the Taiwan Relations Act to help defend Taiwan should there be any invasion from the mainland. Therefore, a military conflict in the Taiwan Strait could lead to a confrontation between the People’s Republic and the United States, which could be devastating to both sides. Additionally, the United States is still suspicious of China's international ambition. [197] PRC's relations with India, its large southern neighbour sharing a long and contentious border, are far from friendly. Apart from border disputes, the erstwhile ruler of Tibet was granted asylum in India, increasing tensions between these nations that led to the Sino-Indian War in 1962. The PRC's nuclear capabilities and its close military ties with India's main enemy, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, forced India to seek its own nuclear umbrella, although both India and the PRC have declared a 'No first use' policy.
Access to information is believed by some to be the key to the development of science and technological ideas[198] and PRC control over information may therefore hamper its growth in these areas. The PRC already places less strict control over the media in mainland China - an example being the growth of the Internet and the spread of increasingly commercially-driven media.[199] However, there are certain limits to such liberalization.[200] For instance, censors are still blocking access to certain websites deemed "inappropriate" (e.g. politically sensitive, pornographic sites, etc.), including Wikipedia. [201]
Some of PRC's allies, particularly African and Latin American nations, are politically and/or economically unstable, which could lead to unexpected twists in foreign relations.The idea that the PRC supplied the technology for additional nuclear power to Pakistan could make its relationships with nations like India, the United States and the United Kingdom more difficult. [139] [202] [203] PRC's "neutral" foreign policy acknowledges the right of every state to its own political system, with economic investment being beneficial to any foreign state regardless of internal affairs. Other countries have continually asserted the need for certain universal values and ideals, such as democracy and human rights. PRC's disregard for these considerations has led to criticism that its actions have the effect of sheltering repressive states such as Zimbabwe and blocking effective action on genocide in Sudan.[204][145].This has contributed to a growing backlash and simmering grassroots resentment against China in African countries[145].
There has been a national debate about judicial independence in mainland China's closed political system. In mainland China, the government, not a court, is the final arbiter of law. Mainland China's court system is far from an independent entity that can curb government power. Instead, the courts often remain a pliable tool to reinforce that power (for instance, court rulings that favor state interests). Many judges are poorly educated in the law and are corrupt. Judges often must answer to government officials as much as to the law. Political pressure is common, and private trial committees often dictate rulings. Although there are signs of change, such as the emerging civic belief that ordinary people have "legal rights", such changes continue to meet enormous resistance within the system [205] [206].
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Western governments, human rights organizations, and groups within China have often criticized the PRC on its human rights record in mainland China and often use this issue to shape policies towards the PRC. For example, the US justifies continued resistance to lift its arms embargo against China, as well as that of the EU, based upon the issue of human rights. One prominent case of accusations of human rights violations comes from the Falun Gong movement, which claims that the PRC government persecutes its members in mainland China and campaigns outside of mainland China for an end to this. The government of the People's Republic sees Falun Gong an anti-national cult. These claims are not supported by the United States congress, who passed a resolution[207] declaring Falun Gong to be a peaceful religion, and that the Ziang regime has created a notorious government, with '610' offices throughout the People's Republic of China with the special task of overseeing the persecution of Falun Gong members through organized brainwashing, torture, and murder. The CPC is engaging in suppressing information on the sect [208] [209], including suppression of wikipedia (see History of Wikipedia). On the other side, several Falun Gong sympathetic media have criticized the CPC [210], and rejected their authority, suggesting that some prospect for political civil disobedience. There has also been unrest in the Tibetan Plateau in the past, with calls for Tibetan independence still a controversial issue.[211] [212] [213]
There have been other cases of oppression of religion in the country, such as creating obstacles in the way of the spread of Christianity[214]. Christians in China assert that they have been persecuted for their beliefs and practices, such as being arrested for reading the Bible [215]The only legal Christian Churches (Three-Self Patriotic Movement and Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association) in China are those under the Communist Party of China control. Teaching in those Churches is importantly modified towards party's goals in its internal politics. By doing this they forced Christians to compromise their belief or the law to practice their beliefs (see article on Chinese House Churches) with all the subsequent consequences for them. China's record on religious freedom remains poor, despite some improvements over the past 25 years[216]. United States Secretary Condoleezza Rice has designated China as a “country of particular concern” under the International Religious Freedom Act, which carries specific sanctions, such as barring China from consideration for certain types of aid[216]. These issues are relevant to China's Emergence as an Economic Superpower and Its Implications for U.S. Business[216].
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Mainland China still faces great difficulty in solving the mass unemployment problem in the urban and rural areas [217] [218] [219]. Furthermore, although the eastern seaboard areas of mainland China have experienced a tremendous (often double-digit) economic growth rate and are major recipients of FDI into the country, similar breakneck growth rate has been lacking in the relatively undeveloped western areas. To close the gap and to catch up with mainland China's wealthier eastern provinces, the government has initiated the China Western Development strategy [220], the Revitalize Northeast China initiative [221], and the Rise of Central China policy [222].
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On a more micro-scale, there's also a big gap over urban-rural population wealth [223]. This great disparity in urban-rural income (on average, urban residents earned three times more income than their rural counterparts) [224] has caused concerns such as social discontent. 42 million mainland Chinese lived below the official poverty line in 1998 and 100 million lived on less than US$1 per day, a standard which is classified by the World Bank as extreme poverty [225]. However, the number of people living under the poverty line in the country had dropped from 250 million in 1978 to 29 million by the end of 2003 [226]. The incidence of poverty in mainland China also dropped from 30.7 percent to 3.1 percent in the period [227]. In response to the rural poverty, the government has taken steps such as abolishing the 2,000-year-old agricultural tax [228], exempting personal income tax for those receiving monthly income below 1,600 yuan [229], and increasing investments in rural infrastructure, education, and health services to boost consumption and development in rural areas [230].
The mainland Chinese economy has a great dependence on foreign trade and investments. Investment and export sectors collectively account for about 80% of mainland Chinese GDP and are still growing at close to a 30% annual rate. This is an unsustainable outcome for China (and the US on the consumption side of the global economy). Further sharp increases in investment are a recipe for capacity overhangs and deflation, which could cause an abundance of goods to sell with no countries to sell them to. A scenario such as this is very similar to what caused worldwide recession in the 1930s. Continued sharp gains in exports are a recipe for trade frictions and possibly protectionism in other countries. China is now proposing to tackle its excess saving and subpar consumption story with the same fervor evident when it went after other aspects of its growth and reform story during the past 28 years. Pilot projects already have been established in setting up a safety net, especially in the social security area; moreover, under the terms of China’s WTO accession, the opening of domestic services is likely to accelerate over the next 3-5 years, thereby relieving some of China's external dependency. [231].
In response to mainland China's ballooning trade surplus with the West, Western governments assert that its currency (see Renminbi) is currently greatly undervalued [232]. Some also assert that the PRC government has unfairly manipulated the yuan exchange rate [233] [234]. When the currency is thoroughly revalued, it is possible that the outsourcing of jobs to mainland China would lessen somewhat. While a stronger currency is a concern for mainland China's manufacturing industry, a positive effect could see the reduction of mainland China's over-reliance on foreign trade and investments as the current main engine for its economic growth. It will thus cause domestic consumption to increase its role in fuelling the economic growth. This type of growth would be more stable towards external economic conditions and sustainable for longer periods of time. In 2005, the share of domestic consumption in mainland China's overall GDP has fallen to slightly less than 50%, significantly below the U.S. share of 71% (most other industrialized nations such as the U.K., Japan, and Australia have shares of around 60-70%) [235] [236].
Mainland China's overall trade surplus has increased dramatically in recent years creating an imbalance in the world economy. For example, mainland China keeps a trade surplus of US$200 billion with the United States [237]. However, products that are labelled Made in China are not necessarily developed or designed in mainland China. In fact, 60% of mainland Chinese goods that are exported come from overseas-invested factories, according to PRC customs data (note though, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, which make up the majority portion of investments in China, are considered overseas and separate from mainland China in PRC economic data) [238] [239]. Mainland China has become a focal point for assemblies, where final products are assembled and/or tested, but not necessarily manufactured there. The main components are often imported from other countries. Thus, despite mainland China's huge trade surplus with the West, it has a trade deficit of US$137 billion with Asian countries (Taiwan: US$58 billion, South Korea US$42 billion, Japan: US$16.5 billion) [240] [241].
The "epidemic" of piracy in mainland China is spreading. For instance, U.S., European and Japanese companies had reported combined losses to mainland Chinese piracy of at least US$60 billion in 2003 [242]. Piracy in mainland China is rampant and negatively affects everything from computer software and pharmaceuticals to clothing, auto parts and chewing gum. It affects both mainland Chinese and foreign IPR holders, and is a growing concern for major trading partners such as the United States and the European Union. Such IPR violation may reduce mainland China's creative power potential and hold back mainland China's own innovators and entrepreneurs [243].
As a result of previous and current growth-at-all-costs strategy, mainland China's environment is in a state of serious degradation. Soil erosion, desertification, air pollution, loss of arable lands, and steady falling of water table especially in the north are serious problems and are estimated to cost the mainland Chinese economy billions of dollars per year. Water is already a scarce commodity in mainland China (especially in northern arid regions) where per capita water supplies are less than a quarter of the world's average. Pollution from coal causes over 250,000 deaths annually. By 2020, it is predicted that mainland China will account for up to 19 per cent of global carbon dioxide emissions. [244] Currently, water in China contains dangerously high level of radiation, which has led to radiation-related death and sickness, particuarly within its Fujian Province.[245] To respond to these problems, the PRC government has embarked upon a number of projects such as Great Green Wall project (planting billions of trees to hold back desertification) and building canals to divert water from water-abundant southern regions to arid northern regions.
Due to the lack of openness of the mainland Chinese society in general, economic crimes such as corruption and collusion have become rampant among party and government officials, and this may hinder mainland China's economic growth and hurt the confidence of investors. [246] Combined with worsening social problems in mainland China (due to wide urban-rural income gap), there have been growing social discontent and about 87,000 big and small-scale demonstrations occurred throughout mainland China in 2005.[247] Most of these discontents are not political; rather they are due to economic reasons. Peasants for example, are being forced to leave their land and are compensated poorly. Their confiscated lands are then sold at a much higher price with the local officials keeping much of the profits.[248] [249]
In some technology fields, mainland China is still behind its counterparts such as the United States, Russia and the European Union, and lacks in the number of leading world-class research scientists.[250] [251] Furthermore, despite the large number of university graduates produced in mainland China every year, only a relatively small fraction has sufficient quality or professional experience to work in multinational companies (MNCs).[252] [253] The Chinese government is trying to address the problem by giving massive injections of governmental funding into mainland Chinese universities and hopes to transform them into world-class institutions. These funds are intended for attracting top foreign-educated and overseas-born Chinese, building cutting-edge research centers, partnering with the world's best educational institutions, and developing new programs taught in English.[254] However, despite this, China's weak High-Tech export industry lacks economic competitiveness and a capacity for independent innovation.[255] In PC exports, China's real export is less than $10 billion and the sales profability of high-tech industries from China has decreased, indicating that other nations around the world are reaping rewards of strong high-tech economies.[256]
A side effect of the One-child policy is mainland China's rapidly aging population.[257] It is predicted that by 2020, 25% of mainland China's population will be considered retirees, so they cannot contribute to the work force. It is expected that by the 2040s, 430 million Chinese will be above the age of sixty.[257]
This could disadvantage its economy, but on the other hand many feel uncontrolled population growth is not a feasible option either. Although officially banned by the central government, local authorities - under the pressure of job promotion - sometimes committed forced abortions in order to enforce the One-child policy. Cultural preference over sons has also encouraged gender-based abortion including female infanticide, despite it being illegal in mainland China. If trends continue, there will be 30-40 million more men of marriageable age in 2020 than there are women.[257]
Recent findings have also shown that despite the One-Child policy, China is still growing at an uncontrollable rate.[257] The total population of China is set to reach 1.5 billion in 2033.[257] By this point, it is expected that the Chinese people will be strained for water and food resources.[257] The continued overpopulation also means there will be increased demand for jobs, leading to rampant unemployment damaging the economy.[257].
The Cultural Revolution which China experienced in the 1960s-70s had devastated a significant part of China's historical and cultural relics. In the modern times, the government has tried to revive traditional Confucian values (political catch-phrase: "harmonious society") and embarked on public initiatives to protect and preserve Chinese cultural heritage as well as historical artifacts. However, more often than not, such initiative comes head-to-head against China's desire to modernize itself rapidly. For instance, traditional hutong[259] (in Beijing) and shikumen[260] (in Shanghai) homes are being demolished at an alarming rate to make way for modern developments such as high-rises and wide boulevards. Even when buildings are designated as protected or historic sites, they can be knocked down in the frenzy of development. Local officials often collude with private developers or accept bribes. The encroachment of globalization (especially Western culture) has also resulted in the fading of Chinese traditions.[261] The impact of such loss on the society is debatable although the pursuit for raw materialism over the past few decades have left a spiritual void among the Chinese. As a result, many Chinese today are interested in rediscovering their connection with the past.[262]
Some traditional Chinese users, especially for Taiwanese, often critise the formal use of simplified Chinese in China and Southeast Asian countries such as Singapore and Malaysia because the communist attempt to simplify traditional characters is believed to be negating China's cultural past because as more and more young Chinese people read only simplified text and forget traditional Chinese, there will be few who will be able to translate and read ancient Chinese artifacts and scrolls.[263][264]
European Union
The European Union has been called an emerging superpower by academics.[265][266][267][268] T.R. Reid,[269] Andrew Reding[270] and Mark Leonard,[271][272] believe that the power of the European Union will rival that of the United States in the 21st century. Leonard cites several factors: the EU's large population, large economy, low inflation rates, the unpopularity and perceived failure of US foreign policy in recent years, and certain EU members states' high quality of life (when measured in terms such as hours worked per week).[273] On the other hand Laurent Cohen-Tanugi[274] states that the EU as a whole has consistently suffered from a growth deficit vis-a-vis the US, high unemployment, and public deficits even while most member states of the EU lagged substantially behind the US in R&D investment, technological innovation, and, since 1995, productivity gains.
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The EU currently features the world's largest GDP and consumer market and has considerable control over the global allocation of resources, yet it is currently argued that the European Union is too politically and culturally fragmented to be considered as a single unit, especially since two of the principal levers of power, foreign policy and defense, are exercised principally by the individual member states.[citation needed] Additionally, the EU's military capabilities are relatively limited, while "superpowers" traditionally wield considerable power in that sphere.
Overall the twenty-seven member states also have significant cultural influences on the entire globe, with European fashion, art and food being commonplace in nearly every corner of the planet. France and the United Kingdom are also permanent members of the UN Security Council and have veto power. In terms of education, eight of the top fifteen ranks on the PISA were filled by EU member states with all western member states being represented among the top thirty.[277]
Given planned force expansion, EU members will together field 4 fleet aircraft carriers as well as more than half a dozen smaller escort carriers and numerous surface warships by 2015.[citation needed]
The EU is composed of many developed countries; by contrast, India and China are politically unified but still lack some economic, political, military, and social development. The European Union contains several current great powers — the United Kingdom, Germany, France, and Italy — along with 23 other countries.
Also, the EU even seems to have developed a sphere of influence of close geographical nations, which was typical of the United States and Soviet Union in the Cold War.[278] Examples include candidate nations, EFTA members outside of the Union, and former colonies, especially in Africa. The EU plays the role of a normative hegemon [7]. It reverses the traditional balance of power, in the sense that states are not trying to counter-balance it but join it. It is argued by commentators that full political integration is not required for the European Union to wield international influence: that its apparent weaknesses constitute its real strengths (as of its low profile diplomacy and the opsetion of the rule of law[279]) and that the EU represents a new and potentially more successful type of international actor than traditional ones [8]; however, it is uncertain if the effectiveness of such an influence would be equal to that of a politically integrated superpower. (e.g. United States)
Much of the debate seems to stem from the EU being a sui generis entity.
Structure
On December 16, 2004, The World Factbook, a publication of the United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) added an entry for the European Union.[280] According to the CIA, the European Union was added because the EU "continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself". Their reasoning was explained in this small statement in the introduction:
The evolution of the European Union (EU) from a regional economic agreement among six neighboring states in 1951 to today's supranational organization of 27 countries across the European continent stands as an unprecedented phenomenon in the annals of history. Dynastic unions for territorial consolidation were long the norm in Europe... Although the EU is not a federation in the strict sense, it is far more than a free-trade association such as ASEAN, NAFTA, or Mercosur, and it has many of the attributes associated with independent nations: its own flag, anthem, founding date, and currency, as well as an incipient common foreign and security policy in its dealings with other nations. In the future, many of these nation-like characteristics are likely to be expanded. Thus, inclusion of basic intelligence on the EU has been deemed appropriate as a new, separate entity in The World Factbook. However... this description is placed after the regular country entries. — CIA factbook[280]
India
Newsweek, and the International Herald Tribune join several academics in discussing India's potential of becoming a superpower.[281][282][283] With 9.4% GDP growth in 2007[284], Goldman Sachs predicts that as 700 million Indians are expected to move to cities by 2050, the Indian economy may surpass the United States's (in US$) by 2043.[285]
"India has moved onto a much faster growth trajectory than the bank had previously expected, fueled by strong and steady productivity gains in its legions of new factories, which are producing everything from brassieres to cars." [285]
India's strength lies in its demographics; More than 50% of India's population is under 25.[285] Dr Narendra Jadhav, a principal advisor to the RBI and a former advisor to the executive director at the IMF, says "India has a great potential to become an economic super power because of its growing young population."[286] A young population coupled with the second largest English-speaking population in the world could give India an advantage over China.[287] Other factors contributing to India's emergence as a superpower include democracy and its status as a nuclear power.
Founder and President of the Economic Strategy Institute and former counselor to the Secretary of Commerce in the Reagan Administration Clyde V. Prestowitz Jr. has embraced the notion being put forth that
"It is going to be India's century. India is going to be the biggest economy in the world. It is going to be the biggest superpower of the 21st century".[288]
China and India rising to superpower status is not inevitable, according to scholars such as Professor Pranab Bardhan, Chief Editor of the Journal of Development Economics, who suggest that millions mired in poverty and ineffective government prevent China or India from rivaling the U.S. or the E.U. any time soon.[289]
Factors
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India, the 7th largest nation by area, lies at the north-central region of Indian Ocean - a zone with unprecedented potential for growth in the scale of transoceanic commerce, with many Eurasian and increasingly Afro-Asian sea-trade routes passing through or close to Indian territorial waters. The subcontinent's land and water resources, though strained, is yet sustaining its massive population.
According to Lord Curzon of the British Empire:
The central position of India, its magnificent resources, its teeming multitude of men, its great trading harbors, its reserve of military strength, supplying an army always in a high state of efficiency and capable of being hurled at a moment's notice upon any point either of Asia or Africa--all these are assets of precious value. On the West, India must exercise a predominant influence over the destinies of Persia and Afghanistan; on the north, it can veto any rival in Tibet; on the north-east . . . it can exert great pressure upon China, and it is one of the guardians of the autonomous existence of Siam. Possession of India gave the British Empire its global reach.[290]
In the future, the world is expected to enter from the "fossil fuel age", and perhaps "nuclear energy age", into the "renewable-energy age" or even further into the "fusion power age", if and whenever these technologies become economically sustainable. [291][292][293] Being a region in the sunny tropical
belt, the Indian Subcontinent could greatly benefit from a renewable energy trend, as it has the ideal combination of both - high solar insolation[294] and a big consumer base density.[295][296][297] For example, considering the costs of energy consumed for temperature control (a major factor influencing a regions energy intensity) and the fact that - cooling load requirements, unlike heating, are roughly in phase with the sun's intensity, cooling from the excessive solar radiation could make great energetic (and hence economic) sense in the subcontinent, whenever the required technology becomes competitively cheaper.[298] [299] [300] India also has 25% of the world's thorium resources.
India has the world's second largest population.[301] The government has attempted to control the population so as to avoid overpopulation. Some South Indian states have slowed down their population growth to below 1%.[302] The PGR for the country is 1.38. Due to its high birth rate India has a young population compared to most aging nations. It has approximately 60% of its population below the age of 30. In addition, declining fertility is beginning to reduce the youth dependency rate which may produce a demographic dividend.[303] [304] [305] In the coming decades, while some of the powerful nations witness a decrease in workforce, India is expected to have an increase. For example while Europe is well past its demographic window, the U.S. entered its in 1970 (lasting until 2015), China entered its in 1990 (will last until 2025), India won't enter its window until 2010 (lasting until 2050).[306] Regionally South Asia is supposed to maintain the youngest demographic profile after Africa and Middle East, with the window extending up to 2070s. [307] More than 35 million Indians live across the globe.[308] Under fair opportunities, they have become socio-economically successful.[309]
The importance of English in the 21st century is a topic of debate,[310][311][312] nonetheless the growing pool of non-native English speakers makes it the best contender for "Global language" status.[313][314] Incidentally, India has the world's largest English speaking/understanding population.[315] It claims one of the largest workforce of engineers, doctors and other key professionals, all comfortable with English.[316] It has the 2nd largest population of "fluent English" speakers, second only to the U.S., with estimates ranging from 150 to 250 million, and is expected to have the largest in coming decades.
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India is the world's largest democratic republic, more than three times bigger than the next largest (U.S.). It has so far been successful, at least politically, especially considering its functionality in difficult ethnic composition.[317][318] The fact that India is a democracy has improved its relations with other democratic nations and significantly improved its ties with the majority of the nations in the developed world. [319] India has been pressing for permanent membership of the United Nations Security Council (as part of the G4 nations[320]) but without veto ability.[321] It has received backing from the UK,[322] France[323] and Russia[324]. However, China[325] and the U.S[326] have not been supportive of the bid. With improved Indo-US relations, the US is expected by some to reconsider its stand.[327]
India has developed relationships with the world powers like the EU,[328] the U.S.,[329] Japan and Russia. It also developed relationships with the African Union (esp. South Africa), the Arab World, Southeast Asia, Israel and South American nations (esp. Brazil). In order to make the environment propitious for economic growth, India is investing on its relations with China.[330] It has significantly boosted its image among western nations and signed a civilian nuclear deal with the United States in March 2006. It is also working for better relationships with Pakistan and Iran.[331] Historically, India was one of the founding members of Non-Aligned Movement, and had good relationships with Soviet Union and other parts of western world. It played regional roles in South Asian affairs, e.g. its use of the Indian Peace Keeping Force in the Bangladesh Liberation War and in Sri Lanka. It took a leading initiative to improve relations between African and Asian countries. India is an active member of the Commonwealth and the WTO. The evolving economic integration politics in the West and in Asia is influencing the Indian mood to slowly swing in favour of integration with global economy.[332] Currently, India's political moves are being influenced by economic imperatives. New Delhi is also being observed to slowly, cautiously, and often hesitantly, step into the unchartered role of becoming one of the two major seats of political power in Asia,[333] the other being at Beijing. Some enlightened thinkers from the subcontinent have also envisioned, over the long run, of a South Asian version of free trade zone and even a Union, where the South Asian nations relinquish all past animosities and move to make economic growth a pan subcontinental phenomenon. [334] [335]
A new and highly controversial geopolitical strategy, being debated in the West, is whether India should be trusted/helped to become an economically strong democratic citizen of the world and be used to balance the powerful but non-democratic forces, to insure a more stable world.[336] Generally speaking it is discussed in the context of adopting a policy of offshore balancing on the part of the United States. A new American strategy towards India has been indicated in George W. Bush's recent visit to the subcontinent.[337] India's current economic growth (as the world's second-fastest growing major economy) has improved its standing on the world's political stage, even though it is still a developing country, but one that is showing strong development. Many nations are moving to forge better relationships with India.[338][339]
The economy of India is currently the world's fourth largest in terms of real GDP (PPP) after the USA, the People's Republic of China and Japan, and the second fastest growing major economy in the world, averaging at an annual growth rate of above 8%.[340] [341][342]. Its record growth was in the third quarter of 2003, when it grew higher than any other emerging economy at 10.4% [343] [344]. Interestingly, estimates by the IMF shows that by 2007 (see List of countries by future GDP estimates (PPP)), India will be the third largest economy in the world, overtaking the Japanese economy. The current growth rate is at 9.2%[345]. India, growing at 8% per year, is the world's second largest producer of food next to China. Food processing accounts for USD 69.4 billion as gross income.[346] India is still relatively a small player in manufacturing when compared to many world leaders. Some new trends suggest an improvement in future, since the manufacturing sector is growing at 11-12%.[347][348][349][350][351][352] India currently has an expanding IT industry which is considered one of the best in the world. Some have begun to describe India as a technology superpower. [353][354] It is considered the World's Office and is leading in the Services Industry. This is mainly due to the availability of a large pool of highly skilled, low cost, English speaking workforce.[355] [356]
India is trying to develop more high skilled, English speaking people to fit in the future knowledge economy. [357] [358] India is becoming one of the world's leading producers of computer software and with mushrooming R&D centres it is experiencing a steady revolution in science and technology.[359] [360] [361] A typical example of India's rising scientific endeavours is that it was the 3rd nation to found a National Space Agency called ISRO, after the USSR and the U.S. It was the third Asian nation to send satellites into space after China and Japan in 1970, starting with Aryabhata in 1975.[362] [363] In January 2007, India became the fourth nation to complete atmospheric reentry[364] By 2008 it plans to send an unmanned mission to the Moon. [365] [366] [367]. India and the United States have increased mutual cooperation in space-travel related technologies, such as increasing the interoperability between Indian and US systems, and prospects for a commercial space launch agreement with India that would allow US satellites to be launched on Indian vehicles[368].India is among the world leaders in remote sensing,[369] a technology coming to great use, among others, to Indian fishermen & farmers.[370] India is also trying to join international R&D projects - e.g. it has recently joined the European Galileo GPS Project[371] and the ITER for fusion energy club.[372] Some Indian educational and research institutions like IIT,[373] NIT, IIM, IISc, TIFR and AIIMS are among the world's best.
To reduce the energy crisis, India is presently constructing ~ 9 civilian nuclear power reactors and several hydro-power stations. Recently on 25/01/2007, Russian president, Vladimir Putin on a visit to India offered to build 4 more reactors and India is expected to clinch this deal of strategical importance.[374] Recently it also made a civilian nuclear energy deal with the US[375] and EU.[376] In recent years, India joined China to launch a vigorous campaign to acquire oil fields around the world and now has stake in several oil fields (in the Middle East and Russia).[377] [378] [379] [380]
India is in the process of developing modern mass rapid transit systems to replace its existing system which is seen as inadequate to cater to present and future urban requirements. A modern metro rail system is already in place in the cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. Work is in progress or would be commencing shortly for developing similar mass transit system in cities of NOIDA, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Indore, Ahmedabad and Kochi.[381] Indore is leading the track by implementing world class GPS enabled, low floor buses in a Rapid Transport System. With growth in economy and technology, India is welcoming modernisation. The Indian rail network traverses the length and breadth of the country, covering a total length of 63,140 km (39,200 miles). It is one of the largest and busiest rail networks in the world, transporting over 5 billion passengers and over 350 million tonnes of freight annually.[382] Its operations covers twenty-seven states and three Union territories and also links the neighbouring countries of Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan. However, other public transport systems, such as buses are often not up to the standards followed in developed countries.[383]
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India, with its diverse and fascinating history, arts, music, culture, spiritual & social models has witnessed the growth of a booming tourism industry.[384] India is a historic place with a diverse history of over five millennia. About 3.9 million tourists travelled to India in 2005, each spending approximately $1,470 per person, higher than that of France (the leading tourist destination in the world).[384] Foreign visitors in 2005 spent more than US $15.4 billion annually in India [385] [386] [387]. Many travellers find the cultural diversity an enriching experience, despite the hassles inefficiency, pollution and overcrowding. [388][389] Monuments like the Taj Mahal are among the many attractions of this land.[390] [391] As of 2006, Conde Nast Traveller ranked India the 4th most preferred travel destination.[384] The Planning Commission expects 5.8 million tourists travelling to India by 2010. The World Travel and Tourism Council believes India's tourism industry will grow at 10% per annum in the next decade, making it lead the world in terms of growth.[384] Tourism contributes 6% of India's GDP and employed 40 million people, making it an important factor in India's economic growth.[384]
"First World medical services at Third World prices" - Indian Metros have emerged as the leading destination of medical tourism. Last year, an estimated 150,000 foreigners visited India for medical procedures, and the number is increasing at the rate of about 15 percent a year.[392]
The Indian Armed Forces, India's main defence organisation, consists of two main branches: the core Military of India and the Indian Paramilitary Forces. The Military of India maintains the third largest active duty force in the world after the People's Republic of China and the United States[393], while the Indian Paramilitary Forces, over a million strong, is the second largest paramilitary force in the world. Combined, the total armed forces of India are 2,414,700 strong, the world's third largest defence force.[394] The Army of India, as the Indian army was called under British rule before 1947, played a crucial role in checking the advance of Imperial Japan into South Asia during World War II. It also played a leading role in the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971. Today, the Indian Army is the world's second largest army after China's People's Liberation Army. The Indian Air Force is the fourth largest air force in the world [395][396]. India recently flew its first indigenously manufactured combat aircraft. The Indian Navy is the world's fifth largest navy [397]. It is considered to have blue-water capabilities with sophisticated missile-capable warships, aircraft carrier, minesweepers, advanced submarines and the latest aircraft in its inventory, along with a significant use of state of the art technology that is indigenously manufactured. [398] It operates one of only two Asian aircraft carriers. It also plans to induct the INS Vikramaditya by 2008. The first successful use of missiles in history against a modern army, was by Indians against the British Army in the Mysore wars.[399] India started the IGMDP to be a self reliant nation in missile development. The IGMDP program includes five missiles [400] - the ballistic missiles like the Prithvi and Agni, surface to air missiles Trishul and Akash and also the anti tank Nag missile. Prithvi and Agni missiles are inducted into the armed forces and form the basis of Indian nuclear second strike capability. Trishul missile is declared a technology demonstrator. The Akash and Nag missiles are undergoing user trials. Recently, a new weapons system, the air-to-air Astra missile was added into the project. Astra is a BVR capable missile. The expertise in developing these missiles has helped Indian scientists to contribute to joint weapon development programs like the Brahmos and Barak-II. There are reports of India developing an Intercontinental ballistic missile named Surya (Sun). This missile is said to have a range of twelve thousand kilometers.[401] India possesses nuclear weapons since 1974, when it did the Pokharan I nuclear tests, and the means to deliver them over long distances. However, India is not a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (on grounds of security concerns and that India condemns the NPT as discriminatory).[402] [403] India is currently one of the world's largest arms importers, spending an estimated US$16.97 billion in 2004. India has made military technology deals with the Russian Federation, the U.S., Israel and the EU. [404] The Indian Armed Forces plays a crucial role in anti-terrorist activities and maintaining law and order in the disputed Kashmir region. India has also participated in several United Nations peace-keeping missions, currently being the largest contributor to UN peace keeping force and is the largest contributor to the United Nations Democratic Fund, to which the USA, the world's only current superpower, contributes nothing.[405]
India is one of two ancient civilizations, dating back to at least 5000 years, which have stood the test of time and survived against all odds. Indians invented the numbering system (introduced into the West by Arabic mathematicians, Arabic numerals), the concept of zero, basic algebra, etc.[406] [407][408] India has a long history of cultural intercourse with many regions of the world, especially within Asia, where its cultural influence has spread through the philosophy of religions like Buddhism, Hinduism,Sikhism, etc - particularly in East and Southeast Asia. Many religions with origins outside the Indian continent - Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Bahá'í Faith - have found followers in India. Indian culture has spread to foreign lands through wandering traders, philosophers, migration and less through conquest. According to Chinese ambassador to the United States, Hu Shih:
India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries without ever having to send a single soldier across her border. - Hu Shih[409][410]
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The Maurya, Gupta, Mughal, Vijayanagara and Chola empires provide the necessary confidence that a powerful state can be established despite having diversity. India's film industry produces more feature films than any other. [411] In a year, it sold 3.6 billion tickets, more than any other film industry in the world (In comparison, Hollywood sold 2.6 billion tickets) [412]. The cinemas play a major role in spreading Indian culture worldwide. Indian cinema trancended its boundaries from the days of film Awara, a great hit in Russia. Bollywood films are seen in central and west Asia.[413] [414] [415] [416] Indian films have also found audience in eastern societies.[417] India's film industry is now becoming increasingly popular in Western society, with Bollywood festivals occurring numerous cities[418][419] and Bollywood dance groups performing in New Years Eve celebrations, treatment which other non-English film industries generally do not receive.[420]
India has a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-religious society living together. The subcontinent's long and diverse history has given it a unique eclectic culture. It is often associated with spirituality. Thanks to its history of both indigenous and foreign influences - like the ancient Indian schools of thought (Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, etc) and the ancient Western-Eurasian schools of thought (Abrahamic - Islam, Christianity, etc.) - the current Indian civilizational psyche is evolving into a complex mix of them - sometimes a superposition of religious philosophies with acceptance of the conflicting cosmologies, sometimes striking a middle ground, and sometimes taking the practical attitude - popular with the young - of "filtering the common best, and leaving the rest", thus leading to the creation of many syncretic mix of faiths (such as Sai Baba of Shirdi). Since independence, more progressive schools of thought, like - democracy, secularism, rule of law, esteem for human rights, rational deductive reasoning, development of Science and Technology, etc - are making slow but steady inroads into the collective modern Indian psyche. India's diversity forces it to evolve strong foundations of tolerance and pluralism, or face breakup. The Indian public is now also accepting modern western influences in their society and media - and what is emerging is a confluence of its past local culture with the new western culture ("Social Globalisation"). For some futuristic social thinkers, the miscegenation of diverse ancient culture with modernity, spirituality with science/technology, Eastern with Western world-view is potentially making India a social laboratory for the evolution of futuristic global-unity consciousness.[421] [422] [423]
Problems
Democratic republicanism has its value,[424] more so in a multi-ethnic country like India [425]. However, the applicability of the "theoretical" virtues of republicanism on a country like India is sometimes questioned.[426] [427] [428] Some thinkers consider India's diverse democracy to levy a huge tax on its economy.[429] The Indian government has to consider many interest groups before decision making. However, it should be noted that India is relatively a much younger republic when compared to other major democracies. Moreover, it is predicted that in the long run, India being a democracy will provide it an edge over non-democratic competitors like China.[430] India has had significant successes with quelling many insurgencies, most prominently the Sikh terrorism (Khalistan) and the surrender of large sections of insurgent outfits like the United Liberation Front of Asom in 1992 and National Liberation Front of Tripura in 2000-2001. However the Indian government has acknowledged that there has been a dramatic increase in support for the Maoists (Naxalite) insurgency in the last decade.[431] Maoist rebels have increased their influence over the last 10 years, especially in regions near Nepal, particularly by targeting and gaining support from poor villages in India. The boom in support appears to have been also boosted by the successes of the nearly 10-year-old Maoist rebellion in Nepal. The maoist insurgency exploits the poor by forced conscription. India's government has recently taken a new stance on the Maoist insurgency, pulling the affected states together to coordinate their response. It says it will combine improved policing with socio-economic measures to defuse grievances that fuel the Maoist cause[432].
India's growth is impeded by disputes with its neighboring People's Republic of China and Pakistan (over historical border and ideological issues) and disputes with Bangladesh (over water availability and the Farakka Dam). Hence, India's neighbors such as China and Pakistan remain distrustful towards India. It is also occasionally burdened with instability issues within some localised-regions of the subcontinent. In an effort to reduce political tension and increase economic cooperation, in recent years, India has improved its relations with its neighbors [433]. India is not a member of the UNSC, although currently it is one of the four-nations group actively seeking a permanent seat in the council. Thus India lacks the ability to extend its influence or ideas on international events in the way superpowers do. [434] As of 2005, approximately 22-26% of India's population lived below poverty line.[435] [436] [437] Poverty also begets child labour. [438] Various reforms, including mass employment schemes have been undertaken by the government to tackle this problem, [439] [440] and India has been quite successful in reducing its share of poverty. The number of people living on $1 a day is expected to fall in South Asia from 41.5 per cent in 1990 to 16.4 per cent until 2015. [441] However, the issue of poverty in India is not fully resolved. There is consensus among economists that overall poverty in India has declined, the extent of poverty reduction is often debated [442]. The economic reforms of the early 1990s were followed by rates of high economic growth. Its effect on poverty remain controversial, and the official numbers published by the Government of India, showing a reduction of poverty from 36% (1993–94) to 26% (1999 – 00), to 22% (2004 - 05), have been challenged both for allegedly showing too little and too much poverty reduction[443]. While there is a consensus on the fact that liberalization has led to a reduction of income poverty, the picture is not so clear if one considers other non-pecuniary dimensions (such as health, education, crime and access to infrastructure). With the rapid economic growth that India is experiencing, it is likely that a significant fraction of the rural population will continue to migrate toward cities, making the issue of urban poverty more significant in the long run [444]. Economist Pravin Visaria has defended the validity of many of the statistics that demonstrated the reduction in overall poverty in India. He insisted that the 1999-2000 survey was well designed and supervised, and he further defended that just because the numbers did not appear to fit preconceived notions about poverty in India, they should not be dismissed outright[445]. Nicholas Stern, vice president of the World Bank, has published defenses of the poverty reduction statistics. He argues that increasing globalization and investment opportunities have contributed significantly to the reduction of poverty in the country. India, has shown one of the clearest co-relation trends of globalization with the accelerated rise in per-capita income. [446] [447]
The social infrastructure in India [448] such as roads, power grid, water, communications infrastructure, housing and education are often below standards, and not catching up with the tune of its economic progress. [449] Continued poor infrastructure might serve as a bottleneck to further economic development. The government is, however, improving the infrastructure, such as expanding the freeway and highway system and bringing it up to global standards. As of 2005, India only had 4,885 km of central-divided expressways[450], while the U.S. and China have 90,000 km and 41,000 km of expressways, respectively. [451] India's continual economic prosperity is also hindered by bad governance and ubiquitous red tape[452] (‘Bureaucratic Raj'[453]). Retrogressive government regulations affect many areas. For example, in some states, black outs and power rationing are common due to underinvestment, differing state and local regulations, etc.
Despite India's growth spurt of 8% p.a. in recent years, its sustainable pace is still much lower than China's, which puts its economy more at risk of overheating and rising inflation.[454] The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has acknowledged the risk of overheating and has been tightening monetary policy steadily. It is debatable whether this alone will be sufficient to ease inflationary pressures. The economy is running near or above capacity, and the RBI has noted that production must rise at a pace sufficient to match overall GDP growth if further inflationary pressures are to be avoided. The Indian government has said that much of the rise in inflation recently can be attributed to short-term supply constraints, such as a shortage of key foodstuffs thanks to an erratic summer monsoon. [455]
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India heavily depends on foreign oil - a phenomenon likely to continue until non-fossil/renewable energy technology becomes economically viable in the country.[456] To avert an energy crisis, India is desperately seeking alternate means of energy. India can sustain its growth to higher trajectories only by the co-operation of other countries. As for now, India is energetically expensive since India has to import over 70% of its energy,[457] thus making costs of comforts - like personal car or even air conditioning - extremely high. It is however, steadily combating its energy issues. Unless India finds a quick way to generate jobs, its population of unemployed youths could be a reason of unstability.[458] India's growth in the services sector and Information Technology sector has not been matched by growth in manufacturing which can provide more jobs.[459] Some claim that this sector may lose importance in the future. [460] India is leveraging on new sectors like the KPO (Knowledge Process Outsourcing)[461] [462].
India's health scenario is dismal with diseases and malnutrition constantly affecting the poorest quarter of the populace.[463] [464] [465] Mortality is still relatively high and the bane of AIDS is spreading quickly.[466] According to a report of United Nations Development Programme, India has the highest population living with AIDS/HIV and its economy might suffer a setback if it does not check the problem of the virus' spread. It is estimated that India's economic growth will decline by 0.86 percentage annually if the AIDS problem is not properly dealt with. To improve the situation, a number of projects such as the building of hospital chains (like the Apollo Hospitals, amongst others) has laid the foundation for a health system that matches global standards. However, these hospitals are sometimes used by foreigners as a cheap yet effective source of health services and much remains to be done for India's very poor.
As per the 2001 India census, India's national literacy is only 65.2 percent.[467] [468] Literacy drive is spreading slowly to other states.[469] India's youth (age 15 to 24) literacy rate was 76.4% between 2000 and 2004.[470] At current rates India will take no less than 20 years for a literacy of 95%.[471]. Literacy in India is not homogeneous, some states in India have more impressive literacy rates than others. Kerala, a south-indian state widely recognized as the most well-educated state in India, recorded an impressive 90.92% literacy rate in 2001. [472] On the other hand the north-indian state of Bihar lags behind with 47.53%.[473] India's adult literacy rates (61.3% in 2002), is just a little better compared to other nations in South Asia except Sri Lanka's 92%, [474] with Nepal next at 44%, Pakistan at 41.5% and Bangladesh the lowest at 41.1%.
The majority of India lies in the tropical climate zone, which may have a negative impact on its agricultural and overall economic development. The climate thesis of economic development was first argued by Adam Smith and recently by David Landes in his The Wealth and Poverty of Nations. Tropical areas generally average enough rainfall, but the timing is often irregular and unpredictable. The rain drops are large and the rate of fall often torrential. One answer to irregular moisture is storage and irrigation, but this is countered in these regions by incredibly high rates of evaporation. In the Agra region of India, for example, rainfall exceeds the needs of local agriculture for only two months in the year, and the excess held in the soil in those wet months dries up in only three weeks.[475] Tropical zones are also more prone to endemic water-borne and parasitic diseases such as cholera and malaria.[476] As a result of climate change, the Gangotri Glacier, among others, is receding.[477] [478] Also, of the 3 million premature deaths in the world that occur each year due to outdoor and indoor air pollution, the highest number are assessed to occur in India.[479]
India has a diverse mix of various religions and races. The majority are Hindus by religion, followed by Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Jains, Buddhists, Bahaii and many more. Though most religions in India have been practising religious tolerance in their histories, the partition and subsequent terrorism had created some degree of uneasiness among some. The uneducated masses of these various groups sometimes get at odds with one another.[480] [481] [482] However in recent years, relations between the different religious groups have considerably changed for better. For instance, a real chunk of India's celebrities - sporting legends, film stars, industrialists, artists, politicians, scientists, head-of-state, etc - have come from various non-majority roots, representing the emerging face of new diverse India.[483]
The problem of India's social divide is often linked to its millenia-old caste system.[484] In an attempt to eliminate the caste system, the Indian government has introduced special quotas for low-caste Indians in educational institutions and jobs. The measure is with the motive of helping lower-caste Indians to pursue higher education and thereby elevate their standard of life. However, the system is often criticised about its effectiveness as so called creamy layer (rich among the lower caste) get non-needed advantage & leave other lower caste groups poor only.[485] [486] There also have been cases of reverse-discrimination and persecution of upper castes by lower castes [487][488].
Russia
The Russian Federation is a suggested potential candidate for achieving superpower status in the twenty-first century due to its fast-growing economy, energy superpower status and the size of its military. According to Steven Rosefielde of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Russia intends to "reemerge as a full-fledged superpower," and "contrary to conventional wisdom, this goal is easily within the Kremlin’s grasp, but the cost to the Russian people and global security would be immense" (Rosefielde 2005:1). Rosefielde further argues that "Russia has an intact military-industrial complex...and the mineral wealth to reactivate its dormant structurally militarized potential," and that "supply-side constraints don’t preclude a return to prodigal superpowerdom" (Rosefielde 2005:9).
In May 2007, the U.S. Commission on Security and Cooperation held special hearings devoted to Russia. They came to the conclusion that Russia is returning to the international arena as an influential political and economic power. U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Daniel Fried, said: "Russia has restored its position of a large political and economic force recently", also adding that "Russia’s strengthening has been accompanied by a cool down in its relations with the U.S." Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin said that the West "has few instruments of influence on Russia left." [489]
Alexander Golts of the St. Petersburg Times argues that Putin's confrontations with the US on nuclear issues are in pursuit of regaining superpower status for Russia.[490]
In a more recent report by ABC News, a senior U.S. official asserted that "Russia is once again indisputably the number two military power in the world, second only to the United States".[491] Russia's military strength has risen substantially under former President Putin, having recently produced the world's most powerful conventional bomb[492] and the worlds most advanced anti-ballistic missile system [493] to date. Additionally, its forces are currently in the midst of a $189 billion ($302 billion PPP) modernization plan. Russia's defence minister, Sergei Ivanov, said that he wanted to exceed the Soviet army in combat readiness.[494]
Mike Ritchie of industry analysts Energy Intelligence says "Russia was always a superpower that used its energy to win friends and influence among its former Soviet satellites. Nothing has really changed much. They are back in the same game, winning friends and influencing people and using their power to do so."[495]
Russia is often considered to be an energy superpower and a nuclear superpower due to its vast amounts of natural resources and large nuclear arsenal mostly leftover from the former Soviet Union.[496][497][498]
History
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Peter_der-Grosse_1838.jpg/170px-Peter_der-Grosse_1838.jpg)
Under the Romanov dynasty and Peter I (Peter the Great), the Russian Empire was officially founded. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War, forcing it to cede West Karelia and Ingria (two regions lost by Russia in the Time of Troubles[499]), Estland, and Livland, securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade.[500] It was in Ingria that Peter founded a new capital, Saint Petersburg. Peter's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia. Catherine II (Catherine the Great), who ruled from 1762 to 1796, continued the efforts at establishing Russia as one of the Great Powers of Europe. In alliance with Prussia and Austria, Russia stood against Napoleon's France and eliminated its rival Poland-Lithuania in a series of partitions, gaining large areas of territory in the west. As a result of its victories in the Russo-Turkish War, by the early 19th century Russia had made significant territorial gains in Transcaucasia. Napoleon's invasion failed miserably as obstinate Russian resistance combined with the bitterly cold Russian winter dealt him a disastrous defeat, from which more than 95% of his invading force perished.[501] However, the officers of the Napoleonic Wars brought back to Russia the ideas of liberalism and even attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825, which was followed by several decades of political repression.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lenin_1920.jpg/170px-Lenin_1920.jpg)
Russia entered World War I in the aid of its ally Serbia and fought a war across three fronts while isolated from its allies. Russia did not want war but felt that only alternative was German domination of Europe. Although the army was far from defeated in 1916, the already existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, casualties (Russia suffered the highest amount of both military and civilian deaths of the Entente Powers), and tales of corruption and even treason in high places, leading to the outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1917. A series of uprisings were organized by workers and peasants throughout the country, as well as by soldiers in the Russian army, who were mainly of peasant origin. Many of the uprisings were organized and led by democratically elected councils called Soviets. The February Revolution overthrew the Russian monarchy, which was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government. The abdication marked the end of imperial rule in Russia, and Nicholas and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the Civil War. While initially receiving the support of the Soviets, the Provisional Government proved unable to resolve many problems which had led to the February Revolution. The second revolution, the October Revolution, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and created the world’s first Communist state.
Following the October Revolution, a civil war broke out between the new regime and the Socialist Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, and the White movement. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk concluded hostilities with the Central Powers in World War I. Russia lost the Ukraine, its Polish and Baltic territories, and Finland by signing the treaty. The Allied powers launched a military intervention in support of anti-Communist forces and both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror. At the end of the Civil War, the economy and infrastructure were devastated. Following victory in the Civil War, the Russian SFSR together with three other Soviet republics formed the Soviet Union on December 30, 1922. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic dominated the Soviet Union for its entire 74-year history; the USSR was often referred to as "Russia" and its people as "Russians." The largest of the republics, Russia contributed over half the population of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks introduced free universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and housing. Women's rights were greatly increased through new laws aimed to wipe away centuries-old inequalities.[502] Notably, Russia became the first country in the world with full freedom of divorce and legalized abortion. After Lenin's death in 1924 Joseph Stalin consolidated power and became dictator. Stalin launched a command economy, rapid industrialization of the largely rural country and collectivization of its agriculture and the Soviet Union transformed from an agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg/250px-President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva%2C_Switzerland.jpg)
From 1985 onwards, Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize the country. The USSR economy was the second largest in the world prior to the Soviet collapse.[503] During its last years, the economy was afflicted by shortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits and explosive growth in money supply leading to inflation.[504] In August 1991, an unsuccessful military coup against Gorbachev aimed at preserving the Soviet Union instead led to its collapse. In Russia, Boris Yeltsin came to power and declared the end of Communist rule. The USSR splintered into fifteen independent republics and was officially dissolved in December 1991. Boris Yeltsin was elected the President of Russia in June 1991, in the first direct presidential election in Russian history.
Economics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Rosneft-azs.jpg/220px-Rosneft-azs.jpg)
Russia has the world's largest natural gas reserves, the second largest coal reserves and the eighth largest oil reserves. It is the world's leading natural gas exporter and the second leading oil exporter. Oil, natural gas, metals, and timber account for more than 80% of Russian exports abroad.[505] Since 2003, however, exports of natural resources started decreasing in economic importance as the internal market strengthened considerably.[506] Despite higher energy prices, oil and gas only contribute to 5.7% of Russia's GDP and the government predicts this will drop to 3.7% by 2011.[507] Russia is also considered well ahead of most other resource-rich countries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science, and industry.[508] The country has more higher education graduates than any other country in Europe.[509]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Soyuz_tm-31_transported_to_launch_pad.jpg/220px-Soyuz_tm-31_transported_to_launch_pad.jpg)
Over the last five years, fixed capital investments have averaged real gains greater than 10% per year and personal incomes have achieved real gains more than 12% per year.[505] During this time, poverty has declined steadily and the middle class has continued to expand.[505] Russia has also improved its international financial position since the 1998 financial crisis.[505] A principal factor in Russia's growth has been the combination of strong growth in productivity, real wages, and consumption.[510] Despite the country's strong economic performance since 1999, however, the World Bank lists several challenges facing the Russian economy including diversifying the economy, encouraging the growth of small and medium enterprises, building human capital and improving corporate governance.[511] High inflation continues to plague the country along with many of its Eastern European neighbors, having grown to about 12% by the end of 2007 up from 9% in 2006. The upward trend continued in the first quarter of 2008, driven largely by rising food costs.[512][505]
Politics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Bush_and_Putin_signing_SORT.jpg/220px-Bush_and_Putin_signing_SORT.jpg)
According to the Constitution, which was adopted by national referendum on December 12, 1993 following the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis, Russia is a federation and a semi-presidential republic, wherein the President is the head of state[513] and the Prime Minister is the head of government. The Russian Federation is fundamentally structured as a representative democracy. Executive power is exercised by the government.[514] Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Federal Assembly.[515] The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, which serves as the country's supreme legal document and as a social contract for the people of the Russian Federation.
The president is elected by popular vote for a four-year term[516] (eligible for a second term but constitutionally barred for a third consecutive term);[517] election last held 2 March 2008. Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president. The national legislature is the Federal Assembly, which consists of two chambers; the 450-member State Duma[518] and the 176-member Federation Council. Leading political parties in Russia include United Russia, the Communist Party, the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia and Fair Russia.
Military
Russia assumed control of Soviet assets abroad and most of the Soviet Union's production facilities and defense industries are located in the country.[519] The Russian military is divided into the Ground Forces, Navy, and Air Force. There are also three independent arms of service: Strategic Rocket Forces, Military Space Forces, and the Airborne Troops. In 2006, the military had 1.037 million personnel on active duty.[520] Russia has the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons in the world.[521] It has the second largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines and is the only country apart from the U.S. with a modern strategic bomber force.[521] The country has a large and fully indigenous arms industry, producing all of its own military equipment. Russia is the world's top supplier of weapons, a spot it has held since 2001, accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales[522] and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.[523] Following the Soviet practice, it is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for two years' Armed Forces service, though various problems associated with this is why the armed forces are from 2008 reducing the conscription term from 18 months to 12, and plan to increase contract servicemen to compose 70% of the armed forces by 2010.[505] Defense expenditure has quadrupled over the past six years.[524] Official government military spending for 2008 is $40 billion,[525] though various sources, including US intelligence,[526] and the International Institute for Strategic Studies,[520] have estimated Russia’s military expenditures to be considerably higher.[527] Currently, the military is undergoing a major equipment upgrade with about $200 billion (what equals to about $400 billion in PPP dollars) on procurement of military equipment between 2006 and 2015.[528]
Culture
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Angelsatmamre-trinity-rublev-1410.jpg/200px-Angelsatmamre-trinity-rublev-1410.jpg)
Russian icon painting was inherited from the art of the Byzantine churches, and it soon became an offshoot version of the mosaic and fresco traditions. Icon paintings in Russia attempted to help people with their prayers without idolizing the figure in the painting. The most comprehensive collection of Icon art is found at the Tretyakov Gallery.[529]
Rather than being a mere imitation, Russian icons had a peculiar style and masters such as Andrei Rublev took the icon to new heights.
![An example of Russian avant-garde art by El Lissitzky in 1919](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Artwork_by_El_Lissitzky_1919.jpg/150px-Artwork_by_El_Lissitzky_1919.jpg)
The Russian avant-garde is an umbrella term used to define the large, influential wave of modernist art that flourished in Russia from approximately 1890 to 1930 - although some place its beginning as early as 1850 and its end as late as 1960. The term covers many separate, but inextricably related, art movements that occurred at the time; namely neo-primitivism, suprematism, constructivism, and futurism. Notable artists from this era include El Lissitzky, Kazimir Malevich, Wassily Kandinsky, Vladimir Tatlin, Alexander Rodchenko, and Marc Chagall amongst others. The Russian avant-garde reached its creative and popular height in the period between the Russian Revolution of 1917 and 1932, at which point the ideas of the avant-garde clashed with the newly emerged state-sponsored direction of Socialist Realism.
During the Russian Revolution a movement was initiated to put all arts to service of the dictatorship of the proletariat. The instrument for this was created just days before the October Revolution, known as Proletkult, an abbreviation for "Proletarskie kulturno-prosvetitelnye organizatsii" (Proletarian Cultural and Enlightenment Organizations). A prominent theorist of this movement was Alexander Bogdanov. Initially Narkompros (ministry of education), which was also in charge of the arts, supported Proletkult. However, the latter sought too much independence from the ruling Communist Party of Bolsheviks, gained negative attitude of Vladimir Lenin, by 1922 declined considerably, and was eventually disbanded in 1932. After Stalin died Soviet Art went into decline as gradually Russians artists became more independent of the state and in the 1980s the government ruled that it could not restrict what Russians artists could paint.
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