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{{About|the philosophy|the condition or state of being|Postmodernity}}
{{Postmodernism}}

'''Postmodernism''' is a tendency in contemporary culture characterized by the rejection of [[objective truth]] and [[metanarrative|global cultural narrative or meta-narrative]]. It emphasizes the role of language, power relations, and motivations; in particular it attacks the use of sharp classifications such as male versus female, straight versus gay, white versus black, and imperial versus colonial. Postmodernism has influenced many cultural fields, including [[literary criticism]], [[sociology]], [[linguistics]], architecture, visual arts, and music.

Postmodernist thought is an intentional departure from modernist approaches that had previously been dominant. The term "postmodernism" comes from its critique of the "modernist" scientific mentality of objectivity and progress associated with the [[Enlightenment in Western secular tradition|Enlightenment]].

These movements, [[modernism]] and postmodernism, are understood as cultural projects or as a set of perspectives. "Postmodernism" is used in [[critical theory]] to refer to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, journalism, and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of law, culture, and religion in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.<ref>Historians have generally not used postmodernist approaches in their work, as shown by Sigurdur Gylfi Magnusson, "The Singularization of History: Social History and Microhistory within the Postmodern State of Knowledge," ''Journal of Social History'' 2003 36(3): 701-735; Georg G. Iggers, ''Historiography in the Twentieth-Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge'' (1997). Many historians engage with postmodernism (e.g. [[Perry Anderson]]), and several philosophers often associated with the postmodern movement have made important contributions to history and historiography (most prominently, Michel Foucault).</ref> Indeed, postmodernism, particularly as an academic movement, can be understood as a ''reaction'' to [[modernism]] in the Humanities. Whereas modernism was primarily concerned with principles such as identity, unity, authority, and certainty, postmodernism is often associated with difference, plurality, textuality, and skepticism.

Literary critic [[Fredric Jameson]] describes postmodernism as the "dominant cultural logic of late capitalism." "[[Late capitalism]]" refers to the phase of capitalism after World War II, as described by economist [[Ernest Mandel]]; the term refers to the same period sometimes described by "globalization", "multinational capitalism", or "consumer capitalism". Jameson's work studies the postmodern in contexts of aesthetics, politics, philosophy, and economics.<ref>Jameson, Fredric. ''Postmodernism, or, the cultural logic of late capitalism'', Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991.</ref>

== History and emergence==
{{Ref improve section|date=April 2010}}
The term was first used around the 1870s in various areas. For example, John Watkins Chapman avowed "a Postmodern style of painting" to get beyond French [[Impressionism]].<ref>''The Postmodern Turn, Essays in Postmodern Theory and Culture'', Ohio University Press, 1987. p12ff</ref> Then, J. M. Thompson, in his 1914 article in ''[[The Hibbert Journal]]'' (a quarterly philosophical review), used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of [[religion]]: "The raison d'etre of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of [[Modernism (Roman Catholicism)|Modernism]] by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as [[theology]], to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition."<ref>Thompson, J. M. "Post-Modernism," ''[[The Hibbert Journal]]''. Vol XII No. 4, July 1914. p. 733</ref>

In 1917 Rudolf Pannwitz used the term to describe a philosophically oriented culture. His idea of ''post-''modernism came from Nietzsche's analysis of modernity and its end results of decadence and nihilism. Overcoming the modern human would be the post-human. Contrary to Nietzsche, Pannwitz also includes nationalist and mythical elements.<ref>Pannwitz, Rudolf. ''Die Krisis der europäischen Kultur'', Nürnberg 1917</ref>

The term was used later in 1926 by B. I. Bell in his "Postmodernism & other Essays". In 1921 and 1925 it had been used to describe new forms of [[art]] and [[music]]. In 1942 H. R. Hays used it for a new literary form, but as a general theory of an historical movement it was first used in 1939 by the historian [[Arnold J. Toynbee]]: "Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914-1918."<ref>OED long edition</ref>

In 1949 the term was used to describe a dissatisfaction with [[modern architecture]], leading to the [[postmodern architecture]] movement.<ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2004</ref> Postmodernism in architecture is marked by the re-emergence of surface ornament, reference to surrounding buildings in urban architecture, historical reference in decorative forms, and non-orthogonal angles. It may be a response to the modernist architectural movement known as the [[International style (architecture)|International Style]].

The term was then applied to a whole host of movements, many in art, music, and literature, that reacted against a range of tendencies in the imperialist phase of capitalism called "modernism," and are typically marked by revival of historical elements and techniques.<ref>Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary 2004</ref> [[Walter Truett Anderson]] identifies Postmodernism as one of four typological world views. These four worldviews are the Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed; the scientific-rational, in which truth is found through methodical, disciplined inquiry; the social-traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization; and the neo-romantic, in which truth is found through attaining harmony with nature and/or spiritual exploration of the inner self.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[The Fontana Postmodernism Reader]]|author=Walter Truett Anderson|year=1996}}</ref>

Postmodernist ideas in [[philosophy]] and the analysis of [[culture]] and [[society]] expanded the importance of [[critical theory]] and has been the point of departure for works of [[literature]], [[architecture]], and [[design]], as well as being visible in marketing/business and the interpretation of [[history]], [[law]] and [[culture]], starting in the late 20th century. These developments — re-evaluation of the entire Western value system ([[love]], [[marriage]], [[popular culture]], shift from [[industrial society|industrial]] to [[service economy]]) that took place since the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in the [[May 1968 in France|Social Revolution of 1968]] — are described with the term ''[[Postmodernity]]'',<ref>[http://www.inst.at/trans/11Nr/luetzeler11.htm Influences on postmodern thought, Paul Lützeler (St. Louis)]</ref> as opposed to ''Postmodernism'', a term referring to an opinion or movement. Whereas something being "Postmodernist" would make it part of the movement, its being "Postmodern" would place it in the period of time since the 1950s, making it a part of [[contemporary history]].

===Overview of ideas===
; '''[[Martin Heidegger]] ''' (1889-1976)
: Rejected the philosophical basis of the concepts of "subjectivity" and "objectivity" and purported that similar grounding oppositions in logic ultimately refer to one another. Instead of resisting the admission of this paradox in the search for understanding, Heidegger requires that we embrace it through an active process of elucidation he called the "[[Hermeneutic circle|Hermeneutic Circle]]". He stressed the historicity and cultural construction of concepts while simultaneously advocating the necessity of an atemporal and [[immanence|immanent]] apprehension of them. In this vein, he asserted that it was the task of contemporary philosophy to recover the original question of (or "openness to") ''[[Dasein]]'' (translated as Being or Being-in-the-World) present in the [[Presocratic]] philosophers but normalized, neutered and standardized since [[Plato]]. This was to be done, in part, by tracing the record of ''Dasein's'' sublimation or forgetfulness through the history of philosophy which meant that we were to ask again what constituted the grounding conditions in ourselves and in the World for the affinity between beings and between the many usages of the term "being" in philosophy. To do this, however, a non-historical and, to a degree, self-referential engagement with whatever set of ideas, feelings or practices would permit (both the non-fixed concept and reality of) such a continuity was required - a continuity permitting the possible experience, possible existence indeed not only of beings but of all differences as they appeared and tended to develop. Such a conclusion led Heidegger to depart from the [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|Phenomenology]] of his teacher [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]] and prompt instead an (ironically anachronistic) return to the yet-unasked questions of [[Ontology]], a return that in general did not acknowledge an intrinsic distinction between [[phenomenon|phenomena]] and [[noumenon|noumena]] or between things in themselves (''[[de re]]'') and things as they appear (see ''[[qualia]]''): Being-in-the-world, or rather, the openness to the process of ''Dasein's''/Being's becoming was to bridge the age-old gap between these two. In this latter premise, Heidegger shares an affinity with the late Romantic philosopher, [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], another principal forerunner of Post-structuralist and Postmodernist thought. Influential to thinkers associated with Postmodernism are Heidegger's critique of the subject-object or sense-knowledge division implicit in [[Rationalism]], [[Empiricism]] and [[Methodological naturalism|Methodological Naturalism]], his repudiation of the idea that facts exist outside or separately from the process of thinking and speaking them (however, Heidegger is not specifically a [[Nominalism|Nominalist]]), his related admission that the possibilities of philosophical and scientific discourse are wrapped up in the practices and expectations of a society and that concepts and fundamental constructs are the expression of a lived, historical exercise rather than simple derivations of external, [[apriori]] conditions independent from historical mind and changing experience (see [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], [[Heinrich von Kleist]], [[World view|Weltanschauung]] and [[Social Constructionism]]), and his [[Instrumentalist]] and [[Via Negativa|Negativist]] notion that Being (and, by extension, reality) is an action, method, tendency, possibility and question rather than a discreet, positive, identifiable state, answer or entity (see also [[Process Philosophy]], [[Dynamism (metaphysics)|Dynamism]], [[Instrumentalism]], [[Pragmatism]] and [[Vitalism]]).
; '''[[Thomas Samuel Kuhn]]''' (1922-1996)
: Located the rapid change of the basis of scientific knowledge to a provisional consensus among scientists; coined the term "[[paradigm shift]]" in ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'' and in general contributed to the debate over the presumed neutrality and objectivity of empirical methodology in the Natural Sciences from disciplinarian or cultural bias.
; '''[[Jacques Derrida]]''' (1930-2004)
: Re-examined the fundamentals of writing and its consequences on philosophy in general; sought to undermine the language of 'presence' or [[metaphysics]] in an analytical technique which, beginning as a point of departure from Heidegger's notion of [[Heideggerian terminology|''Destruktion'']], came to be known as [[Deconstruction]]. Derrida utilized, like Heidegger, references to Greek philosophical notions associated with the [[Skepticism|Skeptics]] and the [[Presocratic]]s, such as [[Epoché]] and [[Aporia]] to articulate his notion of implicit circularity between premises and conclusions, origins and manifestations, but - in a manner analogous in certain respects to Gilles Deleuze - presented a radical re-reading of canonical philosophical figures such as [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]] and [[Descartes]] as themselves being informed by such "destabilizing" notions.
; '''[[Michel Foucault]]''' (1926-1984)
: Introduced concepts such as '[[discourse|discursive regime]]', or re-invoked those of older philosophers like '[[episteme]]' and '[[Genealogy of Morals|genealogy]]' in order to explain the relationship between meaning, power and social behavior within social orders (see ''[[The Order of Things]]'', ''[[The Archaeology of Knowledge]]'', ''[[Discipline and Punish]]'' and ''[[The History of Sexuality]]''). In direct contradiction to what have been typified as Modernist perspectives on [[epistemology]], Foucault asserted that rational judgment, social practice and what he called '[[biopower]]' are not only inseparable but co-determinant. While Foucault himself was deeply involved in a number of progressive political causes and maintained close personal ties with members of the far-Left, he was also controversial with Leftist thinkers of his day, including those associated with various strains of [[Marxism]], proponents of [[Left libertarianism]] (e.g. [[Noam Chomsky's political views|Noam Chomsky]]) and [[Humanism]] (e.g. [[Jürgen Habermas]]), for his rejection of what he deemed to be [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]-derived concepts of freedom, liberation, self-determination and human nature. Instead, Foucault focused on the ways in which such constructs can foster cultural hegemony, violence and exclusion. In line with his rejection of such '[[Positivism|positive]]' tenets of Enlightenment-era Humanism, he was active, with [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]], in the [[Anti-Psychiatry|Anti-Psychiatry Movement]], considering much of institutionalized psychiatry and, in particular, Freud's concept of [[Psychological repression|repression]] central to [[Psychoanalysis]] (which was still very influential in France during the 1960s and 70s), to be both harmful and misplaced. Foucault was known for his controversial aphorisms, such as "language is oppression", meaning that language functions in such a way as to render nonsensical, false or silent tendencies that might otherwise threaten or undermine the distributions of power backing a society's conventions - even when such distributions purport to celebrate liberation and expression or value minority groups and perspectives. His writings have had a major influence on the larger body of Postmodern academic literature.
; '''[[Jean-François Lyotard]]''' (1924-1998)
: Identified in ''[[The Postmodern Condition]]'' a crisis in the 'discourses of the Human Sciences' latent in Modernism but catapulted to the fore by the advent of the "computerized" or "telematic" era (see [[Information Revolution]]). This crisis, insofar as it pertains to academia, concerns both the motivations and justification procedures for making research claims: unstated givens or values that have validated the basic efforts of academic research since the late 18th Century might no longer be valid (particularly, in Social Science & Humanities research, though examples from Mathematics are given by Lyotard as well). As formal conjecture about real-world issues becomes inextricably linked to automated calculation, information storage and retrieval, such knowledge becomes increasingly "exteriorised" from its knowers in the form of information. Knowledge is materialized and made into a commodity exchanged between producers and consumers; it ceases to be either an idealistic end-in-itself or a tool capable of bringing about liberty or social benefit; it is stripped of its humanistic and spiritual associations, its connection with education, teaching and human development, being simply rendered as "data" - omnipresent, material, unending and without any contexts or pre-requisites.<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/lyotard.htm Lyotard, Jean-François. The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Les Éditions de Minuit, 1979. English Translation by Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi. Manchester University Press, 1984. See Chapter 1, The Field: Knowledge in Computerised Societies.]//</ref> Furthermore, the 'diversity' of claims made by various disciplines begins to lack any unifying principle or intuition as objects of study become more and more specialized due to the emphasis on specificity, precision and uniformity of reference that competitive, database-oriented research implies. The value-premises upholding academic research have been maintained by what Lyotard considers to be quasi-mythological beliefs about human purpose, human reason and human progress - large, background constructs he calls [[meta-narrative|"Metanarratives"]]. These Metanarratives still remain in Western society but are now being undermined by rapid [[Informatization]] and the commercialization of the University and its functions. The ''shift of authority'' from the presence and intuition of knowers - from the good-faith of Reason to seek diverse knowledge integrated for human benefit or truth fidelity - to the automated database and the market had, in Lyotard's view, the power to unravel the very idea of 'justification' or 'legitimation' and, with it, the rationale for research altogether - esp. in disciplines pertaining to human life, society and meaning. We are now controlled not by binding extra-linguistic value paradigms defining notions of collective identity and ultimate purpose, but rather by our automatic responses to different species of "language games" (a concept Lyotard imports from [[JL Austin|JL Austin's]] theory of [[Speech act|Speech Acts]]). In his vision of a solution to this "vertigo," Lyotard opposes the assumptions of [[Universality (philosophy)|universality]], consensus, and generality that he identified within the thought of Humanistic, [[Neokantian|Neo-Kantian]] philosophers like [[Jürgen Habermas]] and proposes a continuation of experimentation and diversity to be assessed pragmatically in the context of language games rather than via appeal to a resurrected series of transcendentals and metaphysical unities.
; '''[[Richard Rorty]]''' (1931-2007)
: Argues, in ''[[Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature]]'' that contemporary Analytic philosophy mistakenly imitates scientific methods. In addition, he denounces the traditional epistemological perspectives of [[Representationalism]] and [[Correspondence theory]] that rely upon the independence of knowers and observers from phenomena and the passivity of natural phenomena in relation to consciousness. As a proponent of [[anti-foundationalism]] and anti-essentialism within a [[Pragmatism|Pragmatist]] framework, he echoes Postmodern strains of [[Conventionalism]] and [[Relativism|Philosophical Relativism]], but opposes much Postmodern thinking with his commitment to [[Social Liberalism]].
; '''[[Jean Baudrillard]]''' (1929-2007)
: In ''[[Simulacra and Simulation]]'', introduced the concept that reality or the principle of the "real" is short-circuited by the interchangeability of signs in an era whose communicative and semantic acts are dominated by electronic media and digital technologies. Baudrillard proposes the notion that, in such a state, where subjects are detached from the outcomes of events (political, literary, artistic, personal or otherwise), events no longer hold any particular sway on the subject nor have any identifiable context; they therefore have the effect of producing widespread indifference, detachment and passivity in industrialized populations. He claimed that a constant stream of appearances and references without any direct consequences to viewers or readers could eventually render the division between appearance and object indiscernible, resulting, ironically, in the "disappearance" of mankind in what is, in effect, a virtual or holographic state, composed only of appearances.
; '''[[Fredric Jameson]]''' (b. 1934)
: Set forth one of the first expansive theoretical treatments of Postmodernism as a historical period, intellectual trend and social phenomenon in a series of lectures at the [[Whitney Museum]], later expanded as ''Postmodernism, or The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism'' (1991). Eclectic in his methodology, Jameson has continued a sustained examination of the role that [[Periodization]] continues to play as a grounding assumption of critical methodologies in Humanities disciplines. He has contributed extensive effort to explicating the importance of concepts of [[Utopianism]] and Utopia as driving forces in the cultural and intellectual movements of Modernity, and outlining the political and existential uncertainties that may result from the decline or suspension of this trend in the theorized state of Postmodernity. Like [[Susan Sontag]], Jameson served to introduce a wide audience of American readers to key figures of the 20th Century Continental European intellectual Left, particularly those associated with the [[Frankfurt School]], [[Structuralism]] and [[Post-Structuralism]]. Thus, his importance as a 'translator' of their ideas to the common vocabularies of a variety of disciplines in the Anglo-American academic complex is equally as important as his own critical engagement with them.

==Contested definitions==
The term "Postmodernism" is often used to refer to different, sometimes contradictory concepts. Conventional definitions follow:

*Compact Oxford English Dictionary: "a style and concept in the arts characterized by distrust of theories and ideologies and by the drawing of attention to conventions."<ref>http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/postmodernism?view=uk</ref>
*[[Merriam-Webster]]: Either "of, relating to, or being an era after a modern one", or "of, relating to, or being any of various movements in reaction to modernism that are typically characterized by a return to traditional materials and forms (as in architecture) or by ironic self-reference and absurdity (as in literature)", or finally "of, relating to, or being a theory that involves a radical reappraisal of modern assumptions about culture, identity, history, or language".<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/postmodernism Merriam-Webster's definition of postmodernism]</ref>
*[[American Heritage Dictionary]]: "Of or relating to art, architecture, or literature that reacts against earlier modernist principles, as by reintroducing traditional or classical elements of style or by carrying modernist styles or practices to extremes: 'It [a roadhouse] is so architecturally interesting ... with its postmodern wooden booths and sculptural clock.'"<ref>Ruth Reichl, Cook's November 1989; American Heritage Dictionary's definition of "postmodern" [http://www.bartleby.com/61/26/P0472600.html]</ref>

While the term "Postmodern" and its derivatives are freely used, with some uses apparently contradicting others, those outside the academic milieu have described it as merely a buzzword that means nothing. Dick Hebdige, in his text ‘Hiding in the Light’, writes:

<blockquote>
When it becomes possible for a people to describe as ‘postmodern’ the décor of a room, the design of a building, the diegesis of a film, the construction of a record, or a ‘scratch’ video, a television commercial, or an arts documentary, or the ‘intertextual’ relations between them, the layout of a page in a fashion magazine or critical journal, an anti-teleological tendency within epistemology, the attack on the ‘metaphysics of presence’, a general attenuation of feeling, the collective chagrin and morbid projections of a post-War generation of baby boomers confronting disillusioned middle-age, the ‘predicament’ of reflexivity, a group of rhetorical tropes, a proliferation of surfaces, a new phase in commodity fetishism, a fascination for images, codes and styles, a process of cultural, political or existential fragmentation and/or crisis, the ‘de-centring’ of the subject, an ‘incredulity towards metanarratives’, the replacement of unitary power axes by a plurality of power/discourse formations, the ‘implosion of meaning’, the collapse of cultural hierarchies, the dread engendered by the threat of nuclear self-destruction, the decline of the university, the functioning and effects of the new miniaturised technologies, broad societal and economic shifts into a ‘media’, ‘consumer’ or ‘multinational’ phase, a sense (depending on who you read) of ‘placelessness’ or the abandonment of placelessness (‘critical regionalism’) or (even) a generalised substitution of spatial for temporal coordinates - when it becomes possible to describe all these things as ‘Postmodern’ (or more simply using a current abbreviation as ‘post’ or ‘very post’) then it’s clear we are in the presence of a buzzword.<ref name="Hebdige:410">’Postmodernism and “the other side”’, in Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: A reader, edited by John Storey, London, : Pearson Education .2006</ref></blockquote>

British historian [[Perry Anderson]]'s history of the term and its understanding, 'The Origins of Postmodernity', explains these apparent contradictions, and demonstrates the importance of "Postmodernism" as a category and a phenomenon in the analysis of contemporary culture.<ref>Perry Anderson, 'The Origins of Postmodernity', London: Verso, 1998.</ref>

==Influence on art and aesthetics==
===Architecture===
{{Main|Postmodern architecture}}
[[Image:Mönchengladbach museum detail.jpg|300px|thumb|Detail of the postmodern [[Abteiberg Museum]] in [[Germany]].]]
The movement of Postmodernism began with [[architecture]], as a response to the perceived blandness, hostility, and Utopianism of the Modern movement. [[Modern Architecture]], as established and developed by people such as [[Walter Gropius]], [[Le Corbusier]], and [[Philip Johnson]], was focused on the pursuit of a perceived ideal perfection, and attempted harmony of form and function,<ref>Sullivan, Louis. "The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered,” published Lippincott's Magazine (March 1896).</ref> and dismissal of "frivolous ornament."<ref>Loos, Adolf. "Ornament and Crime,” published 1908.</ref><ref>Manfredo Tafuri, 'Architecture and utopia: design and capitalist development', Cambridge: MIT Press, 1976.</ref> Critics of modernism argued that the attributes of perfection and minimalism themselves were subjective, and pointed out [[anachronism]]s in modern thought and questioned the benefits of its philosophy.<ref>Venturi, et al.</ref> Definitive postmodern architecture such as the work of [[Michael Graves]] rejects the notion of a 'pure' form or 'perfect' architectonic detail, instead conspicuously drawing from all methods, materials, forms and colors available to architects. Postmodernist architecture was one of the first aesthetic movements to openly challenge Modernism as antiquated and "totalitarian", favoring personal preferences and variety over objective, ultimate truths or principles. It is this atmosphere of criticism, skepticism, and emphasis on difference over and against unity that distinguishes many postmodernisms.

===Literature===
{{Main|Postmodern literature}}

Literary postmodernism was officially inaugurated in the United States with the first issue of ''[[boundary 2]]'', subtitled "Journal of Postmodern Literature and Culture", which appeared in 1972. [[David Antin]], [[Charles Olson]], [[John Cage]], and the [[Black Mountain College]] school of poetry and the arts were integral figures in the intellectual and artistic exposition of postmodernism at the time.<ref>Anderson, ''The origins of postmodernity'', London: Verso, 1998, Ch.2: "Crystallization".</ref> ''boundary 2'' remains an influential journal in postmodernist circles today.<ref>''boundary 2'', Duke University Press, http://boundary2.dukejournals.org/</ref>

Although [[Jorge Luis Borges]] and [[Samuel Beckett]] are sometimes seen as important influences, novelists who are commonly counted to postmodern literature include [[William Burroughs]], [[Giannina Braschi]], [[Kurt Vonnegut]], [[John Barth]], [[Donald Barthelme]], [[E.L. Doctorow]], [[Jerzy Kosinski]], [[Don DeLillo]], [[Thomas Pynchon]], [[Ishmael Reed]], [[Kathy Acker]], [[Ana Lydia Vega]], and [[Paul Auster]].

In 1971, the Arab-American scholar [[Ihab Hassan]] published ''The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature,'' an early work of literary criticism from a postmodern perspective, in which the author traces the development of what he calls "literature of silence" through [[Marquis de Sade]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Ernest Hemingway]], Beckett, and many others, including developments such as the [[Theatre of the Absurd]] and the [[nouveau roman]].

===Music===
{{Main|Postmodern music|Postmodern classical music}}
The postmodern impulse in classical music arose in the 1970s with the advent of musical [[minimalism]]. Composers such as [[Terry Riley]], [[Bradley Joseph]], [[John Adams (composer)|John Adams]], [[Steve Reich]], [[Phillip Glass|Philip Glass]], and [[Lou Harrison]] reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies. Some composers have been openly influenced by popular music and world ethnic musical traditions. Though representing a general return to certain notions of music-making that are often considered to be classical or romantic{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}, not all postmodern composers have eschewed the experimentalist or academic tenets of modernism. The works of Dutch composer [[Louis Andriessen]], for example, exhibit experimentalist preoccupation that is decidedly anti-romantic. Eclecticism and freedom of expression, in reaction to the rigidity and aesthetic limitations of modernism, are the hallmarks of the postmodern influence in musical composition.

==Theories and derivatives==
===Deconstruction===
{{Main|Deconstruction}}
One of the most popular postmodernist tendencies within aesthetics is deconstruction. As it is currently used, "deconstruction" is a [[Jacques Derrida|Derridean]] approach to textual analysis (typically literary critique, but variously applied). Deconstructions work entirely within the studied text to expose and undermine the frame of reference, assumptions, and ideological underpinnings of the text. Although deconstructions can be developed using different methods and techniques, the process typically involves demonstrating the multiple possible readings of a text and their resulting internal conflicts, and undermining binary oppositions (e.g. masculine/feminine, old/new). Deconstruction is fundamental to many different fields of postmodernist thought, including [[postcolonialism]], as demonstrated through the writings of [[Gayatri Spivak]].

===Structuralism and post-structuralism===
{{Further|[[Manifestations of Postmodernism]]}}
[[Structuralism]] was a broad philosophical movement that developed particularly in France in the 1950s, partly in response to French [[Existentialism]], but is considered by many to be an exponent of [[High_modernism|High-Modernism]],{{By whom|date=July 2010}} though its categorization as either a [[Modernism|Modernist]] or Postmodernist trend is contested. Many Structuralists later moved away from the most strict interpretations and applications of "structure", and are thus called [[Post-Structuralism|"Post-structuralists"]] in the United States (the term is uncommon in Europe). Though many Post-structuralists were referred to as Postmodern in their lifetimes, many explicitly rejected the term. Notwithstanding, Post-structuralism in much American academic literature in the Humanities is very strongly associated with the broader and more nebulous movement of Postmodernism. Thinkers most typically linked with Structuralism include anthropologist [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], linguist [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], psychoanalyst [[Jacques Lacan]], Marxist philosopher [[Louis Althusser]] and literary theorist [[Roland Barthes]]. Philosophers commonly referred to as Post-structuralists include [[Michel Foucault]], [[Roland Barthes]] and [[Jean Baudrillard]] (who also began their careers with a Structuralist background), [[Jacques Derrida]], [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Pierre Bourdieu]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], [[Julia Kristeva]], [[Hélène Cixous]], [[Luce Irigaray]] and, sometimes, the American cultural theorists, critics and intellectuals they influenced (e.g. [[Judith Butler]], Jonathan Crary, [[John Fiske (media studies)|John Fiske]], [[Rosalind Krauss]]).

Though by no means a unified movement with a set of shared axioms or methodologies, Post-structuralism emphasizes the ways in which different aspects of a cultural order, from its most banal material details to its most abstract theoretical exponents, determine one another (rather than espousing a series of strict, uni-directional, cause and effect relationships - see [[Reductionism]] - or resorting to [[Epiphenomenalism]]). Like Structuralism, it places particular focus on the determination of identities, values and economies in relation to one another, rather than assuming ''intrinsic'' properties or essences of signs or components as starting points.<ref>Lévi-Strauss, Claude. ''Structural Anthropology''. Trans. Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf (First published New York: Basic Books, 1963; New York: Anchor Books Ed., 1967), 324.<br/>Lévi-Strauss, quoting D'Arcy Westworth Thompson states - "To those who question the possibility of defining the interrelations between entities whose nature is not completely understood, I shall reply with the following comment by a great naturalist - <br>''In a very large part of morphology, our essential task lies in the comparison of related forms rather than in the precise definition of each; and the deformation of a complicated figure may be a phenomenon easy of comprehension, though the figure itself has to be left unanalyzed and undefined.''</ref> In this limited sense, there is a nascent [[Relativism]] and [[Constructionism]] within the French Structuralists that was consciously addressed by them but never examined to the point of dismantling their reductionist tendencies. Unlike Structuralists, however, the Post-structuralists questioned the division between relation and component and, correspondingly, did not attempt to reduce the subjects of their study to an ''essential'' set of relations that could be portrayed with abstract, functional schemes or mathematical symbols (as in Claude Lévi-Strauss's algebraic formulation of mythological transformation in "The Structural Study of Myth"<ref>Lévi-Strauss, Claude. ''Anthropologie Structurale''. Paris: Éditions Plon, 1958.<br/>Lévi-Strauss, Claude. ''Structural Anthropology''. Trans. Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf (New York: Basic Books, 1963), [http://books.google.com/books?id=RmeUknlauJAC&lpg=PP1&ots=NJWcwczLLV&dq=Structural%20Anthropology%20Basic%20Books&pg=PA228#v=onepage&q=Structural%20Anthropology%20Basic%20Books&f=false 228].</ref>).

Post-Structuralists tended to reject such formulations of “essential relations” in primitive cultures, languages or descriptions of psychological phenomena as a subtle forms of [[Aristotelianism]], Rationalism or Idealism or as more reflective of a mechanistic bias<ref>See the [http://www.anarchopedia.org/mechanistic_bias following] web reference for a common critique of from an [[Antipositivism|"Anti-positivist"]] perspective.</ref> inspired by bureaucratization and industrialization than of the inner-workings of primitive cultures, languages or the psyche. Generally, Post-structuralists emphasized the inter-determination and contingency of social and historical phenomena with each other and with the cultural values and biases of perspective. Such realities were not to be dissected, in the manner of some Structuralists, as a system of facts that could exist ''independently'' from values and paradigms (either those of the analysts or the subjects themselves), but to be understood as both causes and effects of the each other.<ref>Deleuze, Gilles and Félix Guattari. ''Capitalism and Schizophrenia, vol. II: A Thousand Plateaus''. Trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1987), p 101. Orig. published as ''Mille Plateaux,'' in 1980 by Les Editions de Minuit, Paris.<br/>Deleuze, here echoing the sentiments of Derrida's reflection on Foucault's "The History of Madness" (1961) in his essay "Cogito and the History of Madness" (1963), makes a very thinly veiled reference to semiological certainty of both Saussure and Lacan (who speaks of "The Unity of the Father" in his theory of semantic coherence), critiquing the premise of objectivity in their methodology -
<br/>''"The scientific model taking language as an object of study is one with the political model by which language is homogenized, centralized, standardized, becoming a language of power, a major or dominant language. Linguistics can claim all it wants to be science, nothing but pure science -- it wouldn't be the first time that the order of pure science was used to secure the requirements of another order...The unity of language is fundamentally political. There is no mother tongue, only a power takeover by a dominant language that at times advances along a broad front, and at times swoops down on diverse centers simultaneously...The scientific enterprise of extracting constants and constant relations is always coupled with the political enterprise of imposing them on speakers and transmitting order-worlds."''</ref> For this reason, most Post-structuralists held a more open-ended view of function within systems than did Structuralists and were sometimes accused of circularity and ambiguity. Post-structuralists countered that, when closely examined, all formalized claims describing phenomena, reality or truth, rely on some form or circular reasoning and self-referential logic that is often paradoxical in nature. Thus, it was important to uncover the hidden patterns of circularity, self-reference and paradox within a given set of statements rather that feign objectivity, as such an investigation might allow new perspectives to have influence and new practices to be sanctioned or adopted.

As would be expected, Post-structuralist writing tends to connect observations and references from many, widely varying disciplines into a synthetic view of knowledge and its relationship to experience, the body, society and economy - a synthesis in which it sees itself as participating. Stucturalists, while also somewhat inter-disciplinary, were more comfortable within departmental boundaries and often maintained the autonomy of their analytical methods over the objects they analyzed. Post-structuralists, unlike Structuralists, did not privilege a system of (abstract) "relations" over the specifics to which such relations were applied, but tended to see the notion of “the relation” or of systemization itself as part-and-parcel of any stated conclusion rather than a reflection of reality as an independent, self-contained state or object. If anything, if a part of objective reality, theorization and systemization to Post-structuralists was an exponent of larger, more nebulous patterns of control in social orders – patterns that could not be encapsulated in theory without simultaneously conditioning it. For this reason, certain Post-structural thinkers were also criticized by more Realist, Naturalist or Essentialist thinkers of anti-intellectualism or anti-Philosophy. In short, Post-structuralists, unlike Structuralists, tended to place a great deal of skepticism on the independence of theoretical premises from collective bias and the influence of power, and rejected the notion of a "pure" or "scientific" methodology in social analysis, semiotics or philosophical speculation. No theory, they said, was capable of reducing phenomena to elemental systems or abstract patterns, nor could abstract systems be dismissed as secondary derivatives of a fundamental nature –systemization, phenomena and values were part of each other.

While many of the so-called Post-structuralists vehemently disagreed on the specifics of such fundamental categories as "the real", "society", "totality", "desire" and "history", many also shared, in contrast to their so-called Structuralist predecessors, the traits mentioned. Furthermore, a good number of them engaged in a re-assessment (positive or negative) of the philosophical traditions associated with Hegel, Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud. Because of its general skepticism of analytical objectivity and mutually exclusive oppositions in logic, its emphasis on the social production of knowledge and of knowledge paradigms, and its portrayal of the sometimes ambiguous inter-determination of material culture, values, physical practices and socio-economic life, Post-structuralism is often linked to Postmodernism.

===Post-postmodernism===
{{Main|Post-postmodernism}}
Recently the notion of the "death of postmodernism" has been increasingly widely debated: in 2007 Andrew Hoborek noted in his introduction to a special issue of the journal ''Twentieth Century Literature'' titled "After Postmodernism" that "declarations of postmodernism's demise have become a critical commonplace". A small group of critics has put forth a range of theories that aim to describe culture and/or society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism, most notably Raoul Eshelman (performatism), [[Gilles Lipovetsky]] (hypermodernity), [[Nicolas Bourriaud]] ([[Altermodern]]), and [[Alan Kirby (writer)|Alan Kirby]] (digimodernism, formerly called pseudo-modernism). None of these new theories and labels has so far gained widespread acceptance.

==Criticism==
{{Main|Criticism of postmodernism}}
Formal, academic critiques of postmodernism can be found in works such as ''[[Beyond the Hoax]]'' and ''[[Fashionable Nonsense]]''.

The term ''postmodernism'', when used pejoratively, describes tendencies perceived as [[relativist]], [[counter-enlightenment]] or [[Antimodernism|antimodern]], particularly in relation to critiques of [[rationalism]], [[Universality (philosophy)|universalism]] or [[science]]. It is also sometimes used to describe tendencies in a society that are held to be antithetical to traditional systems of [[morality]].

==See also==
;Theory
* [[Critical race theory]]
* [[Dystopia]]
* [[Hypermodernity]]
* [[Media studies]]
* [[Recursion]]ism
* [[Science fiction]]

;Culture and politics
* [[Decentralization]]
* [[Defamiliarization]]
* [[Remodernism]]
* [[Syncretism]]
* [[Sokal Affair]]

;Law
* [[Critical legal studies]]

;Philosophy
* [[Ontological pluralism]]
* [[Physical ontology]]
* [[Postmaterialism]]

;Politics
* [[Post-realism]]

;Psychology
* [[Postmodern psychology]]

;Opposed by
* [[Altermodern]]
* [[Remodernism]]
* [[Stuckism]]
* [[Remodernist film]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* Powell, Jim (1998). "Postmodernism For Beginners" (ISBN 978-1-934389-09-6)
* Alexie, Sherman (2000). "The Toughest Indian in the World" (ISBN 0-8021-3800-4)
* Anderson, Walter Truett. ''The Truth about the Truth (New Consciousness Reader)''. New York: Tarcher. (1995) (ISBN 0-87477-801-8)
* Anderson, Perry. ''The origins of postmodernity''. London: Verso, 1998.
* Ashley, Richard and Walker, R. B. J. (1990) “Speaking the Language of Exile.” ''International Studies Quarterly'' v 34, no 3 259-68.
* [[Zygmunt Bauman|Bauman, Zygmunt]] (2000) ''Liquid Modernity''. Cambridge: Polity Press.
* [[Ulrich Beck|Beck, Ulrich]] (1986) ''Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity''.
* Benhabib, Seyla (1995) 'Feminism and Postmodernism' in (ed. Nicholson) ''Feminism Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange''. New York: Routledge.
* Berman, Marshall (1982) ''All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: The Experience of Modernity'' (ISBN 0-14-010962-5).
* [[Hans Bertens|Bertens, Hans]] (1995) ''The Idea of the Postmodern: A History''. London: Routledge.(ISBN 0-145-06012-5).
* Best, Steven Best and Douglas Kellner. ''Postmodern Theory '' (1991) [http://www.amazon.com/Postmodern-Theory-Steven-Best/dp/0898624185/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255660810&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
* Best, Steven Best and Douglas Kellner. ''The Postmodern Turn'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Postmodern-Turn-Steven-Best/dp/1572302216/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1255660575&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search
* Bielskis, Andrius (2005) ''Towards a Postmodern Understanding of the Political: From Genealogy to Hermeneutics'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
* Braschi, Giannina (1994), Empire of Dreams, introduction by Alicia Ostriker, Yale University Press, New Haven, London.
* Brass, Tom, ''Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism'' (London: Cass, 2000).
* [[Judith Butler|Butler, Judith]] (1995) 'Contingent Foundations' in (ed. Nicholson) ''Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange''. New Yotk: Routledge.
* [[Alex Callinicos|Callinicos, Alex]], ''Against Postmodernism: A Marxist Critique'' (Cambridge: Polity, 1999).
* [[Margaret Drabble|Drabble, M.]] ''The Oxford Companion to English Literature'', 6 ed., article "Postmodernism".
* Farrell, John. "Paranoia and Postmodernism," the epilogue to ''Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau'' (Cornell UP, 2006), 309-327.
* Featherstone, M. (1991) Consumer culture and postmodernism, London; Newbury Park, Calif., Sage Publications.
* Goulimari, Pelagia (ed.) (2007) Postmodernism. What Moment? Manchester: Manchester University Press (ISBN 978-0-7190-7308-3)
* [[Anthony Giddens|Giddens, Anthony]] (1991) Modernity and Self Identity, Cambridge: Polity Press.
* Grebowicz, Margaret (ed.), ''Gender After Lyotard''. NY: Suny Press, 2007. (ISBN 978-0-7914-6956-9)
* Greer, Robert C. ''Mapping Postmodernism''. IL: Intervarsity Press, 2003. (ISBN 0-8308-2733-1)
* Groothuis, Douglas. ''Truth Decay''. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2000.
* Harvey, David (1989) ''The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change'' (ISBN 0-631-16294-1)
* Hicks, Stephen R. C. (2004) ''Explaining Postmodernism: Skepticism and Socialism from Rousseau to Foucault'' (ISBN 1-59247-646-5)
* [[Ted Honderich|Honderich, T.]], ''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', article "Postmodernism".
* Hutcheon, Linda. ''The Politics of Postmodernism.'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/107450059?title=The%20Politics%20of%20Postmodernism online edition&#93;
* Jameson, Fredric (1991) ''[[Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism]]'' (ISBN 0-8223-1090-2)
* Kirby, Alan (2009) ''Digimodernism''. New York: Continuum.
* Lash, S. (1990) ''The sociology of postmodernism'' London, Routledge.
* Lyotard, Jean-François (1984) ''[[The Postmodern Condition]]: A Report on Knowledge'' (ISBN 0-8166-1173-4)
* --- (1988). ''The Postmodern Explained: Correspondence 1982-1985''. Ed. Julian Pefanis and Morgan Thomas. (ISBN 0-8166-2211-6)
* --- (1993), "Scriptures: Diffracted Traces." In: ''Theory, Culture and Society'', Vol. 21(1), 2004.
* --- (1995), "Anamnesis: Of the Visible." In: ''Theory, Culture and Society'', Vol. 21(1), 2004.
* MacIntyre, Alasdair, [[After Virtue]]: A Study in Moral Theory (University of Notre Dame Press, 1984, 2nd edn.).
* [[Robert Magliola|Magliola, Robert]], ''Derrida on the Mend'' (Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 1984; 1986; pbk. 2000, ISBN I-55753-205-2).
* ---, ''On Deconstructing Life-Worlds: Buddhism, Christianity, Culture'' (Atlanta: Scholars Press of American Academy of Religion, 1997; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000; ISBN 0-7885-0295-6, cloth, ISBN 0-7885-0296-4, pbk).
* Manuel, Peter. "Music as Symbol, Music as Simulacrum: Pre-Modern, Modern, and Postmodern Aesthetics in Subcultural Musics," Popular Music 1/2, 1995, pp.&nbsp;227–239.
* Murphy, Nancey, ''Anglo-American Postmodernity: Philosophical Perspectives on Science, Religion, and Ethics'' (Westview Press, 1997).
* Natoli, Joseph (1997) ''A Primer to Postmodernity'' (ISBN 1-57718-061-5)
* Norris, Christopher (1990) ''What's Wrong with Postmodernism: Critical Theory and the Ends of Philosophy'' (ISBN 0-8018-4137-2)
* Pangle, Thomas L., ''The Ennobling of Democracy: The Challenge of the Postmodern Age'', Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991 ISBN 0-8018-4635-8
* Park, Jin Y., ed., ''Buddhisms and Deconstructions'' (Lanham: Rowland & Littlefield, 2006, ISBN 978-0-7425-3418-6; ISBN 0-7425-3418-9.
* Sokal, Alan and Jean Bricmont (1998) ''[[Fashionable Nonsense]]: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Science'' (ISBN 0-312-20407-8)
* Taylor, Alan (2005) ''We, the media. Pedagogic Intrusions into US Film and Television News Broadcasting Rhetorics', Peter Lang, pp.&nbsp;418 (ISBN 3-631-51852-8)
* Vattimo, Gianni (1989). ''The Transparent Society'' (ISBN 0-8018-4528-9)
* Veith Jr., Gene Edward (1994) ''Postmodern Times: A Christian Guide to Contemporary Thought and Culture'' (ISBN 0-89107-768-5)
* [[Keith Windshuttle|Windshuttle, Keith]] (1996) ''The Killing of History: How Literary Critics and Social Theorists are Murdering our Past.'' New York: The Free Press.
* Woods, Tim, ''Beginning Postmodernism,'' Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999,(Reprinted 2002)(ISBN 0-7190-5210-6 Hardback,ISBN 0-7190-5211-4 Paperback) .

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons category}}
*“Love and Hatred of ‘French Theory’ in America.” ''Borderlands e journal''. / Rolando Pérez. 4.1. 2005. http://www.borderlandsejournal.adelaide.edu.au/
* [http://www.scribd.com/doc/22163586/Postmodernism-Pulp-Fiction A simpler description of Postmodernism&#93;
* [http://wsws.org/category/feature/philos.shtml WSWS philosophy archives - incl. critiques of postmodernist thought&#93;
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on postmodernism&#93;
* [http://christiancadre.org/topics/postmodern.html The Christian Cadre's Postmodernism Page&#93;
* [http://www.umass.edu/complit/aclanet/SyllPDF/JanuList.pdf Discourses of Postmodernism. Multilingual Bibliography by Janusz Przychodzen (PDF file)&#93;
* [http://www.tasc.ac.uk/depart/media/staff/ls/Modules/Theory/PoMoDis.htm Modernity, postmodernism and the tradition of dissent, by Lloyd Spencer (1998)&#93;
* [http://www.critcrim.org/critpapers/milovanovic_postmod.htm Dueling Paradigms: Modernist v. Postmodernist Thought&#93;
* Characterizing a Fogbank: What Is Postmodernism, and Why Do I Take Such a Dim View of it?]
* [http://www.scribd.com/doc/22163586/Postmodernism-Pulp-FictionHow to Deconstruct Almost Anything--My Postmodern Adventure]
* [http://www.butterfliesandwheels.com/articleprint.php?num=13 Postmodernism and truth] by philosopher [[Daniel Dennett]]
* [http://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8401159 Postmodernism is the new black]: How the shape of modern retailing was both predicted and influenced by some unlikely seers (<CITE>The Economist</CITE> December 19, 2006)
* [http://www.scribd.com/doc/22163586/Postmodernism-Pulp-Fiction Modernism vs. Postmodernism]
* [http://acheret.co.il/en/?cmd=articles.326 Gaining clarity: after postmodernism], [http://acheret.co.il/en Eretz Acheret] Magazine

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Revision as of 23:40, 17 November 2010

Post modernism means your mum haha

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