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Dewari is one of prominent Baloch tribes mainly dwelling in Iran, Oman, And Afghanistan. It is one of the most powerful Baloch tribes in Sistan, Zahedan and Afghan Balochistan. |
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{{Redirect|Farsi|other uses|Farsi (disambiguation)}} |
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. After many battles with other tribes they migrated to other parts of Balochistan, but first Sardar Dehwari grave is in Zehdan. For a long time the Dehwari chieftain was settled in the Afghan part of Balochistan but recently, owing to the spread of the Dehwari population, and also owing to borders which have separated the Baloch people into three neighboring countries (Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan), three tribal chieftains have emerged. Two of them belong to Irani Balochistan, and one in Eastern Balochistan, In Pakistan Dehwaris are called Dehwars , |
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{{Infobox language |
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|name=Persian |
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|nativename={{lang|fa|فارسی}}, {{lang|fa|دری}}, {{lang|fa|تاجیکی}} |
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|pronunciation={{IPA-fa|fɒːɾˈsiː|}} |
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|image=Farsi.svg |
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|imagesize=100px |
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|imagecaption= Written in native script ([[Nastaʿlīq script|Nastaʿlīq]] style), pronounced in the Persian language as '''Fārsī''' or, alternatively, its etymological root '''Pārsī'''. |
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|states={{flag|Iran}}<br> |
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{{flag|Afghanistan}}<br> |
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{{flag|Tajikistan}}<br> |
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{{flag|Uzbekistan}}<br /> |
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{{flag|Pakistan}}<br> |
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{{flag|Iraq}}<br> |
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{{flag|UAE}}<br> |
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{{flag|Qatar}}<br> |
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{{flag|Kuwait}}<br> |
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{{flag|Bahrain}}<br /> |
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{{flag|Oman}} |
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[[Iranian diaspora]], [[Afghan diaspora]] |
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|region=[[Western Asia]], [[Central Asia]] |
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|script=[[Persian alphabet]]<br />[[Cyrillic|Cyrillic script]] (Tajikistan) |
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|speakers= ca. 80-100 million, as first language (2006 estimates)<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html Iran], 36 M (51%) – 46 M (65%) [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf Loc.gov], [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html Afghanistan], 16.369 M (50%), [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ti.html Tajikistan], 5.770 M (80%), [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/uz.html Uzbekistan], 1.2 M (4.4%)</ref><!--http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=63&menu=004 (this is old data; Iran's population is now 66 million, and 58% of the population speaks Persian!--> |
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|familycolor=Indo-European |
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|fam1=[[Indo-European]] |
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|fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] |
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|fam3=[[Iranian languages|Iranian]] |
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|fam4=[[Western Iranian languages|Western Iranian]] |
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|fam5=[[Southwestern Iranian languages|Southwestern Iranian]] |
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|dia1=[[Iranian Persian]] (pes) |
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|dia2=[[Dari (Eastern Persian)|Afghan Persian]] (prs) |
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|dia3=[[Tajik language|Tajiki]] (tgk) |
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|dia4=[[Bukhori language|Bukharic]] (bhh) |
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|dia5=[[Pahlavani language|Pahlavani]] (phv) |
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|dia6=[[Hazaragi language|Hazaragi]] (haz) |
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|dia7=[[Aimaq dialect|Aimaq]] (aiq) |
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|dia8=[[Dzhidi language|Dzhidi]] (jpr) |
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|dia9=[[Dehwari language|Dehwari]] (deh) |
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|nation={{IRN}}<br>{{AFG}}<br>{{TJK}} |
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|agency=[[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]] (Iran)<br> |
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|iso1=fa|iso2b=per|iso2t=fas |
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|iso3=fas |
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|lingua=58-AAC (Wider Persian) > 58-AAC-c (Central Persian) |
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|lc1=pes|ld1=Western Persian|ll1=Western Persian |
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|lc2=prs|ld2=Eastern Persian|ll2=Dari (Persian) |
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|lc3=tgk|ld3=Tajiki|ll3=Tajik language<!--This and the following codes aren't part of the macrolanguage per SIL--> |
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|lc4=aiq|ld4=Aimaq|ll4=Aimaq language |
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|lc5=bhh|ld5=Bukharic|ll5=Bukhori language |
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|lc6=drw|ld6=Darwazi|ll6=Darwazi language |
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|lc7=haz|ld7=Hazaragi|ll7=Hazaragi language |
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|lc8=jpr|ld8=Dzhidi|ll8=Dzhidi language |
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|lc9=phv|ld9=Pahlavani|ll9=Pahlavani language |
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|lc10=deh|ld10=Dehwari|ll10=Dehwari language |
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|map=MapOfPersianSpeakers.png |
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|mapcaption=Countries with significant Persian-speaking populations<br />(Click on image for the legend) |
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|notice=IPA |
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}} |
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{{Contains Perso-Arabic text}} |
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'''Persian''' ({{lang|fa|فارسی or پارسی}}, {{IPA-fa|fɒːɾˈsiː|IPA}}) is an [[Iranian languages|Iranian language]] within the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages]]. It is primarily spoken in [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]] and countries which historically came under [[Greater Iran|Persian influence]]. The Persian language is classified as a continuation of [[Middle Persian]], the official religious and literary language of [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid Persia]], itself a continuation of [[Old Persian]], the language of [[Persian Empire]] in the [[Achaemenid]] era.<ref name="Lazard"/><ref>Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill, "Sociolinguistics Hsk 3/3 Series Volume 3 of Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society", Walter de Gruyter, 2006. 2nd edition. pg 1912. Excerpt: "Middle Persian, also called Pahlavi is a direct continuation of old Persian, and was used as the written official language of the country." "However, after the Moslem conquest and the collapse of the Sassanids, Arabic became the dominant language of the country and Pahlavi lost its importance, and was gradually replaced by Dari, a variety of Middle Persian, with considerable loan elements from Arabic and Parthian."</ref><ref>Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). Encyclopedia Iranica,"Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts, "new Persian, is "the descendant of Middle Persian" and has been "official language of Iranian states for centuries", whereas for other non-Persian Iranian languages "close genetic relationships are difficult to establish" between their different (Middle and Modern) stages. Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bactrian may be closely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); and Wakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese."</ref> Persian is a [[pluricentric language]] and its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages.<ref name="Richard Davis 2006. pp. 602-603">Richard Davis, "Persian" in Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach, "Medieval Islamic Civilization", Taylor & Francis, 2006. pp. 602–603. "The grammar of New Persian is similar to many contemporary European languages."Similarly, the core vocabulary of Persian continued to be derived from Pahlavi.</ref> The name of the Persian language derives from its etymological root ''Pārsī'' (پارسی). |
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Persian has ca. 110 million native speakers, holding official status respectively in [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Tajikistan]]. For centuries Persian has also been a prestigious cultural language in [[Central Asia]], [[South Asia]], and [[Western Asia]].<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica: [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/452843/Persian-literature/277134/The-proliferation-of-court-patronage?anchor=ref997402 Persian literature], retrieved Sept. 2011.</ref> |
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Persian has had a considerable influence on neighboring languages, particularly the [[Turkic languages]] in [[Central Asia]], [[Caucasus]], and [[Anatolia]], neighboring Iranian languages, as well as [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and other languages. It has also exerted a strong influence on South Asian languages, especially [[Urdu language|Urdu]], as well as [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]], [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Oriya language|Oriya]].<ref name="Lazard">Professor. Gilbert Lazard, : ''The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Farsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as [[Avestan]], [[Parthian language|Parthian]], [[Soghdian]], [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Pashto language|Pashto]], etc., Old [[Middle Persian|Middle]] and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in [[Fars Province|Fars]] (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran'' in Lazard, Gilbert 1975, "The Rise of the New Persian Language" in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref name="Richard Davis 2006. pp. 602-603"/><ref name="Lazard, Gilbert 1971">Lazard, Gilbert, "Pahlavi, Pârsi, dari: Les langues d'Iran d'apès Ibn al-Muqaffa" in R.N. Frye, "Iran and Islam. In Memory of the late Vladimir Minorsky", Edinburgh University Press, 1971.</ref><ref name="Nushin Namazi">{{cite web|url=http://cgi.stanford.edu/group/wais/cgi-bin/?p=24327|title=Persian Loan Words in Arabic|author=Nushin Namazi|date=2008-11-24|accessdate=2009-06-01}}</ref><ref name="Classe 2000 1057">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of literary translation into English |last=Classe |first=Olive |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2000 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location= |isbn=1884964362, ISBN 9781884964367 |page=1057 |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=C1uXah12nHgC&pg=PA1057 |quote=''Since the Arab conquest of the country in 7th century AD, many loan words have entered the language (which from this time has been written with a slightly modified version of the Arabic script) and the literature has been heavily influenced by the conventions of Arabic literature.''}}</ref><ref name=lambtonexcerpt>Ann K. S. Lambton, "Persian grammar", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge University Press 1953. Excerpt: "The Arabic words incorporated into the Persian language have become Persianized".</ref> |
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With a long history of literature in the form of [[Middle Persian]] before Islam, Persian was the first language in Muslim civilization to break through Arabic’s monopoly on writing, and the writing of poetry in Persian was established as a court tradition in many eastern courts.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica: [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/452843/Persian-literature/277134/The-proliferation-of-court-patronage?anchor=ref997402 Persian literature], retrieved Sept. 2011.</ref> |
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Some of the famous works of [[Persian literature]] are the ''[[Shahnameh]]'' of [[Ferdowsi]], works of [[Rumi]], [[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam]], [[Hafiz Shirazi|Divan of Hafiz]] and poems of [[Saadi (poet)|Saadi]]. |
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==Classification== |
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Persian belongs to the [[List of Iranian languages#Western|Western]] group of the [[Iranian languages|Iranian branch]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family, which also includes [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Mazandarani language|Mazandarani]], [[Gilaki Language|Gilaki]], [[Talysh Language|Talyshi]] and [[Balochi language|Baluchi]]. The language is in the [[List of Southwestern Iranian languages|Southwestern Iranian]] group, along with the [[Larestani dialects|Larestani]] and [[Luri language|Luri]] languages,<ref name="windfuhr1987">{{Cite book|title=The World's Major Languages |year=1987 |last=Windfuhr |first=Gernot |editor=Berard Comrie |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0195065114 |pages=523–546 }}</ref> and the [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat]] Persian of the Caucasus.<ref>Gernot Windfuhr, "Persian Grammer: history and state of its study", Walter de Gruyter, 1979. pg 4:""Tat- Persian spoken in the East Caucasus""</ref><ref>C Kerslake, Journal of Islamic Studies (2010) 21 (1): 147-151. excerpt:"It is a comparison of the verbal systems of three varieties of Persian—standard Persian, Tat, and Tajik—in terms of the 'innovations' that the latter two have developed for expressing finer differentiations of tense, aspect and modality..." [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=+It+is+a+comparison+of+the+verbal+systems+of+three+varieties+of+Persian%E2%80%94standard+Persian%2C+tat%2C+tajik&as_sdt=80000000000000&as_ylo=&as_vis=0]</ref><ref>Borjian, Habib, "Tabari Language Materials from Il'ya Berezin's Recherches sur les dialectes persans", Iran and the Caucasus, Volume 10, Number 2, 2006 , pp. 243–258(16). Excerpt:"It embraces Gilani, Ta- lysh, Tabari, Kurdish, Gabri, and the Tati Persian of the Caucasus, all but the last belonging to the north-western group of Iranian language."</ref> |
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==Nomenclature== |
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===Contemporary local nomenclature=== |
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The term “Fārsi” often refers to three different groups of dialects: |
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* '''''Farsi''''' ({{rtl-lang|fa|'''فارسی'''}}<ref>Or ({{rtl-lang|fa|'''زبان فارسی'''}} — [[transliteration|translit.]]: {{lang|fa-Latn|''zabān-e fārsi''}}</ref> — [[transliteration]]: {{lang|fa-Latn|''fārsi''}}) is the local name of the language in [[Iran]], and is sometimes used in English instead of the word ''Persian'' when referring to the language; |
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* '''[[Dari (Persian)|Dari]]''' ({{rtl-lang|fa|'''دری'''}}<ref>Or ({{rtl-lang|fa|'''فارسی دری''' \ فارسئ دری}} — [[transliteration|translit.]]: {{lang|fa-Latn|''fārsi-ye dari''}}</ref> — [[transliteration|translit.]]: {{lang|fa-Latn|''dari''}}) is a Persian dialect and one of the two official languages of [[Afghanistan]]<ref>See [[Dari (Persian)#Geographical distribution|Dari - Geographical distribution]]</ref>; |
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* '''[[Tajik language|Tajik]]''' ({{lang|tg-Cyrl|тоҷикӣ}} / ({{rtl-lang|fa|تاجیکی}} — [[transliteration|translit.]]: {{lang|fa-Latn|''tojiki''}}<ref>Or ({{rtl-lang|fa|забони тоҷикӣ}} / {{rtl-lang|fa|فارسی تاجیکی}} — [[transliteration|translit.]]: {{lang|fa-Latn|''zabon-i tojiki''}}</ref>) is a group of dialects spoken in [[Central Asia]]<ref>See [[Tajik language#Geographical distribution|Tajik language - Geographical distribution]]</ref>. |
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===English nomenclature=== |
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''Persian'', the more widely used name of the language in [[English language|English]], is an anglicized form derived from [[Latin]] *{{lang|la|''Persianus''}} < Latin {{lang|la|''Persia''}} < [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|Πέρσις ''Pérsis''}}, a [[Hellenized]] form of Old Persian {{lang|peo-Latn|''Parsa''}}. According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], the term ''Persian'' as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century.<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]] online,'' s.v. "Persian", draft revision June 2007.</ref> Native Iranian Persian speakers call it ''Fârsi''.<ref name="OED Farsi">''[[Oxford English Dictionary]] online,'' s.v. "Fârsi".</ref> ''Fârsi'' is the [[arabicized]] form of ''Pârsi'', due to a lack of the 'p' [[phoneme]] in Standard Arabic.<ref>Cannon, Garland Hampton and Kaye, Alan S. (1994) ''The Arabic contributions to the English language: an historical dictionary'' Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany, page 106, ISBN 3-447-03491-2</ref><ref>Odisho, Edward Y. (2005) ''Techniques of teaching comparative pronunciation in Arabic and English'' Gorgias Press, Piscataway, New Jersey, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ySsxpOtM26gC&pg=PA23 page 23] ISBN 1-59333-272-6</ref> In English, this language is historically known as "Persian", though some Persian speakers migrating to the West continued to use "Farsi" to identify their language in English and the word gained some currency in English-speaking countries.<ref>{{cite web|author=Pejman Akbarzadeh |year=2005 |title="Farsi" or "Persian"? |accessdate=2007-02-20 |url=http://heritage.chn.ir/en/Article/?id=88}}</ref> "Farsi" is encountered in some linguistic literature as a name for the language, used both by Iranian and by foreign authors.<ref>For example: A. Gharib, M. Bahar, B. Fooroozanfar, J. Homaii, and R. Yasami. ''Farsi Grammar.'' Jahane Danesh, 2nd edition, 2001.</ref> According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]], the term ''Farsi'' was first used in English in the mid-20th century.<ref name="OED Farsi" /> The [[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]] has declared that the name "Persian" is more appropriate, as it has the longer tradition in the western languages and better expresses the role of the language as a mark of cultural and national continuity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://heritage.chn.ir/en/Article/?id=88 |title=Pronouncement of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature |publisher=Heritage.chn.ir |date=2005-11-19 |accessdate=2010-07-13}}</ref> Most Persian language scholars such as [[Ehsan Yarshater]] and [[Kamran Talattof]] have also rejected the usage of "Farsi" in their articles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranian.com/Features/Dec97/Persian/|title=Persian or Farsi?|publisher=Iranian.com |date=1997-11-16 |accessdate=2010-09-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persiandirect.com/articles/2004/july/id_00003.htm|title=Fársi: "recently appeared language!"|publisher=PersianDirect.com |date=2005-02-15 |accessdate=2010-09-23}}</ref> |
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===International nomenclature=== |
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The international language encoding standard [[ISO 639-1]] uses the code "fa", as its coding system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard [[ISO 639-3]] uses the name "Persian" (code "fas") for the [[dialect continuum]] spoken across Iran and Afghanistan. This consists of the individual languages [[Dari]] (Afghan Persian) and Iranian Persian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sil.org/iso639-3/documentation.asp?id=fas |title=Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: fas |publisher=Sil.org |date= |accessdate=2010-07-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=prs |title=Code PRS |publisher=Ethnologue |date= |accessdate=2010-07-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pes |title=Code PES |publisher=Ethnologue |date= |accessdate=2010-07-13}}</ref> |
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A similar terminology, but with even more subdivisions, is also adopted by the [[LINGUIST List]], where "Persian" appears as a sub-grouping under "Southwest [[Western Iranian languages|Western Iranian]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/get-familyid.cfm?CFTREEITEMKEY=IEIBCB |title=Tree for Southwest Western Iranian |publisher=Linguist List |date= |accessdate=2010-07-13}}</ref> Currently, [[Voice of America|VOA]], [[BBC World Service|BBC]], [[Deutsche Welle|DW]], and [[RFE/RL]] use "Persian Service" for their broadcasts in the language. [[RFE/RL]] also includes a Tajik service, and an Afghan (Dari) service. This is also the case for the [[American Association of Teachers of Persian]], The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, and many of the leading scholars of Persian language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranian.com/Features/Dec97/Persian/ |title=Kamran Talattof Persian or Farsi? The debate continues |publisher=Iranian.com |date=1997-12-16 |accessdate=2010-07-13}}</ref> |
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==History== |
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{{History of the Persian language}} |
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Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family of languages. In general, Iranian languages are known from three periods, usually referred to as Old, Middle, and New (Modern) periods. These correspond to three eras in [[History of Greater Iran|Iranian history]]; Old era being the period from sometime before Achaemenids, the Achaemenid era and sometime after Achaemenids (that is to 400-300 BC), Middle era being the next period most officially Sassanid era and sometime in post-Sassanid era, and the New era being the period afterwards down to present day.<ref name=EI-IL-vi>{{harv|Skjaervo|2006}} vi(2). Documentation.</ref> |
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According to available documents, the Persian language is "the only Iranian language"<ref name="Lazard"/><ref>cf. {{harv|Skjaervo|2006}} vi(2). Documentation. Excerpt: ''Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bac-trian may be closely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); and Wakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese.''</ref> for which close phylological relationships between all of its three stages are established and so that Old, Middle, and New Persian represent<ref name="Lazard"/><ref name=EI-IL-vi(2)/> one and the same language of Persian, that is New Persian is a direct descendent of Middle and Old Persian.<ref name=EI-IL-vi(2)>cf. {{harv|Skjaervo|2006}} vi(2). Documentation. Excerpt 1: ''Only the official languages Ojhjlld, Middle, and New Persian represent three stages of one and the same language, whereas close genetic relationships are difficult to establish between other Middle and Modern Iranian languages. Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bac-trian may be closely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); and Wakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese.'' Excerpt 2: ''New Persian, the descendant of Middle Persian and official language of Iranian states for centuries..''</ref> |
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The oldest records in [[Old Persian]] date back to the Persian Empire of the 6th century BC.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Languages of the World |year=2002 |last=Katzner |first=Kenneth |publisher=Routledge |page=163 |isbn=0415250048}}</ref> |
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The known history of the Persian language can be divided into the following three distinct periods: |
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===Old Persian=== |
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[[Old Persian]] evolved from [[Proto-Iranian]] as it evolved in the Iranian plateau's southwest. The earliest dateable example of the language is the [[Behistun Inscription]] of the Achaemenid [[Darius I]] (''r.'' 522 BC – ca. 486 BC). Although purportedly older texts also exist (such as the inscription on the tomb of [[Cyrus II]] at [[Pasargadae]]), these are actually younger examples of the language. Old Persian was written in [[Old Persian cuneiform script|Old Persian cuneiform]], a script unique to that language and is generally assumed to be an invention of Darius I's reign.<!-- Only necessary if someone complains of bias: "Contrary opinions postulate that OP cuneiform was already in use by the Medes, but there are no surviving examples of the Median language." --> |
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After [[Aramaic]], or rather the [[Achaemenid]] form of it known as [[Imperial Aramaic]], Old Persian is the most commonly attested language of the Achaemenid age. While examples of Old Persian have been found wherever the Achaemenids held territories, the language is attested primarily in the inscriptions of Western Iran, in particular in [[Fars Province|Parsa]] "Persia" in the southwest, the homeland of the tribes that the Achaemenids (and later the Sassanids) came from. |
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In contrast to later Persian, written Old Persian had an extensively [[inflection|inflected]] grammar, with eight [[Grammatical case|cases]], each [[declension]] subject to both gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and number (singular, [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]], plural). |
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===Middle Persian=== |
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In contrast to [[Old Persian]], whose spoken and written forms must have been dramatically different from one another{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}, written [[Middle Persian]] reflected oral use. The complex [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] and [[declension]] of Old Persian yielded to the structure of Middle Persian in which the dual number disappeared, leaving only singular and plural, as did gender. Middle Persian used [[postposition]]s to indicate the different roles of words, for example an ''-i'' suffix to denote a possessive "from/of" rather than the multiple (subject to gender and number) [[genitive case]]forms of a word.<!-- this example is so that the third para can be understood even by someone not familiar with the subject --> |
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Although the "middle period" of the [[Iranian languages]] formally begins with the fall of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], the transition from Old- to Middle Persian had probably already begun before the 4th century. However, Middle Persian is not actually attested until 600 years later when it appears in [[Sassanid|Sassanid era]] (224–651) inscriptions, so any form of the language before this date cannot be described with any degree of certainty. Moreover, as a literary language, Middle Persian is not attested until much later, to the 6th or 7th century. And from the 8th century onwards, Middle Persian gradually began yielding to New Persian, with the middle-period form only continuing in the texts of [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] tradition. |
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The native name of Middle Persian was ''Parsik'' or ''Parsig'', after the name of the ethnic group of the southwest, that is, "of ''Pars''", Old Persian ''Parsa'', New Persian ''[[Fars Province|Fars]]''. This is the origin of the name ''Farsi'' as it is today used to signify New Persian. Following the collapse of the Sassanid state, ''Parsik'' came to be applied exclusively to (either Middle or New) Persian that was written in [[Arabic script]]. From about the 9th century onwards, as Middle Persian was on the threshold of becoming New Persian, the older form of the language came to be erroneously called ''[[Middle Persian|Pahlavi]]'', which was actually but one of the ''writing systems'' used to render both Middle Persian as well as various other Middle Iranian languages. That writing system had previously been adopted by the Sassanids (who were Persians, i.e. from the southwest) from the preceding Arsacids (who were Parthians, i.e. from the northeast). While Rouzbeh ([[Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa]], 8th century) still distinguished between ''[[Middle Persian|Pahlavi]]'' (i.e. Parthian) and ''Farsi'' (i.e. Middle Persian), this distinction is not evident in Arab commentaries written after that date. |
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Gernot Windfuhr considers new Persian as an evolution of the Old Persian language and the Middle Persian language<ref name="Windfuhr">Comrie, Bernard (1990) ''The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa'', Taylor & Francis,p. 82. Excerpt: " The evolution of Persian as the culturally dominant language of eastern Near East, from Iran to Central Asia to northwest India until recent centuries, began with the political domination of these areas by dynasties originating in southwestern province of Iran, Pars, later Arabicised to Fars: first the Achaemenids (599-331 BC) whose official language was Old Persian; then the Sassanids (c. AD 225-651) whose official language was Middle Persian. Hence, the entire country used to be called Perse by the ancient Greeks, a practice continued to this day. The more general designation 'Iran(-shahr)" derives from Old Iranian aryanam (Khshathra)'(the realm) of Aryans'. The dominance of these two dynasties resulted in Old and Middle-Persian colonies throughout the empire, most importantly for the course of the development of Persian, in the north-east i.e., what is now Khorasan, northern Afghanistan and Central Asia, as documented by the Middle Persian texts of the Manichean found in the oasis city of Turfan in Chinese Turkistan (Sinkiang). This led to certain degree of regionalisation".</ref> but also states that none of the known Middle Persian dialects is the direct predecessor of the [New] Persian <ref>Comrie, Bernard (1990) ''The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa'', Taylor & Francis,p. 82</ref><ref>Barbara M. Horvath, Paul Vaughan, ''Community languages'', 1991, 276 p.</ref> Professor. Ludwig Paul states: "The language of the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance of continuous historical development from Middle to New Persian"<ref>L. Paul(2005), "The Language of the Shahnameh in historical and dialetical perspective", pg 150:"The language of the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance of continuous historical development from Middle to New Persian" in Dieter Weber, D. N. MacKenzie, Languages of Iran: past and present: Iranian studies in memoriam David Neil MacKenzie, Volume 8 of Iranica Series, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. [http://books.google.com/books?id=4sz3YuyMJ5gC&dq=modern+persian+language+parthian+influence&source=gbs_navlinks_s]</ref> |
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===New Persian=== |
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[[File:Rudaba.JPG|thumb|right|260px|from [[Ferdowsi|Ferdowsi's]] [[Shanameh]].]] |
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The history of New Persian itself spans more than 1,000–1,200 years. The development of the language in its last period is often divided into three stages dubbed early, classical, and contemporary. Native speakers of the language can in fact understand early texts in Persian with minimal adjustment, because the morphology and, to a lesser extent, the lexicon of the language have remained relatively stable for the most part of a millennium.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jeremias|first=Eva M. |author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |encyclopedia= Encyclopaedia of Islam |title=Iran, iii. (f). New Persian|edition=New Edition, Supplement |date= |year=2004 |month= |publisher= |volume=12 |location= |id= |isbn=9004139745 |oclc= |doi= |pages=432 |quote=}}</ref> |
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====Early New Persian==== |
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New Persian developed from the 8th century on as an independent literary language.<ref>Johanson, Lars, and Christiane Bulut. 2006. [http://www.turkiclanguages.com/www/Johanson2006Cont.pdf Turkic-Iranian contact areas: historical and linguistic aspects]. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.</ref> |
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Upon the decline of the [[Caliphate]] at Baghdad in the ninth century a.d. began the re-establishment of Persian national life and Persians laid the foundations for a renaissance in the realm of letters. New Persian was born in Eastern Iran through the adaptation of the spoken form of [[Sassanian]] Middle Persian court language. The cradle of the Persian literary renaissance lay also in Eastern Iran.<ref>Jackson, A. V. Williams. 1920. Early Persian poetry, from the beginnings down to the time of Firdausi. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp.17-19. (in [http://www.archive.org/stream/earlypersianpoet00jackuoft/earlypersianpoet00jackuoft_djvu.txt Public Domain]</ref> |
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The mastery of the newer speech having now been transformed from Middle- into New Persian was already complete during three princely |
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dynasties of Iranian origin [[Tahirid]] (820-872), [[Saffarid]] (860-903) and [[Samanid]] (874-999), and could develop only in range and power of expression.<ref>Jackson, A. V. Williams. 1920. Early Persian poetry, from the beginnings down to the time of Firdausi. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp.17-19. (in [http://www.archive.org/stream/earlypersianpoet00jackuoft/earlypersianpoet00jackuoft_djvu.txt Public Domain]</ref> |
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[[Abbas of Merv]] is mentioned as being the earliest minstrel to chant verse in the newer Persian tongue and after him the poems of [[Hanzala Badghisi]] were among the most famous between the Persian-speakers of the time.<ref>Jackson, A. V. Williams.pp.17-19.</ref> |
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The first significant Persian poet was [[Rudaki]]. He flourished in the 10th century, when the Sāmānids were at the height of their power. His reputation as a court poet and as an accomplished musician and singer has survived, although little of his poetry has been preserved. Among his lost works is versified fables collected in [[Panchatantra|Kalilah wa Dimnah]].<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica: [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/452843/Persian-literature/277134/The-proliferation-of-court-patronage?anchor=ref997402 Persian literature], retrieved Sept. 2011.</ref> |
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The language spread geographically from the 11th century on and was the medium through which among others, Central Asian Turks became familiar with Islam and urban culture. New Persian was widely used as a transregional [[lingua franca]], a task for which it was particularly suitable due to its relatively simple morphological structure and this situation persisted till at least 19th century.<ref>Johanson, Lars, and Christiane Bulut. 2006. [http://www.turkiclanguages.com/www/Johanson2006Cont.pdf Turkic-Iranian contact areas: historical and linguistic aspects]. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.</ref> In the late Middle Ages, new Islamic literary languages were created on the Persian model: Ottoman, [[Chaghatay]] and Urdu, which are regards as "structural daughter languages" of Persian.<ref>Johanson, Lars, and Christiane Bulut. 2006. [http://www.turkiclanguages.com/www/Johanson2006Cont.pdf Turkic-Iranian contact areas: historical and linguistic aspects]. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.</ref> |
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====Classic Persian==== |
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{{See also|List of Persian poets and authors}} |
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[[File:Kalila wa Dimna 001.jpg|right|265px|thumb|[[Panchatantra |Kalilah wa Dimna]], an influencial work in Persian literature.]] |
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The [[Islamic conquest of Persia]] marks the beginning of the new history of Persian language and literature. This period produced world class Persian language poets and the language served, for a long span of time, as the [[lingua franca]] of the eastern parts of [[Islamic world]] and [[South Asia]]. It was also the official and cultural language of many Islamic dynasties, including [[Samanids]], [[Buyids]], [[Tahirids]], [[Ziyarids]], the [[Mughal Empire]], [[Timurids]], [[Ghaznavid]], [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuq]], [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarezmids]], [[Safavid]], [[Afsharids]], [[Zand dynasty|Zand]], [[Qajar]], [[Ottomans]] and also many Mughal successor states such as the [[Nizam]]s etc. For example, Persian was the only oriental language known and used by [[Marco Polo]] at the Court of [[Kublai Khan]] and in his journeys through China.<ref>John Andrew Boyle, ''Some thoughts on the sources for the Il-Khanid period of Persian history'', in [[Iran]]: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies, British Institute of Persian Studies, vol. 12 (1974), p. 175.</ref> The heavy influence of Persian on other languages can still be witnessed across the Islamic world, especially, and it is still appreciated as a literary and prestigious language among the educated elite, especially in fields of music (for example [[Qawwali]]) and art ([[Persian literature]]). After the Arab invasion of Persia, Persian began to adopt many words from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and as time went by, a few words were even taken from [[Turko-Mongol]] languages under the [[Mongol Empire]] and [[Turco-Persian]] society. |
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====Use in South Asia==== |
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{{See also|Persian and Urdu}} |
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For five centuries prior to the [[British Empire|British colonization]], Persian was widely used as a second language in [[South Asia]]. It took prominence as the language of culture and education in several Muslim courts in [[South Asia]] and became the sole "official language" under the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperors. Coinciding with the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] rule over Iran, when (royal) patronage of Persian poets was curtailed, the centre of Persian culture and literature moved to the Mughal Empire, which had huge financial resources to employ a veritable army of Persian courtly poets, lexicographers and other literati. Beginning in 1843, though, [[English language|English]] gradually replaced Persian in importance on the South Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Eternal Iran |year=2004 |last=Clawson |first=Patrick |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=6 |isbn=1403962766}}</ref> Evidence of Persian's historical influence there can be seen in the extent of its influence on the languages of the [[South Asia]], as well as the popularity that [[Persian literature]] still enjoys in that region. Persian exerted a strong influence on [[Urdu]], the national language of [[Pakistan]]. |
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====Contemporary Persian==== |
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[[Image:Persian keyboard layout, unshifted.gif|thumb|225px|right|A variant of the Iranian standard [http://www.farsiweb.ir/wiki/Free_Products#ISIRI_9147 ISIRI 9147] keyboard layout for Persian.]] |
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Since the nineteenth century, [[Russian language|Russian]], [[French language|French]] and [[English language|English]] and many other languages have contributed to the technical vocabulary of Persian. The Iranian National [[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]] is responsible for evaluating these new words in order to initiate and advise their Persian equivalents. The language itself has greatly developed during the centuries. |
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==Varieties== |
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{{Persian languages}} |
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There are three modern varieties of standard Persian: |
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*'''[[Western Persian]]''' ('''Persian''' or '''Farsi''') is spoken in [[Iran]], and by minorities in [[Iraq]] and the [[Persian Gulf]] states. |
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*'''[[Dari (Persian)|Eastern Persian]]''' ('''Dari Persian''' or '''Afghan Persian''') is spoken in [[Afghanistan]]. |
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*'''[[Tajik language|Tajiki]]''' ('''Tajik Persian''') is spoken in [[Tajikistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]]. It is written in the [[Cyrillic script]]. |
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The three varieties are based on linguistic classification. There are also several local dialects from Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan which slightly differ from the standard Persian. [[Hazaragi]] (in Central Afghanistan and Pakistan), [[Herat]]i (in Western Afghanistan), [[Darwazi]] (in Afghanistan and Tajikistan), [[Tehrani accent|Tehrani]] (in Iran) and [[Dehwari]] (in Pakistan) are examples of these dialects. Educated speakers of Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan can understand one another with a relatively high degree of mutual intelligibility, give or take minor differences in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar – much in the same relationship as shared between British and American English. |
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[[ISO 639-3]] lists ten dialects of Persian, the three main literary dialects listed above and seven regional dialects: [[Hazaragi]], [[Aimaq dialect|Aimaq]], [[Bukhori language|Bukharic]], [[Dzhidi]], Dehwari, [[Darwazi]], Pahlavani.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90035 |title=Language Family Trees – Persian |publisher=Ethnologue |date= |accessdate=2010-07-13}}</ref> |
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The following are some closely related languages to Persian: |
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*[[Luri language|Luri]] (or ''Lori''), spoken mainly in the southwestern Iranian provinces of [[Lorestan]], [[Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province]], some western parts of [[Fars Province]] and some parts of [[Khuzestan]]. |
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*[[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat]], spoken in parts of Azerbaijan, Russia, etc. It includes [[Judeo-Tat]] & Christian-Tat. |
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*[[Lari dialect|Lari]] (in southern Iran) |
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==Phonology== |
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{{Main|Persian phonology}} |
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Iranian Persian has six vowels and twenty-three consonants. |
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===Vowels=== |
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[[Image:Farsi vowel chart.svg|thumb|right|300px|The vowel phonemes of modern Tehran Persian]] |
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Historically, Persian has distinguished length: Early New Persian possessed a series of five long vowels ({{IPA|/iː/}}, {{IPA|/uː/}}, {{IPA|/ɒː/}}, {{IPA|/oː/}} and {{IPA|/eː/}}) along with three short vowels {{IPA|/æ/}}, {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}. At some point prior to the sixteenth century within the general area that is today encompassed by modern Iran, {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/iː/}} merged into {{IPA|/iː/}}, and {{IPA|/oː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}} merged into {{IPA|/uː/}}. Thus, the older contrasts between words like ''shēr'' "lion" and ''shīr'' "milk," were lost. There are exceptions to this rule and in some words, "ē" and "ō" are preserved or merged into the diphthongs {{IPA|[eɪ]}} and {{IPA|[oʊ]}} (which are descendents of the diphthongs {{IPA|[æɪ]}} and {{IPA|[æʊ]}} in Early New Persian), instead of merging into {{IPA|/iː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}}. Examples of this exception can be found in words such as {{IPA|[roʊʃæn]}} (bright). |
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However, in the eastern varieties, the archaic distinction of {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/iː/}} (respectively known as ''Yā-ye majhūl'' and ''Yā-ye ma'rūf'') is still preserved, as well as the distinction of {{IPA|/oː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}} (known as ''Wāw-e majhūl'' and ''Wāw-e ma'rūf''). On the other hand, in standard [[Tajik Persian|Tajik]], the length distinction has disappeared and {{IPA|/iː/}} merged with {{IPA|/i/}}, and {{IPA|/uː/}} with {{IPA|/u/}}.<ref>Perry, J. R. (2005) ''A Tajik Persian Reference Grammar'' (Boston : Brill) ISBN 90-04-14323-8</ref> Therefore, contemporary Afghan dialects are the closest one can get to the vowel inventory of Early New Persian. |
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According to most studies on the subject (e.g. Samareh 1977, Pisowicz 1985, Najafi 2001,) the three vowels which are traditionally considered long ({{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}, {{IPA|/ɒ/}}) are currently distinguished from their short counterparts ({{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/æ/}}) by position of articulation, rather than by length. However, there are studies (e.g. Hayes 1979, Windfuhr 1979) which consider vowel-length to be the active feature of this system, i.e. /ɒ/, /i/, and /u/ are phonologically long or bimoraic whereas /æ/, /e/, and /o/ are phonologically short or monomoraic. |
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There are also some studies which consider quality and quantity to be both active in the Iranian system (e.g. Toosarvandani 2004). This view offers a synthetic analysis which includes both quality and quantity, often suggesting that modern Persian vowels are in a transition state between the quantitative system of classical Persian and a hypothetical future Persian which will eliminate all traces of quantity, and retain quality as the only active feature. |
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Suffice it to say that the length-distinction is strictly observed by careful reciters of classic-style poetry, for all varieties (including the Tajik). |
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===Consonants=== |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|- |
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! |
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! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] |
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! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] |
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! [[Palatal consonant|Postalveolar]] |
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! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] |
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! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] |
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! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]] |
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! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |
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|- style="text-align:center;" |
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![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] |
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| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || || || {{IPA|(ŋ)}} || || |
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|- style="text-align:center;" |
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![[Plosive consonant|Plosive]] |
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| {{IPA|p b}} || {{IPA|t d}} || || || {{IPA|k ɡ}} || {{IPA|(q ɢ)}} || {{IPA|ʔ}} |
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|- style="text-align:center;" |
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![[Affricate consonant|Affricate]] |
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| || || {{IPA|tʃ dʒ}} || || || || |
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|- style="text-align:center;" |
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![[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] |
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| {{IPA|f v}} || {{IPA|s z}} || {{IPA|ʃ ʒ}} || || {{IPA|x ɣ}} || || {{IPA|h}} |
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|- style="text-align:center;" |
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![[Tap consonant|Tap]] |
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| || {{IPA|ɾ}} || || || || || |
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|- style="text-align:center;" |
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![[Trill consonant|Trill]] |
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| || {{IPA|(r)}} || || || || || |
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|- style="text-align:center;" |
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![[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] |
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| || {{IPA|l}} || || {{IPA|j}} || || || |
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|} |
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(Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a [[voiced]] consonant. [[Allophone]]s are in parentheses.) |
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==Grammar== |
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{{Main|Persian grammar}} |
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===Morphology=== |
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Suffixes predominate Persian [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], though there is a small number of prefixes.<ref name="megerdoomian2000">{{cite conference |first=Karine |last=Megerdoomian |title=Persian computational morphology: A unification-based approach | booktitle = Memoranda in Computer and Cognitive Science: MCCS-00-320 |pages=1 |year=2000 |url=http://www.zoorna.org/papers/MCCS320.pdf }}</ref> Verbs can express tense and [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], and they agree with the subject in person and number.<ref name="mahootian1997">{{Cite book|title=Persian |year=1997 |last=Mahootian |first=Shahrzad |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=0-415-02311-4 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=DHqUjnN2_YwC&pg=PR1&dq=Mahootian+Shahrzad+1997 }}</ref> There is no [[grammatical gender]] in Persian, nor are pronouns marked for [[Grammatical gender#Grammatical vs. natural gender|natural gender]]. |
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===Syntax=== |
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Normal declarative sentences are structured as "(S) (PP) (O) V". This means sentences can comprise optional [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]], [[prepositional phrase]]s, and [[Object (grammar)|objects]], followed by a required [[verb]]. If the object is specific, then the object is followed by the word ''rā'' and precedes prepositional phrases: "(S) (O + ''rā'') (PP) V".<ref name="mahootian1997"/> |
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==Vocabulary== |
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{{Main|Persian vocabulary}} |
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===Native word formation=== |
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Persian makes extensive use of word building and combining affixes, stems, nouns and adjectives. Persian frequently uses derivational [[agglutination]] to [[word formation|form new words]] from nouns, adjectives, and verbal stems. New words are extensively formed by [[Compound (linguistics)|compounding]] – two existing words combining into a new one, as is common in [[German language|German]]. Professor [[Mahmoud Hessaby]] demonstrated that Persian can derive 226 million words.<ref name="Hessaby">[http://web.archive.org/web/20071011181656/http://fareiran.com/no26/1.htm Fareiran.com / فرايران]</ref> |
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===Influences=== |
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{{See also|List of English words of Persian origin|List of French loanwords in Persian|Iranian languages#Comparison table of the Iranian languages}} |
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While having a lesser influence on [[Arabic language|Arabic]]<ref name="Nushin Namazi"/> and other languages of [[Mesopotamia]] and its core vocabulary being of [[Middle Persian]] origin,<ref name="Richard Davis 2006. pp. 602-603"/> New Persian contains a considerable amount of Arabic lexical items,<ref name="Lazard"/><ref name="Lazard, Gilbert 1971"/><ref name="Classe 2000 1057"/> which were Persianized<ref name=lambtonexcerpt/> and often took a different meaning and usage than the [[Arabic]] original. The Arabic vocabulary in other Iranic, Turkic and Indic languages are generally understood to be have been copied from New Persian.<ref>John R. Perry, "Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" in Éva Ágnes Csató, Eva Agnes Csato, Bo Isaksson, Carina Jahani, ''Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic'', Routledge, 2005. pg 97: "It is generally understood that the bulk of the Arabic vocabulary in the central, contingous{{sic|?}} Iranic, Turkic and Indic languages was originally borrowed into literary Persian between the ninth and thirteenth century"</ref> |
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John R. Perry in his article "Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" indicates his belief that the overall range of Arabic synonyms vocabulary used along or interchangeable with their equivalents Persian words varies from 2.4% frequency in the [[Shahnama]],<ref>John Perry, ''Encyclopedia Iranica'', "Arabic Words in ŠĀH-NĀMA "</ref> 14% in material culture,<ref name="Perry"/> 24% in intellectual life<ref name="Perry"/> to 40% of everyday literary activity.<ref name="Perry">John R. Perry, "Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" in Éva Ágnes Csató, Eva Agnes Csato, Bo Isaksson, Carina Jahani, ''Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic'',Routledge, 2005. excerpt:"A dictionary based sample yields an inventory of approximately 8000 Arabic loanwords in current standard Persian or about forty percent of an everyday literary vocabulary of 20,000 words, not counting compounds and deravitives." excerpt: "In a random experiment, the Arabic Vocabulary of material culture was 14% while that of intellectual life was 24% percent in Persian." excerpt:"Most of the Arabic loans in Persian are either synonyms of attested native terms (as Arabic Mariz; Persian Bimar 'sick') or could be (and often have been) glossed in Persian native morphs (as Arabic ta'lim va tarbiyat 'education' was later replaced by Amuzesh o Parvaresh). Arabic vocabulary in Persian is thus suppletive, rather than basic."</ref> Most of the Arabic words used in Persian are either synonyms of native terms<ref name="Perry"/> or could be (and often have been) glossed in Persian.<ref name="Perry"/> The Arabic vocabulary in Persian is thus suppletive,<ref name="Perry"/> rather than basic and has enriched New Persian. |
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The inclusion of Mongolian and Turkic elements in the Persian language should also be mentioned,<ref>e.g. The role of Azeri-Turkish in Iranian Persian, on which see John Perry, "The Historical Role of Turkish in Relation to Persian of Iran", ''Iran & the Caucasus'', Vol. 5 (2001), pp. 193–200.</ref> not only because of the political role a succession of Turkic dynasties played in Iranian history, but also because of the immense prestige Persian language and literature enjoyed in the wider (non-Arab) Islamic world, which was often ruled by sultans and emirs with a Turkic background. The Turkish and Mongolian vocabulary in Persian is minor in comparison and these words were mainly confined to military, pastoral terms and political sector (titles, administration, etc.) until new military and political titles were coined based partially on Middle Persian (e.g. Artesh for army instead of Qoshun) in the 20th century.<ref>Xavier Planhol, "Land of Iran", ''Encyclopedia Iranica''. "The Turks, on the other hand, posed a formidable threat: their penetration into Iranian lands was considerable, to such an extent that vast regions adapted their language. This process was all the more remarkable since, in spite of their almost uninterrupted political domination for nearly 1,000 years, the cultural influence of these rough nomads on Iran’s refined civilization remained extremely tenuous. This is demonstrated by the mediocre linguistic contribution, for which exhaustive statistical studies have been made (Doerfer). The number of Turkish or Mongol words that entered Persian, though not negligible, remained limited to 2,135, i.e., 3 percent of the vocabulary at the most. These new words are confined on the one hand to the military and political sector (titles, administration, etc.) and, on the other hand, to technical pastoral terms. The contrast with Arab influence is striking. While cultural pressure of the Arabs on Iran had been intense, they in no way infringed upon the entire Iranian territory, whereas with the Turks, whose contributions to Iranian civilization were modest, vast regions of Iranian lands were assimilated, notwithstanding the fact that resistance by the latter was ultimately victorious. Several reasons may be offered."</ref> |
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There are also [[loanword|adaptation]]s from [[French language|French]] (mainly in the late 19th century and early 20th century) and [[Russian language|Russian]] (mainly in the late 19th century and early 20th century). |
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Like most languages of the world, there is an increasing amount of [[English language|English]] vocabulary entering the Persian language. The Persian academy (Farhangestan) has coined Persian equivalents for some of these terms.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} There are more words adopted from French than from English because Persian speakers more easily pronounce French words.<ref>[[Hooman Majd|Majd, Hooman]]. "Persian Cats", ''The Ayatollah Begs to Differ''. 2008. [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]]. ISBN 978-0-385-52334-9. 33.</ref> |
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Persian has likewise influenced the vocabularies of other languages, especially other [[Indo-Iranian languages]] like Urdu and to a lesser extent Hindi, etc., as well as [[Turkic languages]] like [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]], [[Chagatai language]], [[Tatar language]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]],<ref>Andreas Tietze, Persian loanwords in Anatolian Turkish, Oriens, 20 (1967) pp- 125-168. [http://web.archive.org/web/20070911213846/http://www.azargoshnasp.net/languages/Persian/persianloanwordsistanbulturkish.pdf Archive.org]</ref> [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], [[Azeri language|Azeri]]<ref>L. Johanson, "Azerbaijan: Iranian Elements in Azeri Turkish" in [[Encyclopedia Iranica]] [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v3f2/v3f2a088.html Iranica.com]</ref> and [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]], Afro-Asiatic languages like [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic|Assyrian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Pasad |url=http://www.bashgah.net/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=23845 |title=Bashgah.net |publisher=Bashgah.net |date= |accessdate=2010-07-13}}</ref> and even [[Dravidian languages]] especially [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Brahui language|Brahui]]. Several languages of southwest Asia have also been influenced, including [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and [[Georgian language|Georgian]]. Persian has even influenced the [[Malay language|Malay]] spoken in Malaysia and [[Swahili language|Swahili]] in Africa. Many Persian words have also found their way into other [[Indo-European]] languages including the English language.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} Persian has also had a significant lexical influence, via Turkish, on [[Serbian language|Serbian]], especially as spoken in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. |
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Use of occasional foreign synonyms instead of Persian words can be a common practice in everyday communications as an alternative expression. In some instances in addition to the Persian vocabulary, the equivalent synonyms from multiple foreign languages can be used. For example, the phrase "thank you" can be expressed using the French word ''merci'' (stressed however on the first syllable), by the hybrid Persian-Arabic word ''moteshaker-am'', or by the pure Persian word ''sepasgozar-am''. |
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==Orthography== |
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[[Image:Nastaliq-proportions.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Example showing {{transl|Arab|Nastaʿlīq}}'s (Persian) proportion rules.{{ref label | Smith1989 | 1 | a}}]] |
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[[Image:Dehkhoda note.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda|Dehkhoda]]'s personal handwriting; a typical [[cursive]] [[Persian script]].]] |
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The vast majority of modern Iranian Persian and Dari text is written with the [[Arabic script]]. [[Tajik language|Tajik]], which is considered by some linguists to be a Persian dialect influenced by [[Russian language|Russian]] and the [[Turkic languages of Central Asia]],<ref name="perry2005">{{Cite book|title=A Tajik Persian Reference Grammar |year=2005 |last=Perry |first=John R. |publisher=Brill |location=Boston |isbn=90-04-14323-8 }}</ref><ref name="lazard1956">{{Cite journal|title=Charactères distinctifs de la langue Tadjik |year=1956 |last=Lazard |first=Gilbert |journal=Bulletin de la Société Linguistique de Paris |volume=52 |pages=117–186|ref=harv}}</ref> is written with the [[Cyrillic script]] in [[Tajikistan]] (see [[Tajik alphabet]]). |
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===Persian alphabet=== |
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{{Main|Persian alphabet}} |
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Modern Iranian Persian and Afghan Persian are written using a modified variant of the [[Arabic alphabet]] (see [[Persian alphabet]]), which uses different pronunciation and additional letters not found in Arabic. Tajik Persian, as used in Tajikistan, is typically written in a modified version of the [[Cyrillic alphabet]]. |
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There are also Persian Romanizations like [[Desphilic]], [[Unipers]] and [[fingilish|Fingilish/Pinglish]] for writing Persian using Latin alphabet. |
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After the conversion of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] to [[Islam]] (see [[Islamic conquest of Iran]]), it took approximately 150 years before Persians adopted the Arabic script in place of the older alphabet. Previously, two different scripts were used, [[Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi]], used for Middle Persian, and the [[Avestan alphabet]] (in Persian, Dîndapirak or Din Dabire—literally: religion script), used for religious purposes, primarily for the [[Avestan language]] but sometimes for Middle Persian. |
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In modern Persian script, vowels that are referred to as short vowels (a, e, o) are usually not written; only the long vowels (â, i, u) are represented in the text, so words distinguished from each other only by short vowels are ambiguous in writing: ''kerm'' "worm", ''karam'' "generosity", ''kerem'' "cream", and ''krom'' "chrome" are all spelled "krm" in Persian. The reader must determine the word from context. The Arabic system of vocalization marks known as ''[[harakat]]'' is also used in Persian, although some of the symbols have different pronunciations. For example, an Arabic ''[[damma]]'' is pronounced {{IPA|[ʊ~u]}}, while in Iranian Persian it is pronounced {{IPA|[o]}}. This system is not used in mainstream Persian literature; it is primarily used for teaching and in some (but not all) dictionaries. |
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It is also worth noting that there are several letters generally only used in Arabic loanwords. These letters are pronounced the same as similar Persian letters. For example, there are four functionally identical 'z' letters ('''ز ذ ض ظ'''), three 's' letters ('''س ص ث'''), two 't' letters ('''ط ت'''), etc. |
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====Additions==== |
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The [[Persian alphabet]] adds four letters to the Arabic alphabet: |
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{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto; text-align:center;" |
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|- |
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| '''Sound''' |
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| '''Isolated form''' |
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| '''Name''' |
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|- |
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| [p] |
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|style="font-size: larger"| پ |
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| ''pe'' |
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|- |
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| {{IPA|[tʃ]}} (ch) |
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|style="font-size: larger"| چ |
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| ''če'' |
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|- |
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| {{IPA|[ʒ]}} (zh) |
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|style="font-size: larger"| ژ |
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| ''že'' |
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|- |
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| [ɡ] |
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|style="font-size: larger"| گ |
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| ''gāf'' |
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|} |
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(The ''že'' is pronounced with the same sound as the "s" in "mea'''s'''ure" and "fu'''s'''ion", or the "z" in "a'''z'''ure".) |
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====Variations==== |
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The Persian alphabet also modifies some letters from the Arabic alphabet. For example, ''alef with hamza below'' ( إ ) changes to ''[[aleph|alef]]'' ( ا ); words using various [[hamza]]s get spelled with yet another kind of hamza (so that مسؤول becomes مسئول); and ''[[ta' marbuta|teh marbuta]]'' ( ة ) changes to ''[[he (letter)|heh]]'' ( ه ) or ''[[taw (letter)|teh]]'' ( ت ). |
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The letters different in shape are: |
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{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto; text-align:center;" |
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|- |
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| '''Sound''' |
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| '''original Arabic letter''' |
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| '''modified Persian letter''' |
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| '''name''' |
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|- |
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| [k] |
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|style="font-size: larger"| ك |
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|style="font-size: larger"| ک |
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| ''kāf'' |
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|- |
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|vowel {{IPA|[i]}} consonant {{IPA|[j]}} |
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|style="font-size: larger"| ي |
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|style="font-size: larger"| ى |
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| ''ye'' |
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|} |
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Writing the letters in their original Arabic form is not typically considered to be incorrect,{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} but is not normally done. |
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===Latin alphabet=== |
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{{Main|Romanization of Persian}} |
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The [[International Organization for Standardization]] has published a standard for simplified [[transliteration]] of Persian into Latin, ISO 233-3, titled "Information and documentation – Transliteration of Arabic characters into Latin characters – Part 3: Persian language – Simplified transliteration"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=2398 |title=ISO 233-3:1999 |publisher=Iso.org |date=2010-05-14 |accessdate=2010-07-13}}</ref> but the transliteration scheme is not in widespread use. |
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Another Latin alphabet, based on the [[Uniform Turkic alphabet]], was used in [[Tajikistan]] in the 1920s and 1930s. The alphabet was phased out in favour of [[Tajik Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] in the late 1930s.<ref name="perry2005"/> |
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[[Fingilish]] is the name given to texts written in Persian using [[ISO basic Latin alphabet]]. It is most commonly used in [[online chat|chat]], [[email]]s and [[Short Message Service|SMS]] applications. The orthography is not standardized, and varies among writers and even media (for example, typing 'aa' for the {{IPA|[ɒ]}} phoneme is easier on computer keyboards than on cellphone keyboards, resulting in smaller usage of the combination on cellphones). |
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[[UniPers]], short for the ''Universal Persian Alphabet'' (Fârsiye Jahâni) is a Latin-based alphabet popularized by Mohamed Keyvan, who used it in a number of Persian textbooks for foreigners and travellers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unipers.com/ |title=UniPers.com |publisher=UniPers.com |date= |accessdate=2010-07-13}}</ref> |
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The International Persian Alphabet (''Pársik'') is another Latin-based alphabet developed in recent years mainly by A. Moslehi, a comparative linguist.<ref>[http://www.persiandirect.com/projects/ipa2/ipa2_tutor.htm ''Pársik'' tutor], persiandirect.com</ref> |
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Persá is yet another Latin-based alphabet that has been recently{{when|date=February 2011}} developed using new characters to represent sounds unique to the Persian language. |
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Desphilic is also a romanization which uses ordinary Latin character set for romanization of Persian. |
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===Tajik alphabet=== |
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[[Image:Akademijai ilmxhoi jumxhurii tojikiston.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tajik language|Tajik]] advertisement for an academy.]] |
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{{Main|Tajik alphabet}} |
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The [[Cyrillic alphabet]] was introduced for writing the [[Tajik language]] under the [[Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic]] in the late 1930s, replacing the [[Tajik alphabet#Latin|Latin alphabet]] that had been used since the [[Bolshevik revolution]] and the Persian script that had been used earlier. After 1939, materials published in Persian in the Persian script were banned from the country.<ref name="perry2005"/><ref>[http://www.smallwars.quantico.usmc.mil/search/LessonsLearned/afghanistan/groundcombat.asp Smallwars.quantico.usmc.mil]</ref> |
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==Examples== |
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Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]. Please note that the Tajik text is different from that of the Iranian Persian: |
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{| |
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|- |
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!Iranian Persian (Farsi) !! [[Universal Persian Alphabet|UniPers]] !! [[IPA]] !! Tajik Persian (Tajiki) !! [[Interlinear gloss|English Gloss]] |
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|- |
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|dir="rtl"|همهٔ افراد بشر آزاد به دنیا میآیند و حیثیت و حقوقشان با هم برابر است، همهٔشان اندیشه و وجدان دارند و باید در برابر یکدیگر با روح برادری رفتار کنند. |
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|Hameye afrâde bašar âzâd be donyâ miâyando heysiyato hoquqešan bâ ham barâbar ast, hame andiševo vejdân dârando bâyad dar barâbare yekdigar bâ ruhe barâdari raftâr konand. |
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|{{IPA|[hæmeje æfrɒd bæʃær ɒzɒd be donjɒ miɒjænd o hejsijæt o hoɢuɢ ʃɒn bɒ hæm bærɒbær æst hæme ʃɒn ændiʃe o vedʒdɒn dɒrænd o bɒjæd dær bærɒbære jekdiɡær bɒ ruhe bærɒdæri ræftɒr konænd]}} |
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|Тамоми одамон озод ба дунё меоянд ва аз лиҳози манзилату ҳуқуқ бо ҳам баробаранд. Ҳама соҳиби ақлу виҷдонанд, бояд нисбат ба якдигар бародарвор муносабат намоянд. |
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|All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. |
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|} |
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==See also== |
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* [[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]] |
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* [[Dari (Persian)]] |
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* [[List of English words of Persian origin]] |
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* [[List of French loanwords in Persian]] |
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* [[List of Persian poets and authors]] |
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* [[Persian alphabet]] |
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* [[Persian grammar]] |
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* [[Persian literature]] |
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* [[Persian mythology]] |
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* [[Persian name]] |
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* [[Persian phonology]] |
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* [[Persianate]] |
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* [[Romanization of Persian|Persian Romanization schemes]] |
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* [[Persid|Southwestern Iranian dialects]] |
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* [[Tajik language]] |
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* [[Gender-neutrality in genderless languages]] |
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==Notes== |
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{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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==Further reading== |
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English |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7hZHFh_nVEMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A vocabulary, Persian, Arabic, and English: abridged from the quarto edition of Richardson's dictionary|author=John Richardson|editor=Sir Charles Wilkins, David Hopkins|year=1810|publisher=Printed for F. and C. Rivingson|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=643|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ru1ncSqiRXkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language|author=Muḥammad Ibrâhîm|editor=|year=1841|publisher=|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Nz9bAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A concise dictionary, English-Persian; together with a simplified grammar of the Persian language. Completed and ed. by G. Le Strange|author=Edward Henry Palmer|editor=Guy Le Strange|year=1883|publisher=|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hKUfAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A concise dictionary, English-Persian: together with a simplified grammar of the Persian language|author=Edward Henry Palmer|editor=Guy Le Strange|year=1883|publisher=Trübner|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=42|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=eBgYAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=An English-Persian dictionary|author=Arthur Naylor Wollaston|editor=|year=1882|publisher=W.H. Allen|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=462|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=F6UCAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=An English-Persian dictionary|author=Arthur Naylor Wollaston (sir.)|editor=|year=1882|publisher=W.H. Allen|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=F11AAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A pocket dictionary of English and Persian|author=William Thornhill Tucker|editor=|year=1850|publisher=J. Madden|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=145|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=wT5bAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A pocket dictionary of English and Persian|author=William Thornhill Tucker|editor=|year=1801|publisher=|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3ppxqpkEHVoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A pocket dictionary of English and Persian|author=William Thornhill Tucker|editor=|year=1850|publisher=J. Madden|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=145|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pxKkZZgJxcwC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language ...|author=John Thompson Platts|editor=|year=1894|publisher=Williams and Norgate|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Exb_NBfBuZkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Modern Persian colloquial grammar: containing a short grammar, dialogues and extracts from Nasir-Eddin shah's diaries, tales, etc., and a vocabulary|author=Friedrich Rosen, Nāṣir al-Dīn Shāh (Shah of Iran)|editor=|year=1898|publisher=Luzac & C.̊|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=400|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O3lHAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The Persian interpreter: in three parts: A grammar of the Persian language. Persian extracts, in prose and verse. A vocabulary: Persian and English|author=Edward Moises|editor=|year=1792|publisher=Printed by L. Hodgson|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=143|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MsAUAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A concise grammar of the Persian language|author=Arthur Henry Bleeck|editor=|year=1857|publisher=|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CiBgAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A concise grammar of the Persian language: containing dialogues, reading lessons, and a vocabulary: together with a new plan for facilitating the study of languages|author=Arthur Henry Bleeck|editor=|year=1857|publisher=B. Quaritch|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=206|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vroOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A concise grammar of the Persian language|author=Arthur Henry Bleeck|editor=|year=1857|publisher=|edition=Oxford University|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bFcOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language: To which is added, a selection of easy extracts for reading, together with a copious vocabulary|author=Duncan Forbes|editor=|year=1844|publisher=Printed for the author, sold by Allen & co.|edition=2|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=158|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DwQtAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language: To which is added, a selection of easy extracts for reading, together with a copious vocabulary|author=Duncan Forbes|editor=|year=1844|publisher=Printed for the author, sold by Allen & co.|edition=2|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=114|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DoRQAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language: to which is added, a selection of easy extracts for reading, together with a vocabulary, and translations|author=Duncan Forbes|editor=|year=1876|publisher=W.H. Allen|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=238|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BDoMAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language: to which is added, a selection of easy extracts for reading, together with a vocabulary, and translations|author=Duncan Forbes|editor=|year=1869|publisher=W.H. Allen & co.|edition=4|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=238|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=a7dIAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language; comprising a portion of the elements of Arabic inflexion etc|author=Matthew Lumsden|editor=|year=1810|publisher=Watley|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=g5ZHAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language: comprising a portion of the elements of Arabic inflexion, Volume 1|author=Matthew Lumsden|editor=|year=1810|publisher=Printed by T. Watley|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=I0MOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The student's Persian and English dictionary, pronouncing, etymological, & explanatory|author=Sorabshaw Byramji Doctor|editor=|year=1880|publisher=Irish Presbyterian Mission Press|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=558|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xUUOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Second book of Persian, to which are added the Pandnámah of Shaikh Saádi and the Gulistán, chapter 1, together with vocabulary and short notes|author=Sorabshaw Byramji Doctor, Saʻdī|editor=|year=1880|publisher=Irish Presbyterian Mission Press|edition=2|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=120|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NEMOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The Persian primer, being an elementary treatise on grammar, with exercises|author=Sorabshaw Byramji Doctor|editor=|year=1879|publisher=Irish Presbyterian Mission Press|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=94|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NEMOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The Persian primer, being an elementary treatise on grammar, with exercises|author=Sorabshaw Byramji Doctor|editor=|year=1879|publisher=Irish Presbyterian Mission Press|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=94|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=M0MOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A new grammar of the Persian tongue for the use of schools and colleges|author=Sorabshaw Byramji Doctor|editor=|year=1875|publisher=Irish Presbyterian Mission Press|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=84|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9I4PAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A primer of Persian: containing selections for reading and composition with the elements of syntax|author=George Speirs Alexander Ranking|editor=|year=1907|publisher=The Claredon Press|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=72|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Fz9bAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A primer of Persian: containing selections for reading and composition with the elements of syntax|author=George Speirs Alexander Ranking|editor=|year=1907|publisher=The Claredon Press|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=72|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=p4dBAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language|author=Sir William Jones, Samuel Lee|editor=|year=1823|publisher=Printed by W. Nicol, for Parbury, Allen, and co.|edition=8|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=230|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=p1fRAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language|author=Sir William Jones, Samuel Lee|editor=|year=1823|publisher=Printed by W. Nicol, for Parbury, Allen, and co.|edition=8|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=230|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gqIIAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language|author=Sir William Jones|editor=Samuel Lee|year=1828|publisher=Printed by W. Nicol, for Parbury, Allen, and Co.|edition=9|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=283|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YkBbAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language|author=Sir William Jones|editor=|year=1783|publisher=|edition=3|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IEhFAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language|author=Sir William Jones|editor=|year=1801|publisher=Murray and Highley, J. Sewell|edition=5|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=194|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3T9bAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A grammar of the Persian language|author=Sir William Jones|editor=|year=1797|publisher=|edition=4|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3T1bAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A dictionary in Persian and English, with pronunciation (ed. by M.C. Sen).|author=Ramdhun Sen|editor=Madhub Chunder Sen|year=1841|publisher=|edition=2|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RJAvAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A dictionary in Persian and English|author=Ramdhun Sen|editor=|year=1829|publisher=Printed for the author at the Baptist Mission Press|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=226|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sk4OAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A dictionary in English and Persian|author=Ramdhun Sen|editor=|year=1833|publisher=Printed at the Baptist Mission Press|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=276|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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* {{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6j1bAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A dictionary in English and Persian|author=Ramdhun Sen|editor=|year=1833|publisher=|edition=|location=|page=|isbn=|pages=|volume=|accessdate=2011-07-06}} |
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#{{Cite book |
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| edition = 3rd Rev |
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| publisher = Ibex Publishers |
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| isbn = 0936347295 |
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| last = Thackston |
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| first = W. M. |
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| title = An Introduction to Persian |
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| date = 1993-05-01 |
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}} |
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#{{Cite book |
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| publisher = Teach Yourself |
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| isbn = 0844238155 |
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| last = Mace |
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| first = John |
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| title = Modern Persian (Teach Yourself) |
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| date = 1993-03 |
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}} |
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#{{Cite book |
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| edition = illustrated |
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| publisher = RoutledgeCurzon |
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| isbn = 0700716955 |
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| last = Mace |
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| first = John |
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| title = Persian Grammar: For Reference and Revision |
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| date = 2002-10-18 |
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}} |
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#{{Cite book |
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| publisher = L. Reichert |
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| isbn = 3882264136 |
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| title = Compendium linguarum Iranicarum |
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| year = 1989 |
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| first = Rüdiger |
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| last = Schmitt |
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}} |
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#{{Cite book |
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| edition = 2 |
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| publisher = Routledge |
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| isbn = 0415353394 |
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| editors = Bernard Comrie (ed.) |
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| last = Windfuhr |
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| first = Gernot L. |
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| title = The World's Major Languages |
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| chapter = Persian |
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| date = 2009-01-15 |
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}} |
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# {{Cite encyclopedia |
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|title=Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts |
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|first=Prods Oktor |
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|last=Skjærvø |
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|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica |
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|year=2006 |
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|volume=13 |
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|ref=Skjaervo2006 |
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}} |
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#{{Cite book |
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|last = Asatrian |
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|first = Garnik |
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|title = Etymological Dictionary of Persian |
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|publisher = [[Brill Publishers|Brill Academic Publishers]] |
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|series = [[Indo-European Etymological Dictionary|Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, 12]] |
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|year = Expected November 2010 |
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|isbn = 978-90-04-15496-4 |
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|url= http://www.brill.nl/default.aspx?partid=227&pid=23589}} |
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Other Languages |
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#{{Cite book |
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|last = Lazard |
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|first = Gilbert |
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|title = Grammaire du persan contemporain |
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|publisher = Institut Français de Recherche en Iran |
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|year = January 2006 |
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|isbn = 978-2909961378 |
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|url= http://www.peeters-leuven.be/boekoverz.asp?nr=8392}} |
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#{{Cite book |
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|last = Dahlén |
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|first = Ashk |
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|title = Modern persisk grammatik |
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|publisher = Ferdosi International Publication |
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|year = October 2010 |
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|isbn = 9789197724180 |
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|url= http://www.ashkdahlen.com/index.php?id=152}} |
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==External links== |
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{{InterWiki|code=fa}} |
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*[http://wikitravel.org/en/Farsi Farsi Phrasebook at Wikitravel] |
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*[http://www.wiki-babel.org/en/Portal:Persian Persian audio lessons at WikiBabel] |
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*Hayyim, Sulayman. [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/hayyim/ New Persian–English dictionary]. Teheran: Librairie-imprimerie Beroukhim, 1934–1936. uchicago.edu |
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*[[Steingass, Francis Joseph]]. [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/steingass/ A Comprehensive Persian–English dictionary]. London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1892. uchicago.edu |
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*[http://laits.utexas.edu/sites/persian_online_resources/ Persian language department at University of Texas at Austin], utexas.edu |
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*[http://www.choone.com/perkey.html Virtual Persian Keyboard], choone.com |
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*[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/ UCLA Language Materials Project: ] [http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=63&menu=004 Persian], ucla.edu |
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*[http://www.parstimes.com/language/ Persian Language Resources], parstimes.com |
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*[http://persian-farsi.ucoz.ru Persian-Farsi – site for studying persian], Persian-farsi.ucoz.ru {{ru icon}} |
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*[http://ili.ir Iran language Institute], ili.ir |
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*[http://www.fazel.de/dastur/EN/index.html Navid Fazel, Descriptive Grammar of New Persian], fazel.de |
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*[http://www.GlobalDic.com GlobalDic.Com the only dynamic Persian to English and German Dictionary] |
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*[http://persian.free-dict.de German Persian Dictionary with 120,000 entries], Persian.free-dict.de |
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*[http://www.jahanshiri.ir/pvc/pvc.php A Persian Verb calculator], jahanshiri.ir |
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*[http://sartre2.byu.edu/persian/pvc/pvc.php Persian Verb Conjugator], sartre2.byu.edu |
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{{Iranian languages}} |
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{{Indo-Iranian languages}} |
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[[Category:Iranian culture]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Iran]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Central Asia]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Pakistan]] |
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[[Category:Languages of India]] |
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[[Category:Languages of Iraq]] |
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[[Category:Persian language| ]] |
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[[Category:Iranian languages]] |
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[[Category:Southwestern Iranian languages]] |
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[[Category:SOV languages]] |
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[[af:Persies]] |
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[[ar:لغة فارسية]] |
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[[an:Idioma persa]] |
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[[arc:ܠܫܢܐ ܦܪܣܝܐ]] |
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[[az:Fars dili]] |
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[[bn:ফার্সি ভাষা]] |
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[[zh-min-nan:Pho-su-gí]] |
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[[be:Персідская мова]] |
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[[be-x-old:Пэрсыдзкая мова]] |
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[[bo:ཏ་ཟིག་གི་སྐད།]] |
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[[bs:Perzijski jezik]] |
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[[br:Perseg]] |
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[[bg:Персийски език]] |
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[[ca:Persa]] |
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[[cv:Перс чĕлхи]] |
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[[ceb:Pinulongang Persiyano]] |
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[[cs:Perština]] |
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[[cy:Perseg]] |
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[[da:Persisk (sprog)]] |
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[[de:Persische Sprache]] |
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[[dv:ފާރިސީ]] |
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[[et:Pärsia keel]] |
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[[el:Περσική γλώσσα]] |
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[[es:Idioma persa]] |
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[[eo:Persa lingvo]] |
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[[eu:Persiera]] |
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[[fa:زبان فارسی]] |
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[[hif:Farsi bhasa]] |
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[[fr:Persan]] |
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[[fy:Perzysk]] |
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[[ga:An Pheirsis]] |
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[[gl:Lingua iraniana]] |
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[[gu:ફારસી]] |
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[[ko:페르시아어]] |
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[[hy:Պարսկերեն]] |
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[[hi:फ़ारसी भाषा]] |
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[[hsb:Persišćina]] |
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[[hr:Perzijski jezik]] |
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[[id:Bahasa Persia]] |
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[[os:Персайнаг æвзаг]] |
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[[is:Persneska]] |
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[[it:Lingua persiana]] |
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[[he:פרסית]] |
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[[jv:Basa Parsi]] |
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[[ka:სპარსული ენა]] |
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[[kk:Парсы тілі]] |
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[[kw:Persek]] |
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[[sw:Kiajemi]] |
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[[ku:Zimanê farisî]] |
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[[la:Lingua Persica moderna]] |
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[[lv:Persiešu valoda]] |
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[[lt:Persų kalba]] |
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[[lij:Lengua farsi]] |
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[[li:Perzisch]] |
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[[hu:Perzsa nyelv]] |
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[[mk:Персиски јазик]] |
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[[mg:Fiteny persana]] |
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[[ml:പേർഷ്യൻ ഭാഷ]] |
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[[mr:फारसी भाषा]] |
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[[arz:فارسى]] |
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[[tpi:Tok Pesia]] |
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[[pl:Język perski]] |
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[[pt:Língua persa]] |
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[[kbd:Парсыбзэ]] |
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[[ro:Limba persană]] |
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[[qu:Pharsi simi]] |
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[[rue:Перьскый язык]] |
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[[ru:Персидский язык]] |
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[[sco:Persie leid]] |
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[[sq:Gjuha perse]] |
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[[simple:Persian language]] |
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[[sk:Perzské jazyky]] |
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[[sl:Perzijščina]] |
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[[ckb:زمانی فارسی]] |
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[[sr:Персијски језик]] |
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[[sh:Perzijski jezik]] |
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[[fi:Persian kieli]] |
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[[sv:Persiska]] |
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[[tl:Wikang Persiyano]] |
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[[ta:பாரசீக மொழி]] |
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[[roa-tara:Lènga persiane]] |
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[[tt:Фарсы теле]] |
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[[te:పర్షియన్ భాష]] |
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[[th:ภาษาเปอร์เซีย]] |
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[[tg:Забони Форсӣ]] |
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[[tr:Farsça]] |
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[[uk:Перська мова]] |
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[[ur:فارسی زبان]] |
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[[ug:پارس تىلى]] |
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[[vi:Tiếng Ba Tư]] |
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[[war:Pinersyano]] |
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[[yi:פערסיש]] |
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[[yo:Èdè Pẹ́rsíà]] |
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[[diq:Farski]] |
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[[bat-smg:Persu kalba]] |
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[[zh:波斯语]] |
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Revision as of 17:28, 5 October 2011
Dewari is one of prominent Baloch tribes mainly dwelling in Iran, Oman, And Afghanistan. It is one of the most powerful Baloch tribes in Sistan, Zahedan and Afghan Balochistan. . After many battles with other tribes they migrated to other parts of Balochistan, but first Sardar Dehwari grave is in Zehdan. For a long time the Dehwari chieftain was settled in the Afghan part of Balochistan but recently, owing to the spread of the Dehwari population, and also owing to borders which have separated the Baloch people into three neighboring countries (Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan), three tribal chieftains have emerged. Two of them belong to Irani Balochistan, and one in Eastern Balochistan, In Pakistan Dehwaris are called Dehwars ,