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Prison farm

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Mississippi State Penitentiary, an American prison farm in Sunflower County, Mississippi
Louisiana State Penitentiary, an American prison farm in West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana

A prison farm (also known as a penal farm) is a large correctional facility where penal labor convicts work — legally or illegally — on a farm (in the wide sense of a productive unit), usually for manual labor, largely in the open air, such as in agriculture, logging, quarrying, and mining. In the United States, such forced labor is made legal by the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution; however, some other parts of the world have made penal labor illegal. The concepts of prison farm and labor camp overlap, with the idea that the prisoners are forced to work. The historical equivalent on a very large scale was called a penal colony.

The agricultural goods produced by prison farms are generally used primarily to feed the prisoners themselves and other wards of the state (residents of orphanages, asylums, etc.), and secondarily, to be sold for whatever profit the state may be able to obtain.[1]

In addition to being forced to labor directly for the government on a prison farm or in a penal colony, inmates may be forced to do farm work for private enterprises by being farmed out through the practice of convict leasing to work on private agricultural lands or related industries (fishing, lumbering, etc.). The party purchasing their labor from the government generally does so at a steep discount from the cost of free labor.[2]

This is the 13th Amendment that Abraham Lincoln signed.

Louisiana State Penitentiary is the largest prison farm covering 18,000 acres (7,300 hectares); it is bordered on three sides by the Mississippi River.[3]

Canada had six federal prison farms, which were closed in 2010. Beginning in 2019, two of the farms have been gradually reopened.[4]

Convict leasing

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Further information: Convict leasing

Convict leasing was a system of penal labor that was primarily practiced in the Southern United States, widely involved the use of African-American men, and was prominently used after the American Civil War. In this system, southern states leased prisoners to large plantations and private mines or railways. This system led to the states earning a profit, while the prisoners earned no pay and faced dangerous working conditions.[5]

The 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibited the use of slavery and involuntary servitude but explicitly exempts those who have been convicted of a crime. In response to this, the southern state legislatures implemented "Black Codes", which were laws that explicitly applied to African-Americans and subjected them to criminal prosecution for minor offenses like breaking curfew, loitering, and not carrying proof of employment. These new laws led to more prisoners for the penal system that could all be leased by the state so that it can use their labor for profit. Widespread convict leasing ended by World War II, but the loopholes in the 13th Amendment still permit the use of prisoners to work without pay.[5]

Other work programs

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Convicts may also be leased for non-agricultural work, either directly to state entities, or to private industry. For example, prisoners may make license plates under contract to the state department of motor vehicles, work in textile or other state-run factories, or may perform data processing for outside firms. Other types of work include food service or groundskeeping.[6] These laborers are typically considered to be a part of prison industries and not prison farms.

In the United States (partial list)

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State Facility Type of work
Alabama Draper Correctional Facility Farming [7]
Alabama G.K. Fountain Correctional Facility Cattle and Agricultural Operations, and Vegetable Gardens [8]
Alabama Limestone Correctional Facility Cattle and Farming [9]
Alaska Point MacKenzie Correctional Farm Hogs, Cattle, Turkeys, and Chickens, Produce Operations, and Hydroponics Program [10]
Arkansas Cummins Unit Horse and Agricultural Operations [11]
Arkansas East Arkansas Regional Unit Farming [12]
Arkansas Grimes Unit Agricultural Gardening Program [13]
Arkansas North Central Unit Garden and Forage Production [14]
Arkansas Ouachita River Unit Livestock and Forage Production, Gravel Harvesting [15]
Arkansas Pine Bluff Unit Horse operation [16]
Arkansas Tucker Unit Agricultural Operations [17]
Arkansas Wrightsville Unit Horse Operations, Agricultural Operations [18]
California California State Prison, Corcoran Dairy/Milk Processing [19]
California Central California Women's Facility Farming [20]
California Valley State Prison Farming [21]
California Wasco State Prison Farming [22]
Colorado Buena Vista Correctional Complex Fish Hatchery [23]
Colorado Four Mile Correctional Center Dairy, Wild Horse Inmate Program [24]
Colorado Rifle Correctional Center Timber [25]
Colorado Skyline Correctional Center Fish Hatchery, Farming, Vineyard, Goat and Water Buffalo Dairy, Mountain Sheep [26]
Florida Apalachee Correctional Institution, West Unit / P.R.I.D.E. Beef Cattle, Lumber, Agricultural [27]
Florida Charlotte Correctional Institution / P.R.I.D.E. Citrus [28]
Florida Union Correctional Institution / P.R.I.D.E. Beef Cattle, Lumber [29]
Georgia Arrendale State Prison Cattle and Swine, Hay Farming [30]
Georgia Dooly State Prison Farm Services [31]
Georgia Montgomery State Prison Poultry and Egg Production [32]
Georgia Rogers State Prison Dairy, Beef Cattle, Swine, Farming [33]
Georgia Washington State Prison Farming [34]
Hawaii Halawa Correctional Facility / Hawaii Correctional Industries Farming [35]
Hawaii Waiawa Correctional Facility Farming [36]
Louisiana Louisiana State Penitentiary (Angola) Farming
Mississippi Mississippi State Penitentiary(Parchman) / Mississippi Prison Agricultural Enterprises Farming[37][38]
Mississippi South Mississippi Correctional Institution / Mississippi Prison Agricultural Enterprises Farming[39][38]
North Carolina Roanoke River Correctional Institution (formerly Caledonia Correctional Institution/Caledonia State Prison Farm) Farming and Cannery [40][41]
North Carolina Dan River Prison Work Farm Farming [42]
North Carolina Tyrrell Prison Work Farm Farming [43]
Texas George Beto Unit (Beto Unit) Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Poultry Laying Operations, Pork Processing, and Swine Farrowing etc.[44]
Texas Dolph Briscoe Unit Farming [45]
Texas James "Jay" H. Byrd Unit (Byrd Unit) Hay Production [46]
Texas Clemens Unit Beef Cattle, Farming, Swine Finishing [47]
Texas William P. Clements Unit (Clements Unit) Beef Processing [48]
Texas H. H. Coffield Unit (Coffield Unit) Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Poultry Laying Operations, Pork Processing, Swine Farrowing etc.[49]
Texas Christina Melton Crain Unit (Crain Unit) Farming, Swine Finishing[50]
Texas Price Daniel Unit Farming [51]
Texas Memorial Unit (formerly Darrington Unit) Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Egg Operations, and Swine Finishing Operations [52]
Texas J. Dale Wainwright Unit (formerly Eastham Unit) Cow/Calf Operations, Egg Operations, Farming, and Swine Operations [53]
Texas O.B. Ellis Unit (Ellis Unit) Cotton Gin, Cow/Calf Operations, Farming, and Swine Operations [54]
Texas W. J. "Jim" Estelle Unit (Estelle Unit) Cotton Gin, Cow/Calf Operations, Farming, and Swine Operations [55]
Texas Jim Ferguson Unit (Ferguson Unit) Farming, Bull Management, and Swine Operations [56]
Texas Glen Ray Goodman Transfer Facility Hay Production [57]
Texas Thomas Goree Unit (Goree Unit) Horse Breeding [58]
Texas Joe F. Gurney Transfer Facility (Gurney Unit) Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Poultry Laying Operations, Pork Processing, and Swine Farrowing etc.[59]
Texas Hilltop Unit Farming, Swine Finishing [60]
Texas William P. Hobby Unit (Hobby Unit) Farming and Peach Orchard [61]
Texas Reverend C.A. Holliday Transfer Facility (Holliday Unit) Farming, Egg Operations, Swine Operations, Horse Breeding Operations, and Veterinary Services [62]
Texas Alfred D. Hughes Unit (Hughes Unit) Farming, Swine Finishing [63]
Texas Beauford H. Jester I Unit (Jester I Unit) Swine Finishing, Mechanical Shop, and Combine Shed [64]
Texas Beauford H. Jester III Unit (Jester III Unit) Swine Finishing, Mechanical Shop, and Combine Shed [65]
Texas Clyde M. Johnston Unit Hay Production [66]
Texas O.L. Luther Unit Cow/Calf Operations, Farming, Swine Operations, and Buffalo Ranch [67]
Texas Mark W. Michael Unit (Michael Unit) Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Poultry Laying Operations, Pork Processing, and Swine Farrowing etc.[68]
Texas Mountain View Unit Farming, Swine Finishing [69]
Texas Dr. Lane Murray Unit (Murray Unit) Farming, Swine Finishing [70]
Texas Nathaniel J. Neal Unit Beef Processing [71]
Texas Wallace Pack Unit (Pack Unit) Cow/Calf Operations, Farming, Swine Operations, and Buffalo Ranch [72]
Texas Allan B. Polunsky Unit (Polunsky unit) Tree Farm [73]
Texas Louis C. Powledge Unit (Powledge Unit) Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Poultry Laying Operations, Pork Processing, and Swine Farrowing etc.[74]
Texas W. F. Ramsey Unit (Ramsey Unit) Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Cotton Gin, Farm Shop, Vegetable Cannery, Grain Storage, Swine Operations, and Alfalfa Dehydrator [75]
Texas Retrieve (later Wayne Scott) Unit (Scott Unit) Cow/Calf Operations, Egg Operations, Swine Operations, Farming, Farm Shop, and Grain Storage [76]
Texas A.M. "Mac" Stringfellow Unit (Stringfellow Unit) Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Cotton Gin, Farm Shop, Vegetable Cannery, Grain Storage, Swine Operations, and Alfalfa Dehydrator [77]
Texas Barry B. Telford Unit (Telford Unit) Cow/Calf Operations and Farming [78]
Texas C.T. Terrell Unit (Terrell Unit) Farming, Cow/Calf Operations, Cotton Gin, Farm Shop, Vegetable Cannery, Grain Storage, Swine Operations, and Alfalfa Dehydrator [79]
Texas Carol S. Vance Unit (Vance Unit) Swine Finishing, Mechanical Shop, and Combine Shed [80]
Texas Daniel Webster Wallace Unit Hay Production [81]
Texas John M. Wynne Unit (Wynne Unit) Farming, Egg Operations, Swine Operations, Horse Breeding Operations, and Veterinary Services [82]

Canadian Prison Farm System

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Canada has a long history of prison farms dating back to the first penitentiary in the 1890s, but in 2010, the federal Conservative government shut down its six federal prison farms.[83] At this point, the prison farm program was under CORCAN, Correctional Service Canada's job and rehabilitation program,[4] and the government argued that the skills that prison farms had been giving people in prison were outdated, and that prison labor should focus on work related to more modern skills.[4][83] They also argued that the farms were losing money, which would later be debated.[4][83]

The debate as to whether or not the farms should reopen continued, particularly through a group called Save our Prison Farms (SOPF) who, according to their website, advocated for saving the prison farms because of 1) public safety, 2) health and rehabilitation, 3) saving taxpayers money, 4) sustainable local farm and food systems, and 5) a model of Canadian values and heritage.[84]

In 2018, however, the federal Liberal government announced the re-opening of the Penitentiary Farm Program with a budget of $4.3 million for the two farms in Kingston, Ontario to return.[85] The prison farms at Joyceville Institution and Collins Bay Institution are now open and working.

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The 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution, which ended slavery, specifically carved out the concept of penal servitude (i.e., forced and unpaid labor as a punishment for a crime). This exemption only affected those who have been convicted of crimes, not those who were still awaiting trial.[citation needed]

Britain had a long history of penal servitude even before passage of the Penal Servitude Act of 1853, and routinely used convict labor to settle its conquests, either through penal colonies or by selling convicts to settlers to serve for a term of years as indentured servants.[citation needed]

Scope

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The Clemens Unit, a prison farm in Brazoria County, Texas
The Cummins Unit, a prison farm in Lincoln County, Arkansas

This type of penal institution has mainly been implanted in rural regions of vast countries. For example, the following passage describes the prison system of the U.S. state of North Carolina in the early twentieth century:

"The state prison is at Raleigh, although most of the convicts are distributed upon farms owned and operated by the state. The lease system does not prevail, but the farming out of convict labor is permitted by the constitution; such labor is used chiefly for the building of railways, the convicts so employed being at all times cared for and guarded by state officials. A reformatory for white youth between the ages of seven and sixteen, under the name of the Stonewall Jackson Manual Training and Industrial School, was opened at Concord in 1909, and in March 1909 the Foulk Reformatory and Manual Training School for negro youth was provided for. Charitable and penal institutions are under the supervision of a Board of Public Charities, appointed by the governor for a period of six years, the terms of the different members expiring in different years. Private institutions for the care of the insane, idiots, feeble-minded, and inebriates may be established, but must be licensed and regulated by the state board and become legally a part of the system of public charities."

In 21st-century Illinois, several prisons continue to run farms to produce food for wards of the state, including the prisoners themselves. The 1911 Britannica also reported that the state of Rhode Island had a farm of 667 acres (2.70 km2) in the southern part of Cranston City housing (and presumably taking labor from):

"the state prison, the Providence county jail, the state workhouse and the house of correction, the state almshouse, the state hospital for the insane, the Sockanosset school for boys, and the Oaklawn school for girls, the last two being departments of the state reform school."[86]

There are prison farms in other countries. Canada had six prison farms, where up to 800 inmates did everything from tending pigs to milking cows, until they were closed in 2010 by the Conservative government. In 2015, the Liberal government began conducting feasibility studies to determine if the program can be restarted.[87] In 2018, the Liberal government announced plans to reopen two of the prison farms previously closed by the end of 2019.[4]

In fiction

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Films and television shows featuring prison farms and forced prison labor:

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Lunau, Kate. "Canada to shut down all prison farms". Maclean's, April 13, 2009.
  2. ^ "D.A. McCall, Secretary of the Mississippi Baptist Convention Board, Baptizes Convicts on a Prison Farm near Parchman on 18 August 1946". Crime and Punishment: Essential Primary Sources, 2006.
  3. ^ Glenday, Craig (2013). 2014 Guinness World Records Limited. Guinness World Records Limited. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-908843-15-9.
  4. ^ a b c d e Pfeffer, Amanda (2019-08-15). "Ontario prison farms making a comeback". CBC. Retrieved 2023-12-05.
  5. ^ a b "Convict Leasing". Equal Justice Initiative. 2013-11-01. Retrieved 2022-04-14.
  6. ^ "BOP: Work Programs". www.bop.gov. Retrieved 2022-02-15.
  7. ^ "Draper Correctional Facility. (2013). Retrieved June 9, 2015". Doc.state.al.us. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  8. ^ "Fountain Correctional Facility. (2013). Retrieved June 9, 2015". Doc.state.al.us. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  9. ^ "Limestone Correctional Facility. (2013). Retrieved June 9, 2015". Doc.state.al.us. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  10. ^ "Point Mackenzie Correctional Farm History. (n.d.). Retrieved June 9, 2015". Correct.state.ak.us. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  11. ^ Cummins Unit. (2011). Retrieved June 9,2015 Archived 2016-03-18 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ^ East Arkansas Regional Unit. (2011). Retrieved June 9,2015 Archived 2011-06-28 at the Wayback Machine
  13. ^ Grimes Unit. (2011). Retrieved June 9,2015
  14. ^ North Central Unit. (2011). Retrieved June 9,2015
  15. ^ Ouachita River Unit. (2011). Retrieved June 9,2015 Archived 2015-09-18 at the Wayback Machine
  16. ^ Pine Bluff Unit. (2011). Retrieved June 9,2015
  17. ^ Tucker Unit. (2011). Retrieved June 9,2015
  18. ^ Wrightsville Unit. (2011). Retrieved June 9,2015
  19. ^ "California State Prison, Corcoran (CSP-COR). (2014). Retrieved June 9, 2015". Archived from the original on April 30, 2015. Retrieved June 9, 2015.
  20. ^ "Central California Women's Facility (CCWF). (2014). Retrieved June 9, 2015". Archived from the original on April 23, 2015. Retrieved June 9, 2015.
  21. ^ "Valley State Prison (VSP). (2014). Retrieved June 9, 2015". Cdcr.ca.gov. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  22. ^ "Wasco State Prison-Reception Center (WSP). (2014). Retrieved June 9, 2015". Cdcr.ca.gov. 2017-04-04. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  23. ^ BVCC - Buena Vista Correctional Complex | Department of Corrections. (n.d.). Retrieved June 9, 2015 Archived June 10, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
  24. ^ FMCC - Four Mile Correctional Center | Department of Corrections. (n.d.). Retrieved June 9, 2015 Archived August 4, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
  25. ^ RCC - Rifle Correctional Center | Department of Corrections. (n.d.). Retrieved June 9, 2015 Archived June 10, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
  26. ^ SCC - Skyline Correctional Center | Department of Corrections. (n.d.). Retrieved June 9, 2015 Archived August 4, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
  27. ^ "Apalachee Correctional Institution, West. (n.d.). Retrieved June 9, 2015". Dc.state.fl.us. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  28. ^ "Charlotte Correctional Institution. (n.d.). retrieved June 9, 2015". Dc.state.fl.us. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  29. ^ "Union Correctional Institution. (n.d.). retrieved June 9, 2015". Dc.state.fl.us. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  30. ^ "Arrendale State Prison. (n.d.). retrieved June 9, 2015". Dcor.state.ga.us. 2000-01-01. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  31. ^ "Dooly State Prison. (n.d.). retrieved June 9, 2015". Dcor.state.ga.us. 2000-01-01. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  32. ^ "Montgomery State Prison. (n.d.). retrieved June 9, 2015". Dcor.state.ga.us. 2000-01-01. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  33. ^ "Rogers State Prison. (n.d.). retrieved June 9, 2015". Dcor.state.ga.us. 2000-01-01. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  34. ^ "Washington State Prison. (n.d.). retrieved June 9, 2015". Dcor.state.ga.us. 2000-01-01. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  35. ^ "Halawa Correctional Facility. (2015). retrieved June 9, 2015". Dps.hawaii.gov. 2018-03-08. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  36. ^ "Waiawa Correctional Facility. (2015). retrieved June 9, 2015". Dps.hawaii.gov. 2018-03-08. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  37. ^ "The Mission of the Mississippi State Penitentiary". Mississippi Department of Corrections. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  38. ^ a b "Agricultural Enterprises". Mississippi Department of Corrections. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  39. ^ "South Mississippi Correctional Institution". Mississippi Department of Corrections. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  40. ^ "Caledonia Correctional Institution". North Carolina Department of Public Safety. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  41. ^ Hart, John (4 April 2017). "Caledonia: Where prisoners have grown their food for 125 years". FarmProgress. Informa Markets. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  42. ^ "Dan River Prison Work Farm -- Farming operations". North Carolina Department of Correction Division of Prisons. North Carolina Department of Public Safety. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  43. ^ "Tyrrell Prison Work Farm". North Carolina Department of Public Safety. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  44. ^ "Beto (B)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  45. ^ "Briscoe (DB)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  46. ^ "Byrd (DU)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  47. ^ "Clemens (CN)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  48. ^ "Clements (BC)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  49. ^ "Coffield (CO)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  50. ^ "Crain (GV)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  51. ^ "Daniel (DL)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  52. ^ "Darrington (DA)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  53. ^ "Eastham (EA)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  54. ^ "Ellis (E)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  55. ^ "Estelle (E2)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  56. ^ "Ferguson (FE)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  57. ^ "Goodman (GG)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  58. ^ "Goree (GR)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  59. ^ "Gurney (ND)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  60. ^ "Hilltop (HT)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  61. ^ "Hobby (HB)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  62. ^ "Holliday (NF)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  63. ^ "Hughes (AH)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  64. ^ "Jester I (J1)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  65. ^ "Jester III (J3)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  66. ^ "Johnston (JT)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  67. ^ "Luther (P2)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  68. ^ "Michael (MI)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  69. ^ "Mountain View (MV)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  70. ^ "Murray (LM)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  71. ^ "Neal (KN)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  72. ^ "Pack (P1)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  73. ^ "Polunsky (TL)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  74. ^ "Powledge (B2)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  75. ^ "Ramsey (R1)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  76. ^ "Scott (RV)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  77. ^ "Stringfellow (R2)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  78. ^ "Telford (TO)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  79. ^ "Terrell (R3)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  80. ^ "Vance (J2)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  81. ^ "Wallace (WL)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  82. ^ "Wynne (WY)". Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  83. ^ a b c Goodman, Philip; Dawe, Meghan (28 August 2015). "Prisoners, Cows and Abattoirs: The Closing of Canada's Prison Farms as a Political Penal Drama". The British Journal of Criminology. 56 (4): 793–812 – via Oxford Academic.
  84. ^ "Why save the prison farms?". Save Our Prison Farms. {{cite web}}: Check |archive-url= value (help)CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  85. ^ Canada, Correctional Service (2019-08-15). "Penitentiary farms officially relaunched". www.canada.ca. Retrieved 2024-12-16.
  86. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cranston" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 378.
  87. ^ Mehta, Diana (2016-11-09). "'Strong support' for reopening prison farms, government consultation finds". CTV News. Retrieved 2018-03-20.
  88. ^ "Chain Gang (1950)", Turner Classic Movies.
  89. ^ "Iwahig Prison and Penal Farm". Philippine Bureau of Corrections. Archived from the original on Dec 1, 2017. Retrieved 21 Nov 2017.

Further reading

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