Pan-Arabism: Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Revision as of 22:54, 25 February 2010

Pan-Arabism is a movement for unification among the peoples and countries of the Arab World, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea. It is closely connected to Arab nationalism which asserts that the Arabs constitute a single nation. The idea was at its height during the 1960s. Pan-Arabism has tended to be secular and often socialist, and has strongly opposed colonialism and Western political involvement in the Arab world. It also sought to improve security of states from outside forces by forming alliances and, to a lesser extent, economic cooperation.^[1] Pan-Arabism is a form of cultural nationalism.

Origins and Leaders

Pan-Arabism was first pressed by Sharif Hussein ibn Ali, the Sharif of Mecca, who sought independence from the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of a unified state of Arabia. In 1915-16, the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence resulted in an agreement between the United Kingdom and the Sharif that if the Arabs successfully revolted against the Ottomans, the United Kingdom would support claims for Arab independence. In 1916, however, the Sykes-Picot Agreement between the United Kingdom and France determined that parts of the Arab Mashreq would be divided between those powers rather than forming part of an independent Arab state. When the Ottoman Empire surrendered in 1918, the United Kingdom refused to keep to the letter of its arrangements with Hussein and the two nations assumed guardianship of several newly-created states. Ultimately, Hussein became king only of Hijaz (later incorporated into Saudi Arabia) in the then less strategically valuable south.

File:Arab League.PNG

States and Territories of the Arab League

Additionally, the Balfour Declaration of 1917 as reason to administer Palestine and the subsequent creation of the British Mandate upset pan-Arabists designs for a geographically contiguous pan-Arab state from the Arab Maghreb and Egypt to the Mashreq. A more formalized pan-Arab ideology than that of Hussein was first espoused in the 1930s, notably by Syrian thinkers such as Constantin Zureiq, Zaki al-Arsuzi and Michel Aflaq. Aflaq and al-Arsuzi were key figures in the establishment of the Arab Ba’ath (Renaissance) Party, and the former was for long its chief ideologist, combining elements of Marxist thought with a nationalism to a considerable extent reminiscent of nineteenth century European romantic nationalism.

Abdallah of Jordan dreamed of uniting Syria, Palestine, and Jordan under his leadership in what he would call Greater Syria. He proposed a plan to this effect to Britain, who controlled Palestine at that time, but to no avail. The plan was not popular among the majority of Arabs and fostered distrust among the leaders of the other Middle Eastern countries against Abdallah. This distrust of Abdallah's expansionist aspirations was one of the principle reasons for the founding of the Arab League in 1945. Once Abdallah was assassinated by a Palestinian nationalist in 1951, the vision of Greater Syria was dropped from the Jordanian agenda.^[1]

In contrast to pan-Islamism, pan-Arabism is secular and nationalistic as many prominent pan-Arabs, such as Aflaq (Greek Orthodox) were not Muslim. Tariq Aziz, an Aramaic-speaking Chaldean Christian and the once deputy prime minister of Iraq under Saddam Hussein, was another prominent pan-Arabist. However, in de-emphasizing the role of Islam, pan-Arab ideology has been accused of inciting prejudice against and downplaying the role of non-Arab peoples such as the Berbers,^[2]Turks, Persians, and Kurds, amongst others.^[3] Additionally, while Lebanon is traditionally thought of as an Arab state, there is a movement in that country supporting the idea that Lebanese are Phoenicians. As such, these groups are quite hostile to pan-Arabism.

Attempts at Arab union

There have been several attempts to bring about a Pan-Arab state by many well known Arab leaders that ultimately resulted in failure. The United Arab Republic (UAR) in 1958 was the first attempt. Formed under Nasser, it was a union between Egypt and Syria, although Nasser exerted so much control over the union that the UAR functioned as a Nasserist takeover than a cooperation between two governments. It lasted in this form until 1961 when Syria's withdrew from the union, but "[i]n April 1963, Egypt, Syria and Iraq agreed to form a new 'United Arab Republic'—which was to be entirely federal in structure, leaving each member state its identity and institutions."^[1] The UAR was finally abolished in 1971 due to irreconcilable differences between Syria and Egypt.^[4]

Two later attempts were conducted by Libya's Muammar al-Gaddafi; these were the Federation of Arab Republics and the Arab Islamic Republic. Both failed before beginning. Unity between Southern and Northern Yemen, though, was successful. Also, the unity of seven Arab emirates that form the UAE today stand as examples of the possibility of success of Arab unification. The current Syrian government is, and the former government of Iraq was, led by the Ba’ath Party, which espouses pan-Arabism.

Charges of racism

Nazi propaganda is believed to have influenced pan-Arabist ideology and brought to it antisemitism^[5].

Decline

The high point of the pan-Arab movement was in the 1960s, when the movement was spearheaded by Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, but pan-Arabism was strongly hurt by the Arab defeat by Israel in the Six Day War and the inability of pan-Arabist governments to generate economic growth. Nasser too overplayed his hand in trying to form a pan-Arab hegemony under himself. "By the mid-1970s," according to The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East, "the idea of Arab unity became less and less apparent in Arab politics, though it remained a wishful goal among the masses."^[1] Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel in 1978 fractured the Arab world further. By the late 1980s, pan-Arabism began to be eclipsed by Islamist ideologies. It continues however, to exert a strong influence in Arab print media and intellectual circles, particularly in the Levant.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Arab Unity." The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002. pp. 160-166.
^ El Watan, July 18, 2007
^ Raymond A. Hinnebusch, Anoushiravan Ehteshami, The Foreign Policies of Middle East States. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002. pg 169
^ "United Arab Republic (UAR)." Sela. The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. 873-874.
^ http://yalepress.yale.edu/Yupbooks/reviews.asp?isbn=9780300145793

External links

Arab Nationalism: Mistaken Identity by Martin Kramer
Sample chapter from Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century by A. Dawisha
"Pan-Arabism on the March?: Israel Weighs the New Challenge" by Nissim Rejwan

[Continuum-1] "Arab Unity." The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002. pp. 160-166.

[2] El Watan, July 18, 2007

[3] Raymond A. Hinnebusch, Anoushiravan Ehteshami, The Foreign Policies of Middle East States. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002. pg 169

[4] "United Arab Republic (UAR)." Sela. The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. 873-874.

[5] ttp://yalepress.yale.edu/Yupbooks/reviews.asp?isbn=9780300145793

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{unreliable}}{{tone}}{{npov}}
 [[Image:Arab world.png|thumb|right|250px|The Arab world]]
 {{Life in the Arab League}}
 {{about|political ideology|the nationalist ideology|Arab nationalism}}
-'''Pan-Arabism''' is a movement for [[unification]] among the peoples and countries of the [[Arab World]], from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the [[Arabian Sea]]. It is closely connected to [[Arab nationalism]], which asserts that the Arabs constitute a single nation. The idea was at its height during the 1960s. In theory, and depending on the ruler, Pan-Arabism has tended to be sometimes near [[secular]] (in theory) and often based on [[socialism|socialist]] principles, and has strongly opposed [[Western countries|Western]] political involvement in the [[Middle East]].  It also sought to improve security of states from outside forces by forming alliances and, to a lesser extent, economic cooperation.<ref name="Continuum" />
+'''Pan-Arabism''' is a movement for [[unification]] among the peoples and countries of the [[Arab World]], from the Atlantic Ocean to the [[Arabian Sea]]. It is closely connected to [[Arab nationalism]] which asserts that the Arabs constitute a single nation. The idea was at its height during the 1960s. Pan-Arabism has tended to be [[secular]] and often [[socialism|socialist]], and has strongly opposed [[colonialism]] and [[Western countries|Western]] political involvement in the [[Arab world]].  It also sought to improve security of states from outside forces by forming alliances and, to a lesser extent, economic cooperation.<ref name="Continuum" /> Pan-Arabism is a form of [[cultural nationalism]].
+== Origins and Leaders ==
-Pan-Arabism is considered to be the source and origin of political totalitarianism in the [[Middle East]], suppressing [[democracy|democratic]] movements and development of open [[free thinking]].<ref>http://www.amazon.com/Origins-Totalitarianism-Hannah-Arendt/dp/0156701537</ref><ref>http://www.archive.org/stream/originsoftotalit00aren#page/386/mode/2up/search/Arab+nationalism</ref><ref>http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/view/134210</ref>
+Pan-Arabism was first pressed by [[Sharif Hussein ibn Ali]], the [[Sharif of Mecca]], who sought independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the establishment of a unified state of Arabia. In 1915-16, the [[Hussein-McMahon Correspondence]] resulted in an agreement between the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and the Sharif that if the Arabs successfully revolted against the Ottomans, the United Kingdom would support claims for Arab independence. In 1916, however, the [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]] between the United Kingdom and France determined that parts of the Arab [[Mashreq]] would be divided between those powers rather than forming part of an independent Arab state. When the Ottoman Empire surrendered in 1918, the United Kingdom refused to keep to the letter of its arrangements with Hussein and the two nations assumed guardianship of several newly-created states. Ultimately, Hussein became king only of [[Hijaz]] (later incorporated into [[Saudi Arabia]]) in the then less strategically valuable south.
-It is also considered to encourage [[antisemitism]] against [[Jews]], and is believed to have led to a rise of persecution of and attacks against [[Mizrahi Jews]] in Arabic speaking countries, which led to the disappearance of their community in Middle-Eastern countries other than [[Israel]].<ref>//www.pierrerehov.com/exodus.htm</ref>
-== Origins and Key figures ==
-Pan-Arabism was first pressed by [[Sharif Hussein ibn Ali]], the [[Sharif of Mecca]], who sought independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the establishment of a unified state of Arabia. In 1915-16, the [[Hussein-McMahon Correspondence]] resulted in an agreement between the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and the Sharif that if the Arabs successfully revolted against the Ottomans, the United Kingdom would support claims for Arab independence. In 1916, however, the [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]] between the United Kingdom and France determined that parts of the Arab [[Mashreq]] would be divided between those powers rather than forming part of an independent Arab state. When the Ottoman Empire surrendered in 1918, the United Kingdom refused to keep to the letter of its arrangements with Hussein,{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} and the two nations assumed guardianship of several newly-created states, including [[Jordan]] and [[Lebanon]]. Ultimately, Hussein became king only of [[Hijaz]] (later incorporated into [[Saudi Arabia]]) in the then less strategically valuable south.
 [[File:Arab League.PNG|thumb|right|250px|States and Territories of the Arab League]]
-Additionally, the [[Balfour Declaration of 1917]] as reason to administer [[Palestine]] and the subsequent creation of the [[British Mandate of Palestine|British Mandate]] upset the pan-Arabists' designs for a geographically contiguous pan-Arab state from the Arab [[Maghreb]] and [[Egypt]] to the [[Mashreq]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} A more formalized pan-Arab ideology than that of Hussein was first espoused in the 1930s, notably by [[Syrian people|Syrian]] thinkers such as [[Constantin Zureiq]], [[Zaki al-Arsuzi]] and [[Michel Aflaq]]. Aflaq and al-Arsuzi were key figures in the establishment of the [[Ba'ath Party|Arab Ba’ath (Renaissance) Party]], and the former was for long its chief ideologist, combining elements of [[Marxism|Marxist thought]] with a nationalism to a considerable extent reminiscent of nineteenth century European romantic nationalism.
+Additionally, the [[Balfour Declaration of 1917]] as reason to administer [[Palestine]] and the subsequent creation of the [[British Mandate of Palestine|British Mandate]] upset pan-Arabists designs for a geographically contiguous pan-Arab state from the Arab [[Maghreb]] and [[Egypt]] to the [[Mashreq]].  A more formalized pan-Arab ideology than that of Hussein was first espoused in the 1930s, notably by [[Syrian people|Syrian]] thinkers such as [[Constantin Zureiq]], [[Zaki al-Arsuzi]] and [[Michel Aflaq]]. Aflaq and al-Arsuzi were key figures in the establishment of the [[Ba'ath Party|Arab Ba’ath (Renaissance) Party]], and the former was for long its chief ideologist, combining elements of Marxist thought with a nationalism to a considerable extent reminiscent of nineteenth century European romantic nationalism.
-[[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdallah of Jordan]] dreamed of uniting [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], and [[Jordan]] under his leadership in what he would call [[Greater Syria]]. He proposed a plan to this effect to [[United Kingdom|Britain]], which controlled Palestine at that time, but to no avail. The plan was not popular among the majority of Arabs and fostered distrust among the leaders of the other Middle Eastern countries against Abdallah. This distrust of [[Abdullah_I_of_Jordan#Expansionist_aspirations|Abdallah's expansionist aspirations]] was one of the principle reasons for the founding of the [[Arab League]] in 1945.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} Once [[Abdullah_I_of_Jordan#Assassination|Abdallah was assassinated]] by a [[Palestinian nationalist]] in 1951, the vision of Greater Syria was dropped from the Jordanian agenda.<ref name="Continuum">"Arab Unity."  ''The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East''.  Ed. [[Avraham Sela]].  New York: Continuum, 2002.  pp. 160-166.</ref>
+[[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdallah of Jordan]] dreamed of uniting Syria, Palestine, and Jordan under his leadership in what he would call [[Greater Syria]].  He proposed a plan to this effect to Britain, who controlled Palestine at that time, but to no avail.  The plan was not popular among the majority of Arabs and fostered distrust among the leaders of the other Middle Eastern countries against Abdallah.  This distrust of [[Abdullah_I_of_Jordan#Expansionist_aspirations|Abdallah's expansionist aspirations]] was one of the principle reasons for the founding of the [[Arab League]] in 1945.  Once [[Abdullah_I_of_Jordan#Assassination|Abdallah was assassinated]] by a [[Palestinian nationalist]] in 1951, the vision of Greater Syria was dropped from the Jordanian agenda.<ref name="Continuum">"Arab Unity."  ''The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East''.  Ed. [[Avraham Sela]].  New York: Continuum, 2002.  pp. 160-166.</ref>
+[[Image:Nasser.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Egypt]]ian [[President of Egypt|President]] [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], whose [[political ideology|ideology]] of "[[Nasserism]]" defined the pan-Arabism of the 1960s]]
-Pan-Arabism has been at times in contrast with [[pan-Islamism]] as being more secular. [[Tariq Aziz]], an [[Aramaic]]-speaking [[Chaldean Christian]] and the once deputy prime minister of [[Iraq]] under [[Saddam Hussein]].However in exchange for his status he had to Arabize his name from Mikhail Yuhanna to the Arabic [[Tareq Aziz]]. As well as the mass murder of Kurds,
+In contrast to [[pan-Islamism]], pan-Arabism is secular and nationalistic as many prominent pan-Arabs, such as Aflaq ([[Greek Orthodox]]) were not [[Muslim]].  [[Tariq Aziz]], an [[Aramaic]]-speaking [[Chaldean Christian]] and the once deputy prime minister of [[Iraq]] under [[Saddam Hussein]], was another prominent pan-Arabist. However, in de-emphasizing the role of Islam, pan-Arab ideology has been accused of inciting [[prejudice]] against and downplaying the role of non-Arab peoples such as the [[Berber people|Berbers]],<ref>[http://www.elwatan.com/Congres-mondial-amazigh,74600 El Watan, July 18, 2007]</ref>[[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[Persian people|Persians]], and [[Kurd]]s, amongst others.<ref>Raymond A. Hinnebusch, Anoushiravan Ehteshami, The Foreign Policies of Middle East States. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002. pg 169</ref> Additionally, while [[Lebanon]] is traditionally thought of as an Arab state, there is a [[Phoenicianism|movement in that country]] supporting the idea that Lebanese are [[Phoenicians]].  As such, these groups are quite hostile to pan-Arabism.
-Saddam Hussein's [[Anfal]] campagin caused the destruction of Many Assyrian Churches were destroyed in the North of Iraq and caused the displacement of many Chrisitans.
-An Assyrian priest interviewed by HRW/Middle East said that he had assembled a list of 250 Christians who disappeared during Anfal and its immediate aftermath. (Iraq's Crime of Genocide, 1995, Human rights watch, pp. 209)<ref>http://www.aina.org/martyr.html#1980%20to%201988</ref>
-Along with [[Islamism]] Pan-Arabism is seen to be greatly responsible for the persecution of [[Iraqi Christians]] <ref>http://www.fredaprim.com/who_assyrians.php</ref> & contributed to driving out non Arab minorities out of Iraq which the Christian community put blame directly on [[Arab nationalists]],[[Pan-Arabist]]s, and Radical Islamists.<ref>http://www.christiansofiraq.com/whoisdriving-assyrians-outof-iraq.html</ref>.
-The[[Muslim Brotherhood]]'s [[Hasan al-Banna]] incorporated & associated Pan-Arabism with  his radical [[Islamic]] ideology in view of Arabism’s growing appeal in Egypt at the time.<ref>http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/d&a-hamas-litvak.htm</ref>
-The pan-Arab ideology has been accused of racism, inciting [[prejudice]] against and downplaying the role of non-Arab peoples, such as the [[Berber people|Berbers]],<ref>[http://www.elwatan.com/Congres-mondial-amazigh,74600 El Watan, July 18, 2007]</ref>[[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[Jews]], [[Persian people|Persians]] <ref>http://www.venusproject.com/ecs/aFarrokhArab.html</ref> and [[Kurd]]s, amongst others, (prompting such editorials like '''"Arabism equals racism"''') <ref>http://97.74.65.51/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=24912</ref><ref>Raymond A. Hinnebusch, Anoushiravan Ehteshami, The Foreign Policies of Middle East States. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002. pg 169</ref>
-An [[Egypt]]ian writer Masri Feki wrote that it is the ideology of Pan-Arabism that prevents lasting peace in the Middle East;
-{{cquote|Real lasting peace will come the day Israel's neighbors recognize that the Jewish people are on this land de jure, they are not just there de facto. Pan-Arabism is in ruins because it did not take into account the diversity of the region, the specificities of its various identities and the communitarian preoccupations of its minorities.Like pan-Arabism, pan-Islamism is an exclusivist ideology." <ref>http://www.dailyalert.org/archive/2008-03/2008-03-14.html</ref>}}
-Abdul Ghafor al-Ani, who headed [[Saddam]]'s [[Ba'ath]] Party in southern [[Iraq]], shouted at the trial of [[Chemical Ali]] who led the [[Anfal]] attack on the [[Kurds]]: "I welcome death if it is for Iraq, for pan-Arabism and for the Ba'ath" <ref>http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/12/02/mideast/iraq.php</ref>, or "Welcome to death for the sake of Arabism and Islam" - as the death sentence was read. <ref>http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/chemical-ali-sentenced-to-death/2008/12/03/1227980048820.html</ref>.On the background of the genocide in [[Darfur]]: it has been linked back to [[Libya]]'s [[Gaddafi]]'s meddling in the region his support for the militantly racist pan-Arab organisation in Darfur known as Tajammu al-Arabi (Arab Union), which stressed the province’s solely ‘Arab’ nature.<ref>http://www.henryjacksonsociety.org/stories.asp?id=226</ref>, he began to meddle in the affairs of his African neighbors in an attempt to establish Pan-Arabist hegemony in the region. His weapons were racist and supremacist ideologies.<ref>http://worldsavvy.org/monitor/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=70&Itemid=88 </ref> It has been described as a ''deliberate genocide carried out in Darfur by the Pan-Arabist regime of Khartoum".''<ref>http://www.afroarticles.com/article-dashboard/ezineready.php?id=201646</ref><ref>http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article26679</ref>
-[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1987-004-09A, Amin al Husseini und Adolf Hitler.jpg|right|thumb|[[Grand Mufti]] of [[Palestine]] [[al-Husayni|Mohammad Amin al-Husayni]], one of the leaders of Pan-Arabist ideology, meeting with [[Adolph Hitler]] in 1941.]]
-Modern Pan-Arabism is also known to have had [[Nazism|Nazi]] and [[Fascism|Fascist]] roots. During the 1930s, Pan-Arabists developed proto-fascist organizations such as the "Al-Muthanna Club" and the "Al-Futuwwa movement".<ref>http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0030438705000050</ref><ref>http://www.fpri.org/orbis/4902/davis.historymattersiraq.pdf</ref><ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=NLiFIEdI1V4C&pg=PA352</ref> Sami Shawkat, a firm believer in pan-Arabism and totalitarianism, was an admirer of [[Nazism|Nazi]] ideologies <ref>http://www.venusproject.com/ecs/aFarrokhArab.html</ref>. There was a wide Nazi propaganda in Pan-Arabist ideology <ref>http://yalepress.yale.edu/Yupbooks/reviews.asp?isbn=9780300145793</ref>. Beginning at 1933, Muhi al-Din Nasuli, the leader of the Islamist and Pan-Arabist group "Najjada" (Helpers) in Syria and Lebanon, promoted many of [[Hitler]]'s speeches and printed excerpts from [[Hitler]]'s [[Mein Kampf]] in his group's newspaper. [[Hitler]] and [[Mussolini]] were viewed by Pan-Arabists in both [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]] as models of strong state builders. The ambivalent relation of such Pan-Arabist concepts to ethnocentric and racial nationalism became visible in Nasuli's newspaper slogan '''Arabism Above All''', which featured on his newspaper's masthead, which also printed glowing accounts of German youth's support of Hitler <ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=iAWBkDAv4TkC&pg=PA54</ref><ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=IYfQlOu0g38C&pg=PA193</ref><ref>Colonial Citizens By Elizabeth Thompson p. 193</ref><ref>http://www.ciaonet.org/book/the01/the01_11.pdf</ref>[[Adolf Hitler]]'s collaborator and close Arab confidant, the Islamic leader and Mufti [[al-Husayni]], was promoted as a Pan-Arabist leader by the Nazis who both found sympathy in each other's  ideologies.<ref>http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007665</ref> <ref>http://www.tellthechildrenthetruth.com/amin_en.html</ref>
-Although Pan-Arabism began at the time of WWI, [[Egypt]], the most populous and arguably most important Arabic-speaking country, was not interested in Pan-Arabism prior to the 1950's. Thus, in the 1930's and 1940's, [[Egyptian nationalism]] - and not Pan-Arabism - was the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian political activists:
-{{cquote|What is most significant [about Egypt in this period] is the absence of an Arab component in early Egyptian nationalism. The thrust of Egyptian political, economic, and cultural development throughout the nineteenth century worked against, rather than for, an "Arab" orientation... This situation—that of divergent political trajectories for Egyptians and [[Arab]]s—if anything increased after 1900.<ref>Jankowski, James. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in Rashid Khalidi, ed. ''The Origins of Arab Nationalism''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, pp. 244-45</ref>}}
-[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1980-036-05, Amin al Husseini bei bosnischen SS-Freiwilligen.jpg|right|thumb|[[Grand Mufti]] of [[Palestine]] [[al-Husayni|Mohammad Amin al-Husayni]] saluting [[Muslim]] [[Bosnian]] soldiers modeled after the [[Nazi]] military system]].
-[[Image:Himmler to Mufti telegram 1943.png|left|thumb|222px|November 2, 1943 Himmler's telegram to Mufti telling of support of the Pan-Arabist cause by Nazis: 'To the Grand Mufti: The National Socialist movement of Greater Germany has, since its inception, inscribed upon its flag the fight against the world Jewry. It has therefore followed with particular sympathy the struggle of freedom-loving Arabs, especially in Palestine, against Jewish interlopers. In the recognition of this enemy and of the common struggle against it lies the firm foundation of the natural alliance that exists between the National Socialist Greater Germany and the freedom-loving Muslims of the whole world. In this spirit I am sending you on the anniversary of the infamous Balfour declaration my hearty greetings and wishes for the successful pursuit of your struggle until the final victory.' ''Reichsfuehrer S.S. Heinrich Himmler'']]
-In 1931, following a visit to Egypt, Syrian Arab nationalist [[Sati' al-Husri]] remarked that "[Egyptians] did not possess an Arab nationalist sentiment; did not accept that Egypt was a part of the Arab lands, and would not acknowledge that the Egyptian people were part of the Arab nation."<ref>qtd in Dawisha, Adeed. ''Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century''. Princeton University Press. 2003, p. 99</ref> The later 1930s would become a formative period for Arab nationalism in Egypt, in large part due to efforts by Syrian/Palestinian/Lebanese intellectuals.<ref>Jankowski, "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism," p. 246</ref> Nevertheless, a year after the establishment of the [[Arab League|League of Arab States]] in 1945, to be headquartered in Cairo, [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] historian H. S. Deighton was still writing:
-{{cquote|The Egyptians are not Arabs, and both they and the Arabs are aware of this fact. They are Arabic-speaking, and they are Muslim —indeed religion plays a greater part in their lives than it does in those either of the Syrians or the Iraqi. But the Egyptian, during the first thirty years of the [twentieth] century, was not aware of any particular bond with the Arab East... Egypt sees in the Arab cause a worthy object of real and active sympathy and, at the same time, a great and proper opportunity for the exercise of leadership, as well as for the enjoyment of its fruits. But she is still Egyptian first and Arab only in consequence, and her main interests are still domestic.<ref>Deighton, H. S. "The Arab Middle East and the Modern World", International Affairs, vol. xxii, no. 4 (October 1946), p. 519.</ref>}}
 == Attempts at Arab union ==
+There have been several attempts to bring about a Pan-Arab state by many well known Arab leaders that ultimately resulted in failure.  The [[United Arab Republic]] (UAR) in 1958 was the first attempt.  Formed under [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]], it was a union between [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]], although Nasser exerted so much control over the union that the UAR functioned as a Nasserist takeover than a cooperation between two governments.  It lasted in this form until 1961 when Syria's withdrew from the union, but "[i]n April 1963, Egypt, Syria and Iraq agreed to form a new 'United Arab Republic'—which was to be entirely federal in structure, leaving each member state its identity and institutions."<ref name="Continuum" /> The UAR was finally abolished in 1971 due to irreconcilable differences between Syria and Egypt.<ref>"United Arab Republic (UAR)."  Sela.  ''The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East''.  873-874.</ref>
-[[Image:Nasser.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Egypt]]ian [[President of Egypt|President]] [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], whose [[political ideology|ideology]] of "[[Nasserism]]" defined the pan-Arabism of the 1960s]]
+Two later attempts were conducted by [[Libya]]'s [[Muammar al-Gaddafi]]; these were the [[Federation of Arab Republics]] and the [[Arab Islamic Republic]]. Both failed before beginning.  Unity between Southern and Northern [[Yemen]], though, was successful. Also, the unity of seven Arab emirates that form the [[UAE]] today stand as examples of the possibility of success of Arab unification.  The current Syrian government is, and the former government of Iraq was, led by the [[Ba'ath Party|Ba’ath Party]], which espouses pan-Arabism.
-It was not until the [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] era more than a decade later that Arab nationalism, and by extension [[Arab socialism]], became a state policy and a means with which to define Egypt's position in the Middle East and the world,<ref>"Before Nasser, Egypt, which had been ruled by Britain since 1882, was more in favor of territorial, Egyptian nationalism and distant from the pan-Arab ideology. Egyptians generally did not identify themselves as Arabs, and it is revealing that when the Egyptian nationalist leader [Saad Zaghlul] met the Arab delegates at Versailles in 1918, he insisted that their struggles for statehood were not connected, claiming that the problem of Egypt was an Egyptian problem and not an Arab one." Makropoulou, Ifigenia. [http://www.ekem.gr/archives/2007/01/pan_arabism_wha.html Pan - Arabism: What Destroyed the Ideology of Arab Nationalism?]. Hellenic Center for European Studies. January 15, 2007.</ref> usually articulated vis-à-vis [[Zionism]] in the neighboring Jewish state of [[Israel]].
+==Charges of racism==
-There have been several attempts to bring about a Pan-Arab state by many well known Arab leaders, all of which ultimately resulted in failure.  The [[United Arab Republic]] (UAR) in 1958 was the first attempt. Formed under [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]], it was a union between [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]], although Nasser exerted so much control over the union that the UAR functioned more as a Nasserist takeover rather than a cooperation between two governments. It lasted in this form until 1961 when Syria's withdrew from the union. In April 1963, Egypt, Syria and Iraq agreed to form a new 'United Arab Republic', which was to be entirely federal in structure, leaving each member state its identity and institutions."<ref name="Continuum" /> The UAR was finally abolished in 1971 due to irreconcilable differences between Syria and Egypt.<ref>"United Arab Republic (UAR)."  Sela.  ''The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East''.  873-874.</ref>
+Nazi propaganda is believed to have influenced pan-Arabist ideology and brought to it antisemitism<ref>http://yalepress.yale.edu/Yupbooks/reviews.asp?isbn=9780300145793</ref>.
-Two later attempts were conducted by [[Libya]]'s [[Muammar al-Gaddafi]]; these were the [[Federation of Arab Republics]] and the [[Arab Islamic Republic]]. Both failed before beginning. The unity of seven Arab emirates that form the [[UAE]] stands today as the only example of successful unification between Arab neighbors. The current Syrian government is, and the former government of Iraq was, led by the [[Ba'ath Party|Ba’ath Party]], which espouses pan-Arabism.
 == Decline ==
-However, Pan-Arabism was strongly hurt following the [[Arab]] defeat by [[Israel]] in the [[Six Day War]] and the inability of pan-Arabist governments to generate economic growth. Nasser overplayed his hand in trying to form a pan-Arab hegemony under himself. "By the mid-1970s," according to ''The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East'', "the idea of Arab unity became less and less apparent in Arab politics, though it remained a wishful goal among the masses."<ref name="Continuum" />
+The high point of the pan-Arab movement was in the 1960s, when the movement was spearheaded by Egyptian leader [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], but pan-Arabism was strongly hurt by the [[Arab]] defeat by [[Israel]] in the [[Six Day War]] and the inability of pan-Arabist governments to generate economic growth.  Nasser too overplayed his hand in trying to form a pan-Arab hegemony under himself.  "By the mid-1970s," according to ''The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East'', "the idea of Arab unity became less and less apparent in Arab politics, though it remained a wishful goal among the masses."<ref name="Continuum" /> [[Camp David Accords]] between Egypt and Israel in 1978 fractured the Arab world further.  By the late 1980s, pan-Arabism began to be eclipsed by [[Islamist]] ideologies. It continues however, to exert a strong influence in Arab [[print media]] and [[intellectual]] circles, particularly in the [[Levant]].
-The Egyptians' attachment to Arabism was particularly questioned after the 1967 [[Six-Day War]]. Thousands of Egyptians had lost their lives and the country became disillusioned with Arab politics.<ref>Dawisha, p. 237</ref> [[Camp David Accords]] between [[Egypt]] and [[Israel]] in 1978 further fractured the Arabic-speaking countries.  Nasser's successor [[Anwar Al Sadat|Sadat]], both through public policy and his peace initiative with [[Israel]], revived an uncontested Egyptian orientation, unequivocally asserting that only Egypt and Egyptians were his responsibility. The terms "Arab", "Arabism" and "Arab unity" became conspicuously absent.<ref>Dawisha, pp. 264-65, 267</ref>
-By the late 1980s, Pan-Arabism began to be eclipsed by both nationalist and [[Islamist]] ideologies. In the 1990's, many voiced their opposition to Pan-Arabism. For instance, some [[Kuwait]]is viewed [[Invasion of Kuwait|Iraq's invasion of Kuwait]] in 1990 as caused by an urge for Pan-Arabism. <ref>http://kuwait-embassy.or.jp/E_outline_09.shtml</ref>
-Today, Pan-Arabism is viewed by many as an outdated and failed ideology. This view emanates from the many disasters brought upon the Middle East by the ideology of Pan-Arabism. For instance, the [[Ba'th party]], which sowed a Pan-Arabist ideology, was responsible for the genocide of [[Kurds|Kurdish people]] and [[Shiites]] in [[Iraq]]. Pan-Arabism does not give equal rights to minorities living in the Arab world, since it views every one in this "world" as Arab.<ref>"Genocide in Iraq: the [[Anfal]] campaign against the Kurds"</ref> The radical pan-Arabist ideology is also known to have shown deep hostility to [[Black people]], [[Persians]], [[Jews]] and other ethnic and religious minorities that opposed Arabization.<ref>http://www.venusproject.com/ecs/aFarrokhArab.html</ref><ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/mar/05/apalershadeofblack</ref><ref>http://www.jcpa.org</ref><ref>http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/2/3/3/5/p23357_index.html</ref>
-A [[Tunisian]] liberal activist has  described Pan-Arabism as the following:
-{{cquote|The true nature of the twin fascism of Islamism and Pan-Arabism ... this particular case seems to be Pan-Arabism <ref>http://www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/1284.htm</ref>}}
-Political science professor Adeed Dawisha states on the origins of the Pan-Arabist ideology that "Pan-Arabism at its inception was deeply influenced by European fascism".<ref>http://97.74.65.51/Printable.aspx?ArtId=11187</ref><ref>http://www.meforum.org/518/requiem-for-arab-nationalism</ref>
-Many Egyptians continue to believe that Egypt and Egyptians are simply not Arab, emphasizing indigenous Egyptian heritage, culture and independent polity, while pointing to the failures of Arab and pan-Arab nationalist policies, and publicly voicing objection to the present official name of the country as ''Arab Republic of Egypt''.
-In late 2007, ''el-Masri el-Yom'' daily newspaper conducted an interview at a bus stop in the working-class district of [[Imbaba]] to ask citizens what Arab nationalism (''el-qawmeyya el-'arabeyya'') represented for them. One Egyptian Muslim youth responded, "Arab nationalism means that the Egyptian Foreign Minister in Jerusalem gets humiliated by the Palestinians, that Arab leaders dance upon hearing of Sadat's death, that Egyptians get humiliated in the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf]], and of course that Arab countries get to fight Israel until the last Egyptian soldier."<ref name="Masry">Ragab, Ahmed. El-Masry el-Yom Newspaper. [http://www.almasry-alyoum.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=61604 "What is the definition of 'Arab Nationalism': Question at a bus stop in Imbaba"]. May 21, 2007.</ref> Another felt that,"Arab countries hate Egyptians," and that unity with Israel may even be more of a possibility than Arab nationalism, because he believes that Israelis would at least respect Egyptians.<ref name="Masry" />
-Some contemporary prominent Egyptians who oppose Arab nationalism or the idea that Egyptians are Arabs include Secretary General of the [[Supreme Council of Antiquities]] [[Zahi Hawass]],<ref>In response to queries about Tutankhamun in a recent lecture, Hawass declared "Egyptians are not Arabs..." {{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Tutankhamun was not black: Egypt antiquities chief | date= | publisher= | url =http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iB6u3XEMp9IrJfl-kH6FHNgZCg_A | work =AFP | pages = | accessdate = 2007-09-27 | language = }}</ref> popular writer [[Osama Anwar Okasha]], Egyptian-born Harvard University Professor [[Leila Ahmed]], Member of Parliament Suzie Greiss,<ref>[http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cfsi-icse/cil-cai/magazine/0107/magazine-en.asp?txt=1-2&lv=1 An Interculturalist in Cairo]. InterCultures Magazine. January 2007.</ref> in addition to different local groups and intellectuals.<ref>[http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/031106/2003110624.html We are Egyptians, not Arabs]. ArabicNews.com. 11/06.2003.</ref> This understanding is also expressed in other contexts,<ref>[http://www.arab.net/egypt/et_people.htm Egyptian people section from Arab.Net]</ref><ref>[http://www.princeton.edu/~paw/web_exclusives/more/more_letters/letters_bernardlewis.html Princeton Alumni Weekly]</ref> such as Neil DeRosa's novel ''Joseph's Seed'' in his depiction of an Egyptian character "who declares that Egyptians are not Arabs and never will be."<ref>[http://www.theatlasphere.com/columns/050117-cohen-josephsseed.php Review by Michelle Fram Cohen]. The Atlasphere. Jan. 17, 2005.</ref>
-Egyptian critics of Arab nationalism contend that it has worked to erode and/or relegate native Egyptian identity by superimposing only one aspect of Egypt's culture. These views and sources for collective identification in the Egyptian state are captured in the words of a linguistic anthropologist who conducted fieldwork in Cairo:
-{{cquote|Historically, Egyptians have considered themselves as distinct from 'Arabs' and even at present rarely do they make that identification in casual contexts; ''il-'arab'' [the Arabs] as used by Egyptians refers mainly to the inhabitants of the Gulf states... Egypt has been both a leader of pan-Arabism and a site of intense resentment towards that ideology. Egyptians had to be made, often forcefully, into "Arabs" [during the Nasser era] because they did not historically identify themselves as such. Egypt was self-consciously a nation not only before pan-Arabism but also before becoming a colony of the British Empire. Its territorial continuity since ancient times, its unique history as exemplified in its pharaonic past and later on its Coptic language and culture, had already made Egypt into a nation for centuries. Egyptians saw themselves, their history, culture and language as specifically Egyptian and not "Arab."<ref>Haeri, Niloofar. ''Sacred language, Ordinary People: Dilemmas of Culture and Politics in Egypt''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2003, pp. 47, 136.</ref>}}
-Minorities in the [[Middle East]] are particularly sensitive to and dismissive of Pan-Arabism. Thus, the prominent [[Libyan]] [[Berber]] community leader Belkacem Lounes stated in April 2007:
-{{cquote|'"There is no worse colonialism than that of the Pan-Arabist clan that wants to dominate our people.<ref>http://www.north-of-africa.com/article.php3?id_article=403</ref>}}
-The [[Copts]], the [[Middle East]]'s largest religious minority, are equally hostile to Pan-Arabism. For instance, Bishop Thomas, the Coptic bishop of [[Cusae]] and [[Meir, Egypt|Meir]] gave the following speech at the [[Hudson Institute]] in 2008:
-{{cquote|If you come to a Coptic person and tell him that he’s an Arab, that’s offensive. We are not Arabs, we are Egyptians. I am very happy to be an Egyptian and I would not accept being "Arab" because ethnically I am not.}}
-Similar comments were made by many prominent Coptic figures, such as Bishop Picenti of [[Helwan]] and [[Massarah]], as well as the prominent Coptic writer [[Magdy Khalil]] (see [[Coptic identity]]).
 == See also ==
@@ Line 96: / Line 40: @@
 * [[Pan-Islamism]]
 * [[United Arab Republic]]
-* [[Egyptian identity]]
-* [[Coptic identity]]
-* [[Lebanese nationalism]]
-* [[Phoenicianism]]
-* [[Berberism]]
-* [[Kurdish nationalism]]
 == References ==
@@ Line 126: / Line 64: @@
 -->
 {{reflist|1}}
-{{reflist|2}}
 ==External links==