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Okunev culture

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Okunev culture
Location of the Okunev culture (Minusinsk Depression), with other contemporary cultures c. -2000 BC.[1]
Alternative namesOkuniev , Okunevskaya
HorizonIndigenous peoples of Siberia
Geographical rangeMinusinsk Basin South Siberia
PeriodBronze Age
Datesc. 2700 BC - 1800 BC
Type siteOkunev settlement
Major sitesTas-Khaaza, Chernovaya VIII, Beltyry, Uibat III, Uibat V
Characteristicsunique artistic heritage
Preceded byAfanasevo culture
Followed byKarasuk culture, Andronovo culture, Seima-Turbino phenomenon, Tagar culture

Okunev culture (ru: Окуневская культура, romanized: Okunevskaya kul'tura, lit. 'Okunev culture'), also known as Okunevo culture, was a south Siberian archaeological culture of pastoralists from the early Bronze Age dated from the end of the 3rd millennium BC to the early 2nd millennium BC in the Minusinsk Basin on the middle and upper Yenisei.[2][3][4] It was formed from the local Neolithic Siberian forest cultures, who also showed evidence of admixture from Western Steppe Herders and pre-existing Ancient North Eurasians.[5][6][7][8]

History

[edit]
Okunev culture petroglyphs
The "Ankhakov Stela",[9][10] and the "Stela of Kopyonsky Chaatas",[11] found near the village Onakhov. Okunev culture, circa 2000 BCE. Khakassia National Museum.

Okunev culture was discovered by Sergei Teploukhov in 1928. It was named after the nearby Okunev settlement in the south of modern day Khakassia. Initially, the burials from Okunev were attributed by Teploukhov to the Andronovo culture. Then, on the basis of vessel finds, Teploukhov considered the population to be a transitional variant between the Afanasievo and Andronovo cultures.

In 1947, M. N. Komarova identified an "early Okunev" stage of the Andronovo culture, which is associated with the earliest stage of the Andronovo culture.[12]

In 1955-1957 A.N. Lipsky found Okunev stone slabs with images as part of stone boxes used for burials. Lipsky, who was an ethnographer, not an archaeologist, assumed that the Okunev sites were pre-Afanasiev and attributed them to the Paleolithic era, since he considered the Okunev people to be the ancestors of the American Paleo-Indians, based on parallels in art and anthropology.

In the early 1960s G. A. Maksimenkov identified an Okunev culture based on the excavations of the Chernovaya VIII burial ground, whose burials had not been disturbed by later invasions and did not contain Afanasevo ceramics.

Characteristics

[edit]
Ceramics of the Okunev Culture on the Yenisei River Siberia. First half of the II millennium BC. Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg

The early Uibat stage, later Chernov stage, and the final Razliv stage of Okunev culture need to be differentiated.

Typical sites include Tas-Khaaz, Beltyry, Uibat III, Uibat V (in the Uybat river basin), Chernovaya VIII, Chernovaya XI, Razliv X, and Strelka.

The typological horizon between the development of the Afanas’ev and Okunev steppe cultures in the Minusinsk Basin and the development of the later Andronovo type is very thin.[13]

Finds from the Okunev culture include works of art, including stone statues with human faces (Tas Khyz, as well as Ulug Khurtuyakh tas) and images of birds and beasts hammered out on stone slabs or engraved on bone plaques.

There are no significant indications of property and social stratification.

Livestock, horse, and agriculture

[edit]

The basis of the population's economic activity was stock-raising and animal husbandry (cattle, sheep, and goats), supplemented by hunting and fishing.

Stone hoes, grain graters and pestles, and a reaping sickle with a copper blade and horn handle all testify to agriculture.

Pottery

[edit]
Okunev pottery

Though the ceramic styles of the Okunev are more comparable to later Incised Coarse Ware (ICW), formally and ambiguously Andronovo ceramics.[13] But as the researchers note, the uniqueness of each of them is an important feature of the Okunev culture.[14] Finds from the Okunev culture include lavishly decorated jug-like and conical vessels.

Okunev ceramics are typically flat-bottomed, with notable continuous ornamentation of the body, the bottom, edge of the rim and its inner side. Most often these are jar vessels, but there are also incense burners with an internal partition.

Metallurgy

[edit]

Okunevtsy had developed metallurgy based on the ores of the Sayano-Altai mining and metallurgy areas. Okunevtsy and the neighboring Samus culture produced the first bronze in north-eastern Central Asia.[15] Finds include copper and tin and rarely arsenical bronze articles. Simple copper objects were superseded by tin alloys.[15] Bronzes were common in this culture. Tools included embedded-handled knives, leaf-shaped knives, awls, fishhooks, and temporal rings. Along with forging, casting was also used, which indicates a rather high level of metalworking. Ornaments of this culture consist mainly of ring-shaped ornaments with circular cross-sections and flat joints at both ends.[16]

Warfare

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Short swords are relatively advanced with clear boundaries between the handles and the blades. A bronze spear was found at the late Okunevo cultural site, the socket of which was forged with two loose ends. The first of this kind appeared in the Asian steppe region.[16] Besides copper and bronze weapons, the Okunev culture also had charriots as attested by their petroglyphs.[17]

Burials

[edit]
Okunev culture standing stone. "Saralinskaya stone maiden", late 3rd millennium, early 2nd millennium BCE
Bone comb from grave 1, mound No. 1 of the Krasny Kamen burial ground, Okunev culture, circa 2200 BCE

The Okunevo culture is represented mostly by mounds burial structures, which were composed of small, rectangular surface enclosures made of stone slabs or sandstone tiles placed vertically in the ground. Within these enclosures were graves that were also lined with stone slabs. 62 Okunevo kurgans consisting of more than 500 burials and 60 single burials have been studied.[18]

The cemeteries of the Okunev culture are located, as a rule, not far from the Afanasiev ones and number from two to ten burial mounds. Sometimes burial complexes measure 40 × 40 meters. The number of graves inside the fence varies - from one to ten and even twenty. In addition to single burials, there are paired and collective burials. In almost every burial ground there are burials of a man with two women. The buried were laid, as in Afanasiev's time, on their backs with legs strongly bent at the knees and arms extended along the body.[citation needed]

Dating

[edit]

Radiocarbon AMS dating of 50 Okunevo samples are within 2600 –1800 BCE. According to these studies the Uybat period is dated as 2600 – 2300 BCE, Chernovaya as 2200 – 1900 BCE, and Razliv later than 1800 BC.[18]

Geographic extent

[edit]
class=notpageimage|
Location of the Okunev culture

The settlements of the Okunev culture were located in the Minusinsk basin, on the middle and upper Yenisei.

Petroglyphs of the Okunev period are located in the narrow mountain valleys of Khyzyl Khaya and Khurtuy Khola, on the banks of now-dry streams in the modern Kazanovka Museum-Reserve. They are also represented among the Shalabolino Petroglyphs on the right bank of the Tuba River, a right tributary of the Yenisei, against the village of Tes to the southeast of the village of Ilyinka, between the logs and the Shush River to the southwest of the village of Shalabolino, Kuraginsky District, Krasnoyarsk Krai.

In the Idrinsky district, east of the village of Bolshoi Telek.

Minusinsk basin, with the Yenisey river.

In the Krasnoturansky District on the left bank of the Bir River under Mount Kozlikha, on the banks of the Syda River.

In the Kuraginsky district in the village of Novopokrovka.

In the Minusinsky District, on the banks of the Tuba River, near the village of Kavkazsky, nearby the zaimka of Maidashi.

On the shore of the lake near the village of the same name Maly Kyzykul, during excavations in the Okunev layer, archaeologists in 1973 discovered the remains of a burnt log structure and fragments of ceramic dishes.

Five burials in slab boxes were excavated 1 km south of Minusinsk on the northern outskirts of a pine forest.

[edit]
Earliest Bronze Age cultures in Central Asia.[8]

Okunev culture shares some elements of its material culture, including pottery. with a number of local contemporaneous cultures from adjacent areas such as the Samus’, Elunino, Karacol, and Krotovo cultures of western  Siberia and Altai, the Kanay type burials of eastern Kazakhstan, and the Okunevo-like culture of Tuva.[18] Nevertheless, there is currently no sound evidence of their common origin.

The connections between the Afanasiev and Okunev cultures are rather difficult to trace. The period of their interaction lasted only about a hundred years,[4] but in some territories coexistence is noted. Archaeologists have identified many complexes containing signs of both Okunev and Afanasevo origins. However, almost no genetic traces of Afanasevtsy have been found in the Okunev genotype, meaning Afanasiev population was displaced by the alien Okunevtsy.

The similarity between some of the objects from the Okunev burial grounds and objects in the vicinity of the middle Ob River and the Lake Baikal region indicates that the bearers of the Okunev culture came to southern Siberia from the northern taiga regions. While the preceding Afanasevo culture is considered Indo-European, the Okunev culture is generally regarded as an extension of the local non-Indo-European forest culture into the region.[19]

The Okunev people closely interacted with [20] successor cultures of the Andronovo circle.[2]

Settlements

[edit]
The Chebaki fortress.

The settlements of this culture have been little studied. Mountain Fortress Sve [21] mountain settlements with fortifications (about 45 were found on the territory of Khakassia) are mainly considered cult complexes. The fortress of Chebaki is one of the first archeologically studied Sve.

Settlements are known on the territory of Tuva on upper Yenisei.[citation needed]

Wheeled transport

[edit]

The Okunev people used two- and four-wheeled carts. In the rock art of the Minusinsk Basin, images of early (end of the 3rd millennium BC) two-wheeled carts with a composite drawbar of two poles converging at an angle, which simultaneously form the body frame, are common. The design of the wagons and the profile manner of depiction indicate a connection not with Eastern Europe, but with the western regions of Central Asia and, indirectly, with Asia Minor.[22]

Physical anthropology

[edit]
Okunev culture anthropomorphic statues, Khakassia National Museum

The anthropological type of the population was of mixed Caucasoid-Mongoloid origin, with a predominance of Mongoloid. As A. V. Gromov notes, their morphological heterogeneity was striking - there are both purely Mongoloid skulls and typically Caucasoid skulls that do not reveal any traces of Mongoloid admixture. In his opinion, the appearance of the Okunev people was formed as a result of the mixing of the local Neolithic population with an influx of Afanasyevtsy from the territory of Central Asia and Kazakhstan.[23]

According to A. G. Kozintsev, the appearance of the Okunev people varies depending on the region. The Okunev people of the Minusinsk Basin were descendants of the local Neolithic population, which was distinguished by its significant originality against the background of the races of the first order. The Okunev people of Tuva show stronger influence from the Pits culture and early Catacomb culture of Ukraine.[24] He argues that the main ancestry of the Okunev people can be traced back to the local Ancient North Eurasians (ANE) and that the anthropologic type of the Okunev people can be described as "Americanoid", noting the specific overlaps in characteristics with the Indigenous peoples of the Americas.[7]

According to A. V. Polyakov, the culture was formed from the local Neolithic Paleo-Siberian forest cultures and later received some admixture from the Caspian Sea by a group of mostly male pastoralists of the Yamnaya culture.[25]

While some authors have suggested that the Okunevo may have descended from more northern tribes that replaced Afanasievo cultures in this region, others believe the Okunevo culture was the result of contact between local Neolithic hunter-gatherers with western pastoralists.[18]

Maksimentkov suggested that Okunevo culture was developed by the local Neolithic tribes of the Krasnoyarsk - Kansk forest-steppe who lived to the north of the Minusinsk Basin.

The second theory that is supported at the present time by most researchers suggests that Okunevo culture resulted from the interaction of local Neolithic hunter-gatherers with Western Steppe Herders.

  • Okunev figurine from Itkul II mound 14, northern Minusinsk Basin. Uybat stage of the Okunevo Culture (second half of the 3rd millennium BC)
    Okunev figurine from Itkul II mound 14, northern Minusinsk Basin. Uybat stage of the Okunevo Culture (second half of the 3rd millennium BC)
  • Okunev figurine from Itkul II mound 14, northern Minusinsk Basin.
    Okunev figurine from Itkul II mound 14, northern Minusinsk Basin.
  • Okunev figurine from Itkul II mound 14, northern Minusinsk Basin.
    Okunev figurine from Itkul II mound 14, northern Minusinsk Basin.
  • Okunev figurine from Itkul II mound 14, northern Minusinsk Basin.
    Okunev figurine from Itkul II mound 14, northern Minusinsk Basin.

Paleogenetics

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Genetic proximity of the Okunev culture ( , "Okunevo Early-Middle Bronze Age") with ancient (color) and modern (grey) populations. Primary Component Analysis (detail).[26]

Autosomal DNA analysis found that the Okunevo people formed predominantly from a lineage originating from the admixture of Ancient Northeast Asians (ANA) with Ancient North Eurasians (ANE), with around 10-20% genetic admixture from Western Steppe Herders, as represented by the Yamnaya or Afanasievo cultures. The Western Steppe Herder ancestry is absent from the X chromosome of Okunevo spcecimens, suggesting it was inherited from mostly male ancestors.[5] The date of admixture is estimated to have been around 7,000 years ago.

According to recent studies, modern Native American Indians are genetically close to representatives of the Okunev culture, which confirms previous craniometric studies. Their shared affinities probably come from the presence of Ancient North Eurasian and Ancient East Asian ancestries in both populations dating back to the formation of Ancient Paleo-Siberians.[7]

The Okunevos can be modelled as a combination of Afanasievo, Baikal EBA and Tarim_EMBA (essentially ANE) ancestry.

The Okunevo population showed also genetic affinities with the Botai culture, some of the Tarim mummies, and Altai hunter-gatherers.[8]

The results of the analysis of the origin of the ancient steppe populations of nomads of the Eurasian steppe (from the Urals to Altai), including representatives of the Bronze Age Okunev culture from the Sayan-Altai, showed that the samples contained components that were most pronounced in Ancient North Eurasian, Eastern hunter-gatherers, Caucasian hunter-gatherers from Georgia and also occur from the component that is most pronounced among the Nganasans (Samoyedic people) and is widely distributed among various modern people from Siberia and Central Asia.[27][8]

Multidimensional scaling of the Okunevo and other ancient populations from Eurasia, based on mtDNA sequences. They are very close to later Saka populations.[28]

Paternal haplogroups

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Hollard et al. (2018) reported the paternal haplogroups of 6 Okunevo specimens. 84% of the Okunevo males belonged to the East Eurasian haplogroups NO(xO) and Q1b, whilst 16% belonged to the West Eurasian R1b1a2-M269.[29][30]

Maternal haplogroups

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According to Holllard (2018), 58% of Okunevo specimens carried the East Eurasian haplogroups A, C or D, while 41% carried the West Eurasian haplogroups T, U, H or J.[29][31]

The mitochondrial haplogroup A-a1b3*[32] was identified in the RISE674 sample (4300–3850 years ago, Okunevo_EMBA).

In representatives of the Okunev culture from the burial ground of Syda V (Minusinsk Basin), a variety of mitochondrial DNA variants was determined.[33] The Okunevs belonged to the West Eurasian (U, H, J and T) and East Eurasian (A, C and D) subbranches of haplogroups.[34][29]

Art

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Okunev culture monumental stelae. Khakassia National Museum, Hall of Stone Sculptures, Abakan

Representative art: small amulets, stone steles up to 4 m tall and petroglyphs.[15]

The Okunev people left behind monuments of art. Characteristic rock inscriptions and stone statues have become famous since the travels of D. G. Messerschmidt in 1722-1723 and subsequent academic expeditions. Steles with drawings from burial vaults are unique. The stone slabs are dominated by realistic images of animals and masks in headdresses, which apparently had a cult character. Rock art monuments are being studied and new ones are being discovered that were not studied by previous researchers.[35][36] Menhirs are common in the territory of modern Khakassia and the southern part of the Krasnoyarsk Krai. More than 300 of them have been explored on the territory of the Minusinsk Basin. Only 10 sites are known on the right bank of the Yenisei.

The impressive stone steles were originally erected at gravesites and were subsequently reused more than a millennium later in the Scythian-era kurgans of Tagar Culture.[15]

Okunev stone stela collections are displayed in the Khakassia National Museum in Abakan, Martyanov Museum in Minusinsk,[37] Historical and architectural open-air museum of Novosibirsk and ceramics collections are displayed in the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg.[38]

Anthropomorphic images

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Okunev period figurine (with drawing reconstruction), Novosibirsk Tourist-2 archaeological site.[39] Dated 4601 ± 61 BP (3511–3127 cal BC, AMS date).[40]
Slab with human face. Okunev culture. State Hermitage Museum (Hall 13).[41]

The vivid character of the art of the Okunev culture is created by monumental stone sculptures and steles carved with anthropomorphic images. The stone statues are usually tall, up to six meters in height, carved of sandstone or granite into a saber shape. The front is its narrow edge. More than 300 of them have been studied in the Minusinsk Basin, cur only ten are known on the right bank of the Yenisei river. Many of them are now in museums.[42]

A fantastic mask looks at the viewer from it: three eyes, nostrils, a huge mouth, horns, long ears and all kinds of processes. The image moves from the front face to the wide side, and sometimes to the back. In addition to the central mask, there are often additional, smaller ones. Sometimes the statue depicts the mouth of a predator, sometimes bulls, many so-called solar symbols. They come in different styles, but usually it is a circle inscribed in a square, a kind of mandala, a symbol of the cosmos. This sign is now an official symbol, on the state flag and the state emblem of modern Khakassia. It was discussed that vertical steles might be used as the ancient tool of orientation in space - time milestones and gnomons - sundial of solar hours calendars. A graphical drawing of vertical sundial can be seen in the divergent rays on sun-facing stele, where the tooth is a benchmark for the accurate determination of noon.[citation needed]

  • Tourist-2 ivory anthropomorphic figure
    Tourist-2 ivory anthropomorphic figure
  • Tourist-2 mammoth ivory anthropomorphic figure
    Tourist-2 mammoth ivory anthropomorphic figure
  • Anthropomorphic figurine. Tourist-2 site, Novossibirsk, Okunev culture.
    Anthropomorphic figurine. Tourist-2 site, Novossibirsk, Okunev culture.

Monumental steles

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Okunev culture stelae. Khakassia National Museum

The Okunev culture erected monumental stelae at gravesites.[43][44][45] They were either anthropomorphic or zoomorphic with geometric patterns.[43] Steles often incorporated a human head, bent forward slightly.[43] The steles were often re-used by later cultures. For example the Early Turks (Gökturks) often inscribed them with Old-Turkish runic inscriptions, such as the Orkhon inscriptions or Yenisei inscriptions.[46]

  • Okunev stelae
    Okunev stelae
  • Okunev stelae, with the "Stele of Shira" in the center
    Okunev stelae, with the "Stele of Shira" in the center
  • Stelae sketched by Aspelin's expedition, 1887.[37][47][48][44]
    Stelae sketched by Aspelin's expedition, 1887.[37][47][48][44]
  • Okunev culture steles
    Okunev culture steles
  • "Stele of Shira".[49]
    "Stele of Shira".[49]
  • Tschirkowo stela, reinscribed with Old Turkic runic characters, circa 7th-8th century CE
    Tschirkowo stela, reinscribed with Old Turkic runic characters, circa 7th-8th century CE

Artistic features of images

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The following artistic features are distinguished:

Reproduction of Okunevo petroglyphs
Petroglyphs with deer figures.
  • free scatter of figures in the pictorial field;
  • the presence of anthropomorphic masks;
  • elongated proportions of stylized figures;
  • a variety of fantastic animals;
  • anthropomorphic creatures with bird and animal heads;
  • the sacred (world) mountain in the form of a triangle, divided into parts;
  • triadic compositions, in which the image of a female deity or its symbol is flanked by two figures of a person or animal;
  • images of deities in pointed hats and with bull horns;
  • images of Janus anthropomorphic deities;
  • images of anthropomorphic figures with two eagle heads;
  • images of birds and ornithomorphic figures with a spiral "tuft" on their heads;
  • figures of a man with legs and head turned in profile, and the body in front;
  • images of characters under the arch of the "firmament";
  • solar sign.

Similarities have been noted between the geometrical anthropomorphic motifs of the Afanasievo culture and Okunev culture of the Minusinsk basin in Siberia, and those on the earlier potteries of Banpo (c. 4000 BCE), of the Yangshao culture in northern China.[50] Pottery style emerging from the Yangshao culture are known to have spread westward to the Majiayao culture, and then further to Xinjiang and Central Asia.[51]

Possible linguistic affiliation

[edit]
Minusinsk Basin cultures (Summed probability distribution for new human bone dates, Afanasievo to Tagar cultures).[52]

The Okunevo culture, together with the spread of the Seima-Turbino material culture, may be in part be linked to the expansion of Proto-Uralic speakers.[8] Peyrot (2019) argues that "the Okunevo Culture is not to be identified with early Samoyedic, but with Proto-Uralic. This is consistent with Janhunen’s convincing arguments that the Ural-Altaic typological profile of Uralic and the primary split between Samoyedic and Finno-Ugric point to an eastern origin (2001; 2009), and it would be just in time for Finno-Ugric to split off and move west towards the Ural Mountains, where this branch was influenced by Proto-Indo-Iranian (e.g. Kuz’mina 2001)."[53][8][54]

A. G. Kozintsev (2023) argues that the Okunevo culture is better associated with a Yeniseian-related group, possibly Burushaski or an extinct Yeniseian branch. According to him, a Uralic affiliation is unlikely, as Uralic was spoken by people with different material culture, although contact with early Uralic-speakers is plausible. He also reject a possible Indo-Iranian linguistic affiliation, as although the Okunevo culture displays influence from Indo-Iranian groups, they show continuity with previous Ancient Paleo-Siberians, rather than with the Yamnaya culture.[55]

See also

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Okunev culture.

Chebaki Fortress Sve-Takh

References

[edit]
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  2. ^ a b "Okunev Culture". The Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 1979. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
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  5. ^ a b de Barros Damgaard, Peter; Martiniano, Rui; Kamm, Jack; Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor; Kroonen, Guus; Peyrot, Michaël; Barjamovic, Gojko; Rasmussen, Simon; Zacho, Claus; Baimukhanov, Nurbol; Zaibert, Victor; Merz, Victor; Biddanda, Arjun; Merz, Ilja; Loman, Valeriy (29 June 2018). "The first horse herders and the impact of early Bronze Age steppe expansions into Asia". Science. 360 (6396): eaar7711. doi:10.1126/science.aar7711. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 6748862. PMID 29743352. "We find that Botai_CA, CentralSteppe_EMBA, Okunevo_EMBA, and Baikal populations are deeply separated from other ancient and present-day populations and are best modeled as mixtures in different proportions of ANE ancestry and an Ancient East Asian (AEA) ancestry component represented by Baikal_EN, with mixing times dated to ~5000 BCE. ... However, in contrast to the lack of identifiable admixture from Yamnaya and Afanasievo in the CentralSteppe_EMBA, there is an admixture signal of 10–20% Yamnaya and Afanasievo in the Okunevo_EMBA samples (Fig. S21), consistent with evidence of western steppe influence. This signal is not seen on the X chromosome (qpAdm p-value for admixture on X 0.33 compared to 0.02 for autosomes), suggesting a male-derived admixture..."
  6. ^ Лазаретов, И. П. (22 December 2019). "ХроноЛоГИЯ И Периодизация Окуневкой Културы: Современное Состяние И Перспективы" [Chronology and Periodization of the Okunev Culture: Current Status and Prospects]. Теория и практика археологических исследований (in Russian). 28 (4): 15–50. doi:10.14258/tpai(2019)4(28).-02. ISSN 2712-8202. S2CID 213334623.
  7. ^ a b c Kozintsev, A. G. (31 December 2020). "The Origin of the Okunev Population, Southern Siberia: The Evidence of Physical Anthropology and Genetics". Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia. 48 (4): 135–145. doi:10.17746/1563-0110.2020.48.4.135-145. ISSN 1563-0110.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Bjørn, Rasmus G. (January 2022). "Indo-European loanwords and exchange in Bronze Age Central and East Asia: Six new perspectives on prehistoric exchange in the Eastern Steppe Zone". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 4: e23. doi:10.1017/ehs.2022.16. ISSN 2513-843X. PMC 10432883. PMID 37599704.
  9. ^ "Ankhakov Stela. Подробное описание экспоната, аудиогид, интересные факты. Официальный сайт Artefact". ar.culture.ru.
  10. ^ Laporte, Luc; Large, Jean-Marc; Nespoulous, Laurent; Scarre, Chris; Steimer-Herbet, Tara (22 August 2022). Megaliths of the World. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. p. 750. ISBN 978-1-80327-321-1.
  11. ^ "Stela of Kopyonsky Chaatas. Подробное описание экспоната, аудиогид, интересные факты. Официальный сайт Artefact". ar.culture.ru.
  12. ^ Parzinger, Hermann (2006). Die frühen Völker Eurasiens: vom Neolithikum bis zum Mittelalter (in German). C.H.Beck. p. 379. ISBN 978-3-406-54961-8.
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  14. ^ Poliakov, Andrey (2020). "Поляков А.В. К вопросу об особенностях памятников окуневского типа Верхнего Енисея // Древние и средневековые культуры Центральной Азии (становление, развитие и взаимодействие урбанизированных и скотоводческих обществ). – СПб.: ИИМК РАН – C. 93–96" [On the question of the features of the monuments of the Okunev type of the Upper Yenisei // Ancient and medieval cultures of Central Asia (formation, development and interaction of urbanized and pastoral societies).]. St.Petersburg. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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  16. ^ a b Yang, Jianhua; Shao, Huiqiu; Pan, Ling (3 January 2020). The Metal Road of the Eastern Eurasian Steppe: The Formation of the Xiongnu Confederation and the Silk Road. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-981-329-155-3.
  17. ^ MAGAIL, Jérôme; ESIN, Yuri (2020). Bronze Age and Iron Age decorated megaliths and funerary complexes in Mongolia and Southern Siberia. Archaeopress. The Okuniev archaeological sites are mainly funerary and religious places, so the documentation of daily life is still very partial. Copper and bronze objects, ceramics and representations of chariots attest to the inclusion of these items in the cultural assemblage following the earlier Afanasyev culture.
  18. ^ a b c d Outram, Alan K.; Polyakov, Andrey; Gromov, Andrei; Moiseyev, Vyacheslav; Weber, Andrzej W.; Bazaliiskii, Vladimir I.; O. I. Goriunova (9 May 2018). "Archaeological Supplement B To Damgaard Et Al. 2018: Discussion Of The Archaeology Of Central Asian And East Asian Neolithic To Bronze Age Hunter-Gatherers And Early Pastoralists, Including Consideration Of Horse Domestication" [Andronovo Ornament (Morphology and Mythology] (in Russian). doi:10.5281/ZENODO.1240521. S2CID 165645181. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  19. ^ Mallory 1997, pp. 4–6
  20. ^ Kovtun, Igor (2016). И.В. Ковтун Андроновский Орнамент (Морфология И Мифология) [Andronovo Ornament (Morphology and Mythology)]. Izdatelʹskij dom "Kazanskaja nedvižimostʹ". ISBN 9785990913103.
  21. ^ "Окуневская Кулътура • Большая российская энциклопедия - электронная версия" [Okunevskaya Culture • Great Russian encyclopedia - electronic version]. bigenc.ru. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  22. ^ Esin, Yury N. "The Most Ancient Images of Wheeled Vehicles of Minusinsk Basin". American Journal of Archaeology.
  23. ^ "Окуневский сборник, 1997". kronk.spb.ru. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  24. ^ Kozintsev, A. G (21 June 2018). "On the early migrations of Caucasoids to Siberia and Central Asia (in connection with the Indo-European problem). Archival copy of June 21, 2018 at the Wayback Machine Archeology, Ethnography and Anthropology of Eurasia. 2009. No. 4 (40). S. 134" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  25. ^ Poliakov, Andrey. "Поляков А.В. Проблема сложения окуневской культуры в свете современных научных данных // Научное обозрение Саяно-Алтая. – 2020. – № 1 (25). – С. 3–6" [The problem of the formation of the Okunev culture in the light of modern scientific data]. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  26. ^ Zhang, Fan; Ning, Chao; Scott, Ashley (November 2021). "The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies". Nature. 599 (7884): 256–261. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 8580821.
  27. ^ Unterländer, Martina; Palstra, Friso; Lazaridis, Iosif; Pilipenko, Aleksandr; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Groß, Melanie; Sell, Christian; Blöcher, Jens; Kirsanow, Karola; Rohland, Nadin; Rieger, Benjamin; Kaiser, Elke; Schier, Wolfram; Pozdniakov, Dimitri; Khokhlov, Aleksandr (3 March 2017). "Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe". Nature Communications. 8: 14615. doi:10.1038/ncomms14615. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 5337992. PMID 28256537.
  28. ^ Pilipenko, Aleksandr S. (20 September 2018). "Maternal genetic features of the Iron Age Tagar population from Southern Siberia (1st millennium BC)". PLOS ONE. 13 (9): e0204062. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204062. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6147448.
  29. ^ a b c Hollard, Clémence; Zvénigorosky (September 2018). "New genetic evidence of affinities and discontinuities between bronze age Siberian populations". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 167 (1): 6–7. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23607. PMID 29900529. S2CID 205337212.
  30. ^ Hollard & Zvénigorosky 2018, pp. 6–7: "The typing of MSY-SNPs allowed the definition of Y-chromosomal haplogroups (Figure 3B and Supporting Information Table S5). Four samples (3 from the Afanasievo culture and 1 from the Okunevo culture) belonged to the R1b1a1a2a haplogroup, defined by marker L23. Individual 11 from the Afanasievo culture belonged to the R1b1a1a-P297 haplogroup or one of its subclades; for this sample, results for all markers were partial because of the state of degradation of the DNA. This was notably the case for M269, L23, and M412, that are informative in defining R1b1a1a subclades. Two Okunevo samples (Kh8 and Kh17) belonged to the Q1b and Q1b1a haplogroups, respectively and three Okunevo samples (Kh12, Kh13 and Kh15) could be classified in the NO1 haplogroup, a basal subclade of haplogroup K, present in Asia."
  31. ^ Hollard, Clémence (September 2018). "Supporting Information S1". doi:10.1002/ajpa.23607.
  32. ^ "A-a1b3 MTree". www.yfull.com. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  33. ^ Пилипенко, И. В.; Пристяжнюк, М. С.; Трапезов, Р. О.; Черданцев, С. В.; Молодин, В. И.; Пилипенко, А. С. (8 September 2022). "Разнообразие вариантов митохондриальной ДНК у носителей окуневской культуры из могильника Сыда V (Минусинская котловина)" [Diversity of Mitochondrial DNA Variants in Okunev Culture Carriers from the Syda V Burial Ground (Minusinsk Basin)]. Вестник Новосибирского государственного университета. Серия: История, филология (in Russian). 21 (7): 53–71. doi:10.25205/1818-7919-2022-21-7-53-71. ISSN 1818-7919. S2CID 252230589.
  34. ^ "Афанасьевская и окуневская археологические культуры Южной Сибири генетически различны | Генофонд РФ" [Afanasyevskaya and Okunevskaya archaeological cultures of South Siberia are genetically different | RF gene pool] (in Russian). Retrieved 21 December 2022.
  35. ^ Miklashevich, Е. А. (2 April 2022). "Личины Моховского Лога и памятники окуневской культуры в горах Оглахты" [The faces of the Mokhovsky Log and monuments of the Okunev culture in the mountains of Oglakhty]. Теория и практика археологических исследований (in Russian). 34 (1): 47–74. doi:10.14258/tpai(2022)34(1).-03. ISSN 2712-8202. S2CID 248362290.
  36. ^ Miklashevich, Е. А. (27 September 2022). "New Rock Art Site at the Riverside Cliff s in the Oglakhty Mountains (Khakasia)". Теория и практика археологических исследований. 34 (3): 40–54. doi:10.14258/tpai(2022)34(3).-03. ISSN 2712-8202. S2CID 252687323.
  37. ^ a b "Martyanov Museum. Minusinsk". Retrieved 15 December 2022.
  38. ^ "Черепки от стенок окуневских сосудов, сплошь орнаментированные - Четыре пер. пол. I тыс. до н.э." [Sherds from the walls of Okunev vessels, entirely ornamented - Four, first half of the 1st millennium BC.]. collections.hermitage.ru (in Russian). Retrieved 19 December 2022.
  39. ^ Ковтун, И. В. (24 September 2019). "THE MOON IN THE MYTHOLOGY OF CULTURES OF THE EPOCHE OF BRONZE IN NORTH-WESTERN ASIA (the 3rd – beginning of the 2nd) ЛУНА В МИФОЛОГИИ КУЛЬТУР ЭПОХИ БРОНЗЫ СЕВЕРО-ЗАПАДНОЙ АЗИИ (III – нач. II тыс. до н.э.)". Theory and Practice of Archaeological Research Теория и практика археологических исследований (in Russian). 27 (3): 66–101. doi:10.14258/tpai(2019)3(27).-06. ISSN 2712-8202.
  40. ^ Zotkina, L. V.; Basova, N. V.; Postnov, A. V.; Kolobova, K. A. (31 December 2020). "An Elk Figurine from Tourist-2, Novosibirsk: Technological and Stylistic Features". Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia. 48 (4): 75. doi:10.17746/1563-0110.2020.48.4.075-083. ISSN 1563-0110.
  41. ^ "Bronze Age. Hall 13 panorama". State Hermitage Museum.
  42. ^ "A figure of the "Solar Divine" (a stele)". nav.shm.ru. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  43. ^ a b c Baumer, Christoph (18 April 2018). History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 137–139. ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2. The impressive stone steles of the Okunev culture were originally erected at gravesites (...) anthropomorphic or zoomorphic faces or masks with geometric patterns are carved into these monument steles (...) Okunev steles end in a human head, bent slightly forward, others have a ram's head.
  44. ^ a b Poliakov, Andrey; Esin, Yury. "HORN FIGURINES FROM AN OKUNEV BURIAL ON LAKE ITKUL, KHAKASSIA, SOUTHERN SIBERIA": Fig.10. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  45. ^ "Found: grave of Siberian noblewoman up to 4,500 years old - with links to native Americans". siberiantimes.com.
  46. ^ Baumer, Christoph (18 April 2018). History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 322, note 148. ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2. As shown by the three-line Old-Turkish runic inscription, Okunev steles were still being reused in the mid-first millennium AD
  47. ^ JETTMAR, KARL (1950). "THE KARASUK CULTURE AND ITS SOUTH-EASTERN AFFINITIES" (PDF). Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities. 22.
  48. ^ Bazin, Louis (1990). "Les premières inscriptions turques (VIe-Xe siècles) en Mongolie et en Sibérie méridionale". Arts Asiatiques. 45 (1): 52–53. doi:10.3406/arasi.1990.1278.
  49. ^ MAGAIL, Jérôme; ESIN, Yuri (2022). Megaliths of the World. Archaeopress. p. 749.
  50. ^ Kiselov (Киселёв), С.В. (1962). Study of the Minusinsk stone sculptures (К изучению минусинских каменных изваяний). Historical and archaeological collection ( Историко-археологический сборник). pp. 53–61. During the excavations of the world-famous Yanshao [Yangshao] culture site near the village of Banpo near Xi'an, among numerous painted vessels, two large open bowls with paintings were found, especially important for comparison with images of masks from the Minusinsk-Khakass basin. Inside these bowls are painted masks that are strikingly similar to Minusinsk ones. They are distinguished by a horizontal division of the face into three zones, the presence of horns and a triangular figure above the head, as well as triangles on the chin (Fig. 2 ). Such coincidences can hardly be explained by mere chance. Even a few years before the discoveries in Ban-po, I had to pay attention to a number of features that bring the Eneolithic Afanasiev culture of the middle Yenisei closer to the culture of painted ceramics of Northern China. Apparently, the finds in Ban-po once again confirm these observations. At the same time, the noted finds and comparisons show that the appearance of images, so characteristic of the ancient stone sculptures of the middle Yenisei, not only goes back to the deep antiquity of the pre-Afanasiev time, but is apparently associated with the complex world of symbolic images of the Far East, now known from monuments of the Neolithic of Ancient China.
  51. ^ Zhang, Kai (4 February 2021). "The Spread and Integration of Painted pottery Art along the Silk Road". Region - Educational Research and Reviews. 3 (1): 18. doi:10.32629/RERR.V3I1.242. S2CID 234007445. The early cultural exchanges between the East and the West are mainly reflected in several aspects: first, in the late Neolithic period of painted pottery culture, the Yangshao culture (5000-3000 BC) from the Central Plains spread westward, which had a great impact on Majiayao culture (3000-2000 BC), and then continued to spread to Xinjiang and Central Asia through the transition of Hexi corridor
  52. ^ Svyatko, Svetlana V; Mallory, James P; Murphy, Eileen M; Polyakov, Andrey V; Reimer, Paula J; Schulting, Rick J (2009). "New Radiocarbon Dates and a Review of the Chronology of Prehistoric Populations from the Minusinsk Basin, Southern Siberia, Russia" (PDF). Radiocarbon. 51 (1): 243–273. doi:10.1017/S0033822200033798.
  53. ^ Peyrot, Michaël (2 December 2019). "The deviant typological profile of the Tocharian branch of Indo-European may be due to Uralic substrate influence". Indo-European Linguistics. 7 (1): 72–121. doi:10.1163/22125892-00701007. hdl:1887/139205. ISSN 2212-5884.
  54. ^ Zeng, Tian Chen; et al. (1 October 2023). "Postglacial genomes from foragers across Northern Eurasia reveal prehistoric mobility associated with the spread of the Uralic and Yeniseian languages". BioRxiv. doi:10.1101/2023.10.01.560332. We show how Yakutia_LNBA ancestry spread from an east Siberian origin ∼4.5kya, along with subclades of Y-chromosome haplogroup N occurring at high frequencies among present-day Uralic speakers, into Western and Central Siberia in communities associated with Seima-Turbino metallurgy: a suite of advanced bronze casting techniques that spread explosively across an enormous region of Northern Eurasia ∼4.0kya.
  55. ^ Kozintsev, A. G. (13 July 2023). "Okunev Culture and the Dene-Caucasian Macrofamily". Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia. 51 (2): 66–73. doi:10.17746/1563-0110.2023.51.2.066-073. ISSN 1563-0110.

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