Numidia

Kingdom of Numidia
Kingdom of Numidia
202 BC–25 BC
	Numidian coins under Massinissa
	Map of Numidia after the Punic Wars
Capital	Cirta (today Constantine, Algeria)
Official languages	Punic
Common languages	Numidian; Latin; Greek
Religion	Numitheism, Punic Religion
Government	Monarchy
King
• 202–148 BC	Masinissa
• 148 – 118 BC	Gulussa
• 148–140 BC	Mastanabal
• 118–117 BC	Hiempsal I
• 118–112 BC	Adherbal
• 118–105 BC	Jugurtha
• 105–88 BC	Gauda
• 88–81 BC	Masteabar
• 84–82 BC	Hiarbas II
• 88–60 BC	Hiempsal II
• 60–46 BC	Juba I
• 81–46 BC	Massinissa II
• 44–40 BC	Arabion
Historical era	Antiquity
• Established	202 BC
• Annexed by the Roman Empire	25 BC
Currency	Numidian Coinage, carthagenian coinage
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Ancient Carthage
	Massylii
	Masaesyli
Numidia (Roman province)
Mauretania
Today part of	Algeria; Libya; Tunisia;

Numidia was the ancient kingdom of the Numidians in northwest Africa, initially comprising the territory that now makes up Algeria,^[10] but later expanding across what is today known as Tunisia and Libya. The polity was originally divided between the Massylii state in the east (Capital: Cirta) and the Masaesyli state in the west (Capital: Siga).^[11] During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), Masinissa, king of the Massylii, defeated Syphax of the Masaesyli to unify Numidia into the first unified Berber state for Numidians in present-day Algeria.^[12] The kingdom began as a sovereign state and an ally of Rome and later alternated between being a Roman province and a Roman client state.

Numidia, at its foundation, was bordered by the Moulouya River to the west,^[13] Africa Proconsularis and Cyrenaica to the east.^[14]^[15] the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and the Sahara to the south so that Numidia entirely surrounded Carthage except towards the sea.^[16] before Masinissa expanded past the Moulouya and vassalizing Bokkar, and reaching the Atlantic ocean to the west.^[17]^[18]^[19]

Name

The Greek historians referred to these peoples as "Νομάδες" (i.e. Nomads), which by Latin interpretation became "Numidae" (but cf. also the correct use of Nomades).^[20] Historian Gabriel Camps, however, disputes this claim, favoring instead a local African origin for the term.^[21]

Despite their presence, the Numidians are scarcely mentioned in Greek and Roman historical accounts until the First Punic War (264–241 BC), when the Greek historian Polybius first noted their cavalry. He also indicated the peoples and territory west of Carthage including the entire north of Algeria as far as the river Mulucha (Muluya), about 160 kilometres (100 mi) west of Oran.^[22]

History

Background

The Numidians were a nomadic tribal people who inhabited North Africa, specifically the regions that now form northern Algeria and western Tunisia, during the final three centuries of the first millennium BC. Their lands bordered the Carthaginian hinterlands in eastern Tunisia to the east, the territory of the Mauri tribes to the west, and the Saharan edge occupied by the Gaetulians to the south.

By the time of the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the previously scattered Numidian tribes had consolidated into two great and rival tribal groups: the Massylii in eastern Numidia, and the Masaesyli in the west. During the first part of the Second Punic War, the eastern Massylii, under their king Gala, were allied with Carthage, while the western Masaesyli, under king Syphax, were allied with Rome. The Kingdom of Masaesyli under Syphax extended from the Moulouya river to Oued Rhumel.^[23] The Romans worked hard to cultivate Syphax's friendship, and helped to train his troops in the techniques of infantry warfare.

Syphax initially defeated Gala, but Gala’s son Masinissa, raised in Carthage, rallied forces and defeated Syphax twice by 212 BC, forcing him to flee. Masinissa then joined the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal Barca in Spain, where he played a key role in Carthaginian victories against Rome. After Gala’s death, Carthage stripped Masinissa’s family of their lands, prompting him to ally with Rome. Returning to Africa, he initially partnered with Syphax against Carthage. However, Hasdrubal married his daughter Sophonisba to Syphax, securing his loyalty to Carthage. Syphax defeated Masinissa twice in 205 BC, forcing him to retreat into the mountains, where he waged a guerrilla campaign, eluding capture and eventually joining forces with Scipio’s Roman army. In 204 BC, the Roman general Scipio Africanus landed in Africa with Roman forces, joined by Masinissa, whose tactical brilliance became evident when he helped destroy a combined Carthaginian-Numidian camp and later defeated Syphax and Hasdrubal at the Battle of Cirta in 203 BC. Masinissa captured Syphax and married Sophonisba, but Scipio, wary of her Carthaginian loyalty, demanded her surrender. To avoid enslavement, Sophonisba took poison, dying in 203 BC.

Establishment and apogee

Masinissa regained his father's kingdom, and also took control of much of Syphax's territory. The Second Punic War ended with a Roman victory at the battle of Zama in 202 BC, and Masinissa of the Massylii consolidated his position as the first king of a united Numidia with enthusiastic Roman patronage.^[22] The Romans were determined to keep a powerful ally in Africa to prevent the Carthaginians from threatening their hard-won hegemony in the western Mediterranean.

Massinissa, constantly encroaching on the territory left to the Carthaginians, had, by 158 BC, conquered Lepcis Magna and the Tripolitanian coast, bringing under his authority all the Berber tribes established between Cyrenaica and the Ampsaga River. Masinissa's territory extended from the Mulucha river to the boundary of the Carthaginian territory, and also southeast as far as Cyrenaica to the gulf of Sirte, so that Numidia entirely surrounded Carthage (Appian, Punica, 106) except towards the sea.^[16] Furthermore, after the capture of Syphax the king of the Masaesyli (West Algeria) with his capital based in Siga^[11] and after losing Siga had relocated to a temporary capital in Tinga, Bokkar, had become a vassal of Massinissa.^[17]^[18]^[19] Massinissa had also penetrated as far south beyond the Atlas to the Gaetuli and Fezzan was part of his domain.^[14]^[15]

Settled in Cirta, where he surrounded himself with the refinements of Greek and Roman civilizations, Masinissa disciplined his Berbers and trained them in agricultural work. Carthage, complaining about Massinissa’s encroachments as he had taken control of most of the emporia or African ports, thereby ruining its trade, appealed to Rome, which sent commissioners to investigate the grievances on-site. Among these envoys was Marcus Cato, who, upon observing the rapid recovery of Carthage, whose fleet and army had been rebuilt, advocated for the destruction of the Punic metropolis. He concluded all his reports and speeches with the words: “Moreover, I think Carthage must be destroyed.”

Rome, seeking a pretext for further intervention, found one when Massinissa attacked the Punic city of Oroscopa. Hasdrubal, leading a force of 30,000 men to relieve the city, was decisively defeated by Gulussa, Massinissa’s son, in 150 BC. Learning that Carthage had waged war against a prince allied with Rome, the Romans dispatched an army of 80,000 men to Africa. In 146 BC Carthage was obliterated by the armies of Consul Scipio Aemilianus in what is known as the Third Punic War. The victors reduced Carthage’s territory to a Roman province, which they named the “Province of Africa.”

Masinissa ruled for 55 years until his death in 148 BC, shortly before Rome’s destruction of Carthage in 146 BC. Micipsa succeeded him, reigning for another 30 years. The three sons of Massinissa jointly ruled Numidia, under Roman oversight. At the request of Masinissa, Scipio Aemilianus arranged a division of Masinissa's kingdom and inheritance. Micipsa managed the palace and the treasury in Cira, Gulussa was given command of the Numidian army and Mastanabal was appointed chief Judicial authority in the kingdom. On the death of his two brothers in 145 BC, Micipsa, finding himself sole heir to the kingdom of Massinissa, reigned in Cirta, with the help of his two sons Adherbal and Hiempsal I, and his nephew Jugurtha, son of his brother Manastabal.

Under Masinissa and his son Micipsa, Numidia flourished. During this era of stability, Numidia advanced significantly. Settled agriculture expanded alongside traditional pastoralism, towns grew more urbanized, and trade flourished through access to former Carthaginian ports. The kingdom maintained Roman favor by supplying grain and military auxiliaries, including cavalry, infantry, and elephants. The Numidian kings tried to involve themselves in the Greek-dominated Hellenistic culture of the eastern Mediterranean. In their coin portraits, Masinissa and Micipsa often wore a diadem, a white ribbon tied around the head and recognized as a Hellenistic symbol of monarchy. They financed the construction of Greek-style buildings in their cities, and one of Masinissa's sons even competed in the Panathenaic Games.

War with Rome

When Micipsa died in 118 BC, he was succeeded jointly by his two sons Hiempsal I and Adherbal and Jugurtha, who was very popular among the Numidians. Hiempsal and Jugurtha quarrelled immediately after the death of Micipsa.^[24] Jugurtha orchestrated the assassination of his cousin Hiempsal and expelled his other cousin, Adherbal, from Cirta. Adherbal fled to Rome to seek the Senate’s protection. However, Jugurtha had already bribed influential Romans, prompting the Senate to divide Numidia in 114 BCE: western Numidia was given to Jugurtha, while Adherbal retained the eastern portion. Jugurtha, having married the daughter of Bocchus, king of the western Mauri, amassed a large army and invaded Adherbal’s territory in 112 BC. Adherbal retreated to Cirta, where he endured a two-year siege. Starving, he surrendered, but Jugurtha executed him along with many Italians living in the city. Summoned before the Senate for this act, Jugurtha escaped punishment by bribing senators. Before leaving Rome, he assassinated Massiva, the son of Gulussa, who had lodged complaints against him. As he departed, Jugurtha famously declared, “O venal city, doomed to perish if it finds a buyer!”

Determined to end Jugurtha’s defiance, Rome sent the propraetor Aulus against him in 109 BCE. However, Aulus was ambushed near Suthul and forced to pass under the yoke with his soldiers. Consul Metellus then took command, leading an indecisive battle against Jugurtha’s forces near Theveste but later being compelled to retreat near Zama in 108 BCE. In 107 BCE, after regrouping, Metellus invaded Numidia, pushing Jugurtha’s Berber forces into retreat and capturing Cirta. Jugurtha fled to the Gaetulians and sought aid from Bocchus. Metellus was recalled and replaced by Consul Marius, who led an army of 50,000 men. Marius defeated the combined forces of Jugurtha and Bocchus near Sitifis after a three-day battle and returned to Cirta. Bocchus sought peace and, at the urging of Marius’s lieutenant Sulla, betrayed Jugurtha. Luring his son-in-law into his camp, Bocchus handed Jugurtha over to the Romans in 106 BCE. On January 1, 104 BCE, Marius celebrated a triumph in Rome, with the captured Jugurtha paraded in chains. That same evening, Jugurtha was thrown into the Tullianum prison,^[25] where he soon died from cold and starvation.^[26]

Divided kingdom

After the death of Jugurtha, western Numidia, which was now called Mauretania, was added to the lands of Bocchus I.^[22] Meanwhile, Gauda, another son of Manastabal who had remained loyal to Rome, was granted central Numidia. After Gauda’s death shortly thereafter, his sons Hiempsal II and Hiarbas divided their father’s kingdom, ruling under Roman supervision. These Numidian and Mauretanian kings, as Roman protégés, frequently traveled to Rome, where their children were often educated and held as hostages to ensure their loyalty. Fluent in Latin and living according to Roman customs, they supported the arts, beautified their cities in Roman style, and developed their lands, which supplied Italy with a variety of agricultural products. Italians were also settled in fertile regions of Berber lands, often on lands confiscated from the indigenous population. This contributed to the increasing Romanization of North Africa.

The kings of Numidia and Mauretania often took advantage of Roman internal conflicts to settle their own disputes. During the civil war between Marius and Sulla, Marius, exiled by Sulla, sought refuge with Hiarbas, while Hiempsal II supported the dictator Sulla in 88 BC. Hiarbas, with the help of Marius’s supporters, defeated his brother Hiempsal and seized his kingdom. To counter Hiarbas and the Marian faction he had revived in Africa, Sulla sent Gnaeus Pompey with six legions. Bocchus supported Pompey’s forces with a large contingent of Mauretanian cavalry commanded by Gauda, the son of his son Bogud. Hiarbas, defeated by Pompey and besieged in Bulla Regia, was eventually forced to surrender to Gauda and was executed after enduring severe torture. Hiempsal II regained his kingdom and was granted Hiarbas’ former territory in 81 BC. Around the same time, Bocchus died, and Mauretania was divided between his two sons: Bocchus II, who ruled the eastern part of the kingdom with the old Punic city of Iol as his capital, and Bogud, who inherited the western part with Tingi as its center.

Roman civil war and the end of the Numidian Kingdom

Juba, succeeding his father Hiempsal II in 50 BC, sought to take advantage of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey to free himself from Roman control. From the city of Hippo, which he made his capital, he rallied exiles who helped him organize his native troops effectively. After Caesar took Italy from the Senate’s faction, Attius Varus, a lieutenant of Pompey and leader of the senatorial army, proclaimed his general’s authority in Africa and allied with Juba. Together, they defeated the army of Gaius Scribonius Curio, Caesar’s lieutenant, at the Battle of the Bagradas in July 49 BC. Following Pompey’s orders, Varus blocked African ports to halt shipments of goods, leading to famine in Italy, where even slaves began to starve. However, an agreement was reached between the rival leaders, who, realizing the need to avoid depopulating Italy, eventually neutralized the food embargo.

After the Alexandrian War in Ptolemaic egypt ended favorably for Caesar. He installed Cleopatra as queen of Egypt, who bore him a son, Caesarion, and moved on to suppress a revolt in Armenia. He famously summarized this brief campaign, known as the Pontic War, with the words: “I came, I saw, I conquered.” The remnants of Pompey’s forces, having regrouped in Africa under Varus, were joined by Labienus (a former lieutenant of Caesar), Metellus Scipio (Pompey’s father-in-law), Afranius, Porcius Cato, and Gnaeus Pompey. With Juba’s support and his Berber troops, the republican army held off Caesar, forcing him to launch a new campaign against them.

From Rome, Caesar negotiated with Publius Sittius, a Campanian adventurer commanding a small army of Italians, Gauls, Spaniards, and Berbers in Africa. Promising Bocchus II and Bogud portions of Juba’s territory if they supported him, Caesar landed near Hadrumetum in November 47 BC. Initially outnumbered, with only 5,000 soldiers against his opponents’ 60,000, Caesar failed to take Hadrumetum but gained the allegiance of Ruspina and Leptis Parva. Meanwhile, his quaestor Sallustius Crispus captured the Cercina Islands, a key supply base for Pompey’s forces. Sittius captured Cirta, threatening Juba’s rear and forcing him to divert forces to deal with the insurgent Gaetulians. Reinforced with 30,000 men at Ruspina, Caesar besieged Thapsus. On February 6, 46 BC, he decisively defeated the allied forces attempting to relieve the city. Juba, attempting to reach Zama-Regia, found its gates closed and was killed by a slave as Caesar entered the city in triumph. Scipio, cornered by Sittius’s sailors in the Gulf of Hippo, stabbed himself and drowned.

Victorious, Caesar sent Juba I’s son to Rome, where he was educated in Roman culture and loyalty to its power. Caesar annexed eastern Numidia into the Roman province of Africa Nova, appointing his lieutenant Sallustius Crispus as governor. Sallust exploited the province, amassing wealth under the pretext of punishing it for supporting Pompey. Bocchus II was granted additional territory in Mauretania Sitifensis, while Bogud received western Numidia. Sittius, made legate, was awarded Cirta and its dependencies, taken from Masanasses, an ally of Juba. The surviving republican leaders fled to Spain, where Caesar, reinforced by Berber contingents under Bogud, defeated the Pompeian forces at Munda the following year. This marked the end of significant resistance to Caesar. Eastern Numidia was annexed in 46 BC to create a new Roman province, Africa Nova. Western Numidia was also annexed as part of the province Africa Nova after the death of its last king, Arabio, in 40 BC, and subsequently the province (except of western Numidia) was united with province Africa Vetus by Emperor Augustus in 25 BC, to create the new province Africa Proconsularis. During the brief period (30–25 BC) Juba II (son of Juba I) ruled as a client king of Numidia on the territory of former province Africa Nova.

Agriculture

The Numidian kingdom was very famous for its agricultural yield; besides lettuce, beans, and other grains already consumed by Berbers since the dawn of time, Numidia was very productive when it came to its famously high-quality wheat, very similar to the wheat farmed along the banks of the Egyptian Nile. According to Roman historian Pliny the elder:

Among the wheat imports of Rome, is light wheat imported from Gallia which does not surpass the weight of a bushel (Boisseau) 20 livres. The weight of the wheat of Sardinia surpasses that of Gallia by half a livre, the wheat of Biossia surpasses that of Gallia by an entire livre, whereas the wheat of Africa surpasses the weight of wheat of Gallia by a whole livre and three fourths.^[27]

In 179 BC, King Masinissa of Numidia received a golden crown from the inhabitants of Delos, as he had offered them a shipload of grain. A statue of Masinissa was erected in Delos in his honor, with an inscription by a native from Rhodes. His sons, too, had statues erected on the island of Delos; the King of Bithynia, Nicomedes, had also dedicated a statue to Masinissa.^[28] By 143 AD, the export of olive oil from Numidia rivaled its grain export throughout the Roman Empire.

In 200 BC, the Roman Army stationed in Macedonia received 17,508 hectoliters of Numidian wheat; in 198 BC, the Roman Army in Greece was sent, once again, the same amount of wheat. In 191 BC, Rome received 26,262 hectoliters of wheat and 21,885 hectoliters of barley; Greece, the same year, received 43,770 hectoliters of wheat and 26,262 hectoliters of barley. Then, in 171 BC, the Roman army in Macedonia received 87,540 hectoliters of wheat.

In total Rome received:^[30]

in 200 BC: 14,000 tonnes of wheat and 10,500 tonnes of barley.
in 198 BC: 14,000 tonnes of wheat.
in 191 BC: 56,000 tonnes of wheat and 28,900 tonnes of barley.
in 170 BC: 70,000 tonnes of wheat.

These numbers only represent a fraction from the reserves of the kingdom of Massinissa. His contributions to the Romans in 170 BC appear to be only a fraction of the kingdom's total production, as he was upset by Rome's decision to pay for the provided wheat that year. Massinissa hadn't laid his hands yet on the fertile lands of the Emporia (North West Ancient Libya) nor the great plains full of fertile soil yet; generally, barley was his kingdom's main produce, as they grew barley in light, mountainous and hilly soil which is suitable for its cultivation.

Architecture

The term “Royal Numidian Architecture” was coined for the monuments that were constructed by the Numidian kings.^[31] These monuments consist of tombs, tumuli and sanctuaries. Some examples of these structures are the mausoleum of Thugga, the tomb of Beni Rhenane, a tomb at Henchur Burgu in Djerba as well as two tumulus tombs known as the Madghacen and the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania.^[31] There are also altars that were built at Simitthus and Kbor Klib. All of these monuments were built within the area ruled by Massinissa and his descendants.^[31]

Navy and trade

Numidia took over most of the famous Carthaginian ports which were one of the most important in the mediterranean, the famous Roman orator and historian Cicero tells us that the Numidian king had a war navy to protect his trade, in one story, the fleet of Massinissa sailed to Malta and confiscated large ivory elephant pillars from the temple of Juno and returned to Numidia and gave it as a prize to Massinissa. When the king knew about the origin of the gift, he prepared a nimble fleet of five ships and sent it back to where it came from. This funny story tells us that not only Massinissa had enough ships to perform tasks at will but also these fleets were functioning outside of African shorelines towards the central mediterranean.

Unlike the Carthaginians who closed trade in face of the Greeks to large parts of North africa, Massinissa opened trade with the Greek, Egyptian, Syrian as well as Italic merchants, Massinissa used to provide to the population of Rhodes Toja wood and Ivory,^[32] in Cirta multiple Rhodian amphorae from the 2nd century B.C were found in burial sites and one of them carries the inscription (Sodamos).^[33]

Major cities

Numidia became highly romanized and was studded with numerous towns.^[22] The chief towns of Roman Numidia were: in the north, Cirta or modern Constantine, the capital, with its port Russicada (Modern Skikda); and Hippo Regius (near Bône), well known as the see of St. Augustine. To the south in the interior military roads led to Theveste (Tebessa) and Lambaesis (Lambessa) with extensive Roman remains, connected by military roads with Cirta and Hippo, respectively.^[22]^[34]

Lambaesis was the seat of the Legio III Augusta, and the most important strategic centre.^[22] It commanded the passes of the Aurès Mountains (Mons Aurasius), a mountain block that separated Numidia from the Gaetuli Berber tribes of the desert, and which was gradually occupied in its whole extent by the Romans under the Empire. Including these towns, there were altogether twenty that are known to have received at one time or another the title and status of Roman colonies; and in the 5th century, the Notitia Dignitatum enumerates no fewer than 123 sees whose bishops assembled at Carthage in 479.^[22]

Episcopal sees

See Numidia (Roman province)#Episcopal sees.

Explanatory notes

^ Punic and Neo-Punic was especially dominant during the early era of the Numidian kingdom. Several official Punic inscriptions survive, and Numidian coins were minted in Punic at first, likely because it was the most influential language when it came to trade in the area. Some historians even consider it the official language of Numidia during its early/mid eras.^[1]
^ Used especially in funerary and votive steles, with a few surviving "official" royal inscriptions.^[5]^[6]^[7]
^ During the later eras of Numidia, Latin started replacing Punic as the dominant secondary language inside Numidia. Coins were minted in Latin, and inscriptions in Latin began appearing,^[8] however, many of those Latin inscriptions may have been from the Roman era itself
^ Greek first appeared in the region through trade routes opened up by Massinissa, and gained traction and influence by the end of the kingdom when the Numidian dynasty intermarried and mixed with the Ptolemaic dynasty.^[9]

References

^ Quinn, Josephine Crawley; Vella, Nicholas C. (2014-12-04). The Punic Mediterranean. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05527-8.
^ Baldauf, Richard B.; Kaplan, Robert B. (2007-01-01). Language Planning and Policy in Africa. Multilingual Matters. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-84769-011-1. Numidic kings and elites spoke and used Punic as the official language while peasants spoke Berber. The Carthaginian idiom was in use until the third century CE
^ Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-521-21592-3. Punic was employed as the official language of the Numidian kingdom, as is shown by monumental inscriptions and coin legends. Numidia even became something of a centre of Punic literary culture. In 146 BC the Romans presented to Micipsa the captured library of Carthage, and in the following century, as has been seen, a Numidian king (Hiempsal II) wrote a history of his country in Punic.
^ Hoyos, B. Dexter (2015). Mastering the West: Rome and Carthage at War. Oxford University Press. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-19-986010-4. The Punic language and religion survived the cataclysm too. Many if not most Libyan communities used Punic for official purposes, as did the Numidian kingdom.
^ Boutammina, Nas E. (2022-01-06). Le numide, langue populaire de la Berbérie (in French). Books on Demand. ISBN 978-2-322-41710-0.
^ Chaker, S. (2008-01-01). "Libyque : écriture et langue". Encyclopédie berbère (in French) (28–29): 4395–4409. doi:10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.344. ISSN 1015-7344. S2CID 161729616.
^ Camps, G.; Claudot-Hawad, H.; Chaker, S.; Abrous, D. (1996-08-01). "Écriture". Encyclopédie berbère (in French) (17): 2564–2585. doi:10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.2125. ISSN 1015-7344.
^ Hirst, Anthony; Silk, Michael (2017-05-15). Alexandria, Real and Imagined. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-95959-9.
^ Roller, Duane W. (2004-02-24). The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-40296-0.
^ "Numidia". Livius. 23 Sep 2020. Retrieved 2 Aug 2024.
^ ^a ^b Abed, Bakhta Moukraenta (2015). Les villes de l'Algérie antique Tome I: Au travers des sources arabes du Moyen Âge (Province de la Maurétanie Césarienne) (in French). Presses Académiques Francophones. p. 226. ISBN 978-3-8381-7852-3.
^ Thomas M. Leonard (2013). Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Routledge. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-135-20508-9.
^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. Retrieved 16 February 2020.
^ ^a ^b Histoire des Romains depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à la fin du règne des Antonins: Depuis les Gracques jusqu'à la fin du règne de Claude. Victor Duruy. Hachette et cie
^ ^a ^b Storia della Libia dai tempi piu' [i.e. più] remoti ad oggi: compendio. Muḥammad Masʻūd Fushaykah. Stabilimento poligrafico editoriale Maggi.
^ ^a ^b Historical Dictionary of Morocco Aomar Boum, Thomas K. Park Rowman & Littlefield
^ ^a ^b Villes et tribus du Maroc: documents et renseignements, Volume 7 Morocco. Direction des affaires indigènes: “Les rois indigènes . Bokkar . Au début du troisième siècle avant JésusChrist , le Maroc obéissait à Bokkar , qui résidait à Tanger , capitale du royaume , et qui était un lieutenant du roi de Numidie Syphax. En 202 avant Jésus - Christ , après la capture de Syphax , il devint le vassal de Massinissa” H. Champion
^ ^a ^b Histoire du Maroc Coissac de Chavrebière Payot: “ La guerre tourna à l'avantage de Massinissa , allié des Romains . Syphax fut fait prisonnier ( 202 ) et Bokkar devint le vassal du vainqueur . « Massinissa , dit St. Gsell , rêvà d'être pour la civilisation punique ce que le Macédonien...”
^ ^a ^b Le Maroc Prosper Ricard Hachette: “En 202 avant J.-C. , elle était la résidence , disent les Anciens , de Bokkar , roi du Maroc , lieutenant de Syphax le numide , vassal de Massinissa . En 105 avant J.-C. , Bokkus [ er , allié de Sylla , livre aux Romains son gendre”
^ Numida and Nomas
^ Camps, Gabriel (1979). "Les Numides et la civilisation punique". Antiquités africaines (in French). 14 (1): 43–53. doi:10.3406/antaf.1979.1016.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Numidia" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 868–869.
^ UNESCO (1996-12-31). History of Humanity: From the Seventh Century B.C. to the Seventh Century A.D. UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 978-92-3-102812-0.
^ Sallust (c. 40 BCE), Jugurthine War XI–XIII.
^ Telford, Lynda (2014). Sulla: A Dictator Reconsidered. Pen and Sword. ISBN 9781473834507.
^ Connolly, Peter; Gillingham, John; Lazenby, George (2016). The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare. Routledge. p. 171. ISBN 9781135936747.
^ Erdkamp, Paul (3 November 2005). The Grain Market in the Roman Empire: A Social, Political and Economic Study. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-44768-3.
^ Edward Lipiński (2004). Itineraria Phoenicia. Peeters Publishers. pp. 168–169. ISBN 978-90-429-1344-8.
^ Historical Dictionary of Morocco Aomar Boum, Thomas K. Park Rowman & Littlefield
^ Livius, Titus (1882). Oeuvres de Tite-Live: Histoire romaine avec la traduction en français. Livres XXVII à XLV (in French). Firmin-Didot.
^ ^a ^b ^c Quinn, J. (2013). Monumental power: ‘Numidian Royal Architecture’ in context. In J. Prag & J. Quinn (Eds.), The Hellenistic West: Rethinking the Ancient Mediterranean (pp. 179-215). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139505987.008
^ Gsell, Stéphane (1929). Histoire d'Algérie: S[tephane] Gsell-G. Marçais-G. Yver. Ouvrage illustré de grav. hors texte (in French). Boivin.
^ Antiquités africaines (in French). Editions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique. 2005. ISBN 978-2-271-06342-7.
^ Detailed map of Roman Numidia

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