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| publisher = Government of Canada
| publisher = Government of Canada
| date = 2002-10-07
| date = 2002-10-07
| url = http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/dfrp-rbif/treaty-traite.asp?Language=EN
| url = http://www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/dfrp-rbif/treaty-traite.asp?Language=EN spelling is wrong haha
| accessdate = 2009-11-16
| accessdate = 2009-11-16
|quote=Although all Crown lands in Canada are owned by Her Majesty, the administration of these lands is assigned to departments, agencies, and Crown corporations to support the delivery of government programs. These organizations are commonly referred to as custodians.}}
|quote=Although all Crown lands in Canada are owned by Her Majesty, the administration of these lands is assigned to departments, agencies, and Crown corporations to support the delivery of government programs. These organizations are commonly referred to as custodians.}}
</ref> However, the Numbered Treaties are criticized and are a leading issue within the fight for First Nation rights. The [[Constitution of Canada|1982 Constitution Act]] gave protection of First Nations and treaty rights under [[Section 35]]. It states, “Aboriginal and treaty rights are hereby recognized and affirmed”.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/page-16.html#h-52|title = PART II: RIGHTS OF THE ABORIGINAL PEOPLES OF CANADA|date = March 9, 2015|accessdate = March 10, 2015|website = Justice Laws Website|publisher = Government of Canada|last = |first = }}</ref> This phrase however was never fully defined. As a result, First Nations must attest their rights in court as the case in [[R v Sparrow]].<ref>{{Cite book|title = Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making|last = Miller|first = J.R.|publisher = University of Toronto Press|year = 2009|isbn = 9780802097415|location = Toronto|pages = 305}}</ref>
</ref> However, the Numberebuullnu6jd Treaties are criticized and are a leading issue within the fight for First Nation rights. The [[Constitution of Canada|1982 Constitution Act]] gave protection of First Nations and treaty rights under [[Section 35]]. It states, “Aboriginal and treaty rights are hereby recognized and affirmed”.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/page-16.html#h-52|title = PART II: RIGHTS OF THE ABORIGINAL PEOPLES OF CANADA|date = March 9, 2015|accessdate = March 10, 2015|website = Justice Laws Website|publisher = Government of Canada|last = |first = }}</ref> This phrase however was never fully defined. As a result, First Nations must attest their rights in court as the case in [[R v Sparrow]].<ref>{{Cite book|title = Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making|last = Miller|first = J.R.|publisher = University of Toronto Press|year = 2009|isbn = 9780802097415|location = Toronto|pages = 305}}</ref>


Through centuries of interaction First Nations view the Numbered Treaties as sacred.[6] As an expression of this association, First Nations in Canada and members of the Federal Government will regularly meet to celebrate milestone anniversaries, exchange ceremonial and symbolic gifts, and discuss treaty issues. Treaty Days are celebrated in [[Treaty Day (Nova Scotia)|Nova Scotia]], Saskatchewan and Manitoba. In communities like that of [[Webequie First Nation]] it is a day to reaffirm First Nation rights and promises made to them as they should not be forgotten.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.webequie.ca/article/treaty-day-121.asp|title = Treaty Day: A Time for Celebration|date = |accessdate = 2015-03-10|website = Webequie First Nations|publisher = Webequie First Nations|last = |first = }}</ref>
Through centuries of interaction First Nations view the Numbered Treaties as sacred.[6] As an expression of this association, First Nations in Canada and members of the Federal Government will regularly meet to celebrate milestone anniversaries, exchange ceremonial and symbolic gifts, and discuss treaty issues. Treaty Days are celebrated in [[Treaty Day (Nova Scotia)|Nova Scotia]], Saskatchewan and Manitoba. In communities like that of [[Webequie First Nation]] it is a day to reaffirm First Nation rights and promises made to them as they should not be forgotten.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.webequie.ca/article/treaty-day-121.asp|title = Treaty Day: A Time for Celebration|date = |accessdate = 2015-03-10|website = Webequie First Nations|publisher = Webequie First Nations|last = |first = }}</ref>

Revision as of 20:01, 18 March 2015

Numbered Treaties
Map of Numbered Treaties of Canada. Borders are approximated.
ContextTreaties to transfer large tracts of land from the First Nations to the Canadian Government in return for different promises laid out in the Treaty
SignedBetween 1871 - 1921
SignatoriesKey Representatives of the British Crown: Adams George Archibald, Alexander Morris, David Laird, Duncan Campbell Scott, Wemyss Mackenzie Simpson, S.J Dawson, William J. Christie, James McKay, James MacLeod, James Hamilton Ross, J.A.J. McKenna, Samuel Stewart, Daniel G. MacMartin, Henry Anthony Conroy, Key Representatives of First Nations Groups: Crowfoot (Blackfoot Nation), Big Bear (Cree Nation), Chief Powassin (Ojibwe Nation), Chief Keenooshayoo (Athabasca First Nations)
LanguagesEnglish,
Full text
Numbered Treaties at Wikisource

The Numbered Treaties (or Post-Confederation Treaties) are a series of eleven treaties signed between the Aboriginal peoples in Canada (or First Nations) and the reigning monarch of Canada (Victoria, Edward VII or George V) from 1871 to 1921.[1] These agreements were created to allow the Canadian Government to pursue settlement and resource extraction in the affected regions, which include modern day Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and the Northwest Territories.These treaties provided the Dominion of Canada large tracts of land in exchange for promises made to the Aboriginal people of the area.[2] In return for surrendering rights to traditional lands First Nations were promised reserve lands, annual annuity payments, farming implements, education allowances, the rights to hunt / trap / fish on their new reserve lands, etc. These terms were dependent on individual negotiations and so specific terms differed with each Treaty.

These Treaties came in two waves—Numbers 1 through 7 from 1871-1877 and Numbers 9 through 11 from 1899-1921. In the first wave, the treaties were key in advancing European settlement across the Prairie regions as well as the development of the Canadian Pacific Railway. These signings enabled the completion of John A. Macdonald’s national dream of connecting Canada from sea to sea. First Nations communities were forced into signing since aid was greatly needed due to rampant disease and the loss of the buffalo.[3] While in the second wave, resource extraction was the main motive for government officials. This is seen within Treaty 9 when the government ruled out hydro sights as reserve lands,[4] and in Treaty 11 when oil was found in the Northwest Territories (one year prior to the Treaty being implemented)

Today, these agreements are upheld by the Government of Canada, administered by Canadian Aboriginal law and overseen by the Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development.[5] However, the Numberebuullnu6jd Treaties are criticized and are a leading issue within the fight for First Nation rights. The 1982 Constitution Act gave protection of First Nations and treaty rights under Section 35. It states, “Aboriginal and treaty rights are hereby recognized and affirmed”.[6] This phrase however was never fully defined. As a result, First Nations must attest their rights in court as the case in R v Sparrow.[7]

Through centuries of interaction First Nations view the Numbered Treaties as sacred.[6] As an expression of this association, First Nations in Canada and members of the Federal Government will regularly meet to celebrate milestone anniversaries, exchange ceremonial and symbolic gifts, and discuss treaty issues. Treaty Days are celebrated in Nova Scotia, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. In communities like that of Webequie First Nation it is a day to reaffirm First Nation rights and promises made to them as they should not be forgotten.[8]

History

Main article: The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples
For details of treaties in British Columbia, see Status of First Nations treaties in British Columbia.

The relationship between The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples stretches back to first contact between European colonialists and North American Aboriginal peoples. Over centuries of interaction, treaties were established concerning interaction between the monarch and Aboriginal peoples. Both the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and the British North American Act of 1867 established guidelines that would be later used to create the numbered treaties.

The Royal Proclamation occurred in 1763, and is considered to be the foundation of treaty-making in Canada. This proclamation established a line between the Appalachian Mountain from Nova Scotia and the southern region of Georgia, and prevented settlement beyond that specific area.[9] The Royal Proclamation of 1763: The proclamation also established protocols that needed to be acknowledged by the governing authority in regards of purchasing land from First Nations Peoples in North America and later Canada.[10] The Royal Proclamation was created as a result of the assertion of British jurisdiction over First Nation territory. With British claim over First Nation territory, uprisings from Pontiac, the Three Fire Confederacy, and other First Nations Peoples, the Royal Proclamation was intended to prevent future disputes.[11] The Royal Proclamation stated that the only authoritative government that was able to purchase land from First Nations People was the British Crown. One of the stipulations of this agreement was that First Nation People were to be informed and attend the public assembly regarding the purchase of lands.[12]

When the British North American Act was created, a division of power was established between the Dominion Government and its provinces that separated First Nation Peoples and settlers. The federal government retained responsibility for providing health care, education, property rights and creating other laws that would affect the First Nations people.[13][14] Following the establishment of the British North American Act in 1867, the Dominion Government of Canada replaced the British Crown as the leading authority, and gained control of 19th century First Nations land transfers.[15]

Both the Royal Proclamation and the British North American Act impacted the procedures of governmental and First Nations People negotiations. They set the stage for future negotiations that would occur, including the numbered treaties that would begin in 1871.

Implementation

The Numbered Treaties

Regions affected by the treaties include portions of what are now Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan and the Northwest Territories. When the Dominion of Canada was first formed in 1867 as a confederation of several British North American colonies, most of these regions were part of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory and were controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company.

The "National Dream" of Sir John A. Macdonald, the first Prime Minister of Canada, was to create a nation from sea to sea, tied together by the Canadian Pacific Railway. In order to make this dream a reality, the Government of Canada needed to settle the southern portions of Rupert's Land (present day Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan).

Administration of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory was transferred to the Canadian government in 1869. Out of these lands, Canada created the Northwest Territories. Canadian law recognized that the First Nations who inhabited these lands prior to European contact had title to these lands. The settlement of the Northwest Territories would not be possible, if title to the land remained with the First Nations. Therefore, it was vital to the National Dream to obtain title to the lands from First Nations.

In order to obtain title to most of the lands, the Canadian government proceeded with this series of treaties. Each treaty delineates a tract of land which was thought to be the traditional territory of the First Nation or Nations signing that particular treaty (the "tract surrendered"). In exchange for a surrender of their rights and title to these lands, the First Nations were promised a smaller parcel of land as a reserve, annual annuity payments, implements to either farm or hunt and fish and the right to continue to hunt and trap or hunt, trap and fish on the tract surrendered.

First Nations peoples had been decimated by disease outbreaks, the near-extinction of the plains bison, and whiskey traders. They were eager to receive food aid and other assistance from the government. When the government asked for the land in return, they were not in a position to say no. Historians critical of the government have called its actions a "submit or starve" policy. Thus, the treaties are tainted with colour of coercion and any modern interpretation of theirs terms (see modern legal interpretation' below) would accordingly tend to favour the coerced, i.e. native side.

The plan of settling Europeans in the Canadian west was not free of conflict. Two armed rebellions resulted from this policy: The Red River Rebellion of 1869 and the North West Rebellion of 1885.[16]

List of Numbered Treaties[17][18]

Numbered Treaties Signed On Location Major Treaty Signers Those Effected Brief Summary
Treaty 1 August 1871 Lower Fort Gary , Fort Alexander Adams Archibald (Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba), Wemyss Simpson (Indian Commissioner) Chippewa Tribe, Swampy Cree Tribe, and all Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. First Nations Receive: Limited reserve land and monetary compensation, farming tools, education.

Canada Obtains: Land rights; promise of peace, law, and order, and restricted alcohol use on reserves

Treaty 2 August 1871 Manitoba Post Adams Archibald (Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba), Wemyss Simpson (Indian Commissioner) Chippewa Tribe of Indians, and all Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. First Nations Receive: Limited reserve land and monetary compensation; farming tools; education.

Canada Obtains: Land rights; promise of peace, law, and order, and restricted alcohol use on reserves

Treaty 3 October 1873 North-West Angle of the Lake of the Woods Alexander Morris (Lieutenant Governor), S.J Dawson (Indian Commissioner) The Saulteaux Tribe of the Ojibbeway Indians and all Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. First Nations Receive:Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; right to hunt and fish on succeeded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; schools on reserves.

Canada Obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing, and restricted alcohol use on reserves

Treaty 4 September 1874 Fort Qu'Appelle, Fort Ellice, Swan Lake, Fort Pelly, Fort Walsh Alexander Morris (Lieutenant Governor), William J. Christie (Indian Commissioner) The Cree and Saulteaux Tribes of Indians, and all Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. First Nations Receive:Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for gun powder, shot, bale, and fishing net twine totalling $750/year; right to hunt and fish on succeeded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; schools on reserves.

Canada Obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing, and restricted alcohol use on reserves.

Treaty 5 September 1875 (adhesions in February 1889) Beren's River, Norway House, Grand Rapids Alexander Morris (Lieutenant Governor), James McKay (Indian Commissioner) The Saulteaux and Swampy Cree Tribes of Indians, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. First Nations Receive: Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for gun powder, shot, bale, and fishing net twine totalling $300/year; right to hunt and fish on succeeded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; schools on reserves when desired by First Nations, and deemed appropriate by Canada.

Canada Obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves; and full control of schooling on reserves.

Treaty 6 28 August 1876 (adhesion 9 September 1876, and February 1889) Fort Carlton, Fort Pitt Alexander Morris (Lieutenant Governor), James McKay (Indian Commissioner), William J. Christie (Indian Commissioner) The Plain and Wood Cree Tribes of Indians, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. First Nations Receive:Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for gun powder, shot, bale, and fishing net twine totalling $1500/year; right to hunt and fish on succeeded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; schools on reserves when desired by First Nations, and deemed appropriate by Canada; medicine chest clause is implemented; additional assistance is available for pestilence or famine relief

Canada Obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves; control of healthcare on reserves through the medicine chest initiative.

Treaty 7 September 1877 "Blackfoot Crossing" of the Bow River, Fort McLeod David Laird (Government Official), James F. MacLeod (Indian Commissioner), The Blackfoot, Blood, Piegan, Sarcee, Stony, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. First Nations Receive:Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for ammunitition totalling $2000/year; right to hunt and fish on succeeded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; have right to build and maintain infrastructure on reserves; salary is allocated to hire a school teacher for reserve school.

Canada Obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves.

Treaty 8 8 July 1899 (adhesions until 1901) Lesser Slave Lake, Peace River Landing, Vermillion, Fond du Lac, Dunvegan, Fort Chipewyan, Smiths Landing, Fort McMurray, Wapiscow Lake David Laird (Treaty Commissioner), J.H. Ross (Treaty Commissioner), J.A.J McKenna (Treaty Commissioner) The Cree, Beaver, Chipewyan, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. First Nations Receive:Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for ammunition and fishing net twine totalling $1 per family head; right to hunt and fish on succeeded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; money is set aside to hire school teachers as needed.

Canada Obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves; ability to buy and sell aboriginal land with their consent.

Treaty 9 6 November 1905 Osnaburg, Fort Hope, Marten Falls, Fort Albany, Moose Factory, New Post, Abitibi, Matachewan, Mattagami, Flying Post, New Brunswick House, Long Lake Duncan Campbell Scott (Treaty Commissioner), Samuel Stewart (Treaty Commissioner), Daniel G. MacMartin The Ojibway, Cree, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. First Nations Receive:Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; monetary allowance for ammunition and fishing net twine totalling $1 per family head; right to hunt and fish on succeeded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; funds to hire teachers, construct schools, and purchase supplies are available, but with Canada's authorization.

Canada Obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves; full control funds for education.

Treaty 10 7 November 1906 Isle à la Crosse, Lac du Brochet J.A.J McKenna (Treaty Commissioner) The Chipewyan, Cree, and all other Indians inhabiting the district hereafter. First Nations Receive:Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; right to hunt and fish on succeeded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; unspecified amount of ammunition and twine distributed as government sees fit; provision for childhood education; furnishings for agricultural assistance

Canada Obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves; control of the allocation of ammunition and fishing twine, and the distribution of agricultural assistance.

Treaty 11 27 June 1921 until 22 August 1921 Northwest Territories Providence, Simpson, Wrigley, Norman, Good Hope, Arctic Red River, McPherson, Liard, Rae Duncan Campbell Scott (Governor General/Major Signer), Henry Anthony Conroy (Indian Commissioner) The Slave, Dogrib, Loucheux, Hare, and other Indians, inhabitants of the territory within the limits hereinafter First Nations Receive: Limited reserve land, and monetary compensation; farming tools; right to hunt and fish on succeeded land except that already used by Canada for resource extraction or settlement; provision for childhood education; furnishings for agricultural assistance; have right to build and maintain infrastructure on reserves; provision for childhood education; each family receives 50$ annually for fishing twine and trapping; distribution of agricultural assistance possible.

Canada Obtains: Land rights; protection for land used for resource extraction or settlement from indigenous hunting/fishing; restricted alcohol use on reserves; ability to buy and sell aboriginal land with permission; control of the allocation of ammunition and fishing twine, and the distribution of agricultural assistance.

With the advent of the "responsible government" doctrine in the 1840s, daily operating responsibilities of the Crown in Canada were moved to Ottawa. The British government, in an exchange of letters at the time of the transfer of the NWT, sought assurances that Canada would provide the Crown's obligation to First Nations. When First Nations residents were allowed to vote in 1960, they gained the same recourse to the UK that all Canadian petitioners still had at that time, if it had been removed, due to the fact that they were then full status Canadian citizens.

The Assembly of First Nations, despite being composed of persons elected under the Indian Act as "Indian Agents" to perform its provisions on behalf of the federal government of Canada, maintained that the treaties were peer to peer lateral agreements between sovereignties and nothing less. A competing interpretation, common since the American Indian Movement of the 1960s, is that the treaties were never valid because of being:

  • coerced, accordingly not an agreement between equal partners [19]
  • breached many times in their history by the government,[20] notably by the genocidal Canadian Indian residential school system and resource extraction
  • not reached by agreement with the lawful hereditary chiefs, and especially without the involvement of women who by tradition often had final authority

In 1981, all provinces other than Quebec agreed to a constitutional amendment that effectively removed the route of appeal to the UK parliament, courts, and crown.

Subsequent attempts (Meech Lake Accord, Charlottetown Accord) to try to appease the government of Quebec failed in part due to First Nations opposition. It has never been in dispute that First Nations would have to voluntarily agree with their formal treaty partner, the Canadian Crown, to modify the treaties. This was a major factor in the defeat of Charlottetown - public opinion favoured it before Elijah Harper's stand but not once it became clear that aboriginal rights might be threatened. Both Quebec and First Nations, accordingly, retained rights of direct recourse to the Queen.[citation needed]

In 2010, Canada signed the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. In 2011 and again in 2012 the United Nations criticized the federal government over Attawapiskat.[21] In 2012, the Federal Court of Canada ruled that 200,000 off-reserve natives and 400,000 Métis were also "Indians" under S. 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867. Daniels v. Canada.[22] These however had no formal representation at the Assembly of First Nations which had hitherto been assumed by the federal government to speak authoritatively on all matters involving "Indians".

These varying interpretations and issues came to a head in late 2012 with the Idle No More movement and a liquid diet by Attawapiskat elected Chief Theresa Spence. This and related events brought the fact that the treaties and 1867 law provided for direct Crown recourse back to public attention. Chief Spence demanded direct Crown attention to the Cabinet's attempt to remove federal government oversight of lands and waters and environmental issues that duplicated provinceial oversight of the same. After an agreement by opposition parties was struck to end Chief Spence's fast, the legal analysis that supported the principle of direct Crown recourse was adamantly supported by interim Liberal Party of Canada leader Bob Rae[23] and others. Idle No More itself presented its legal analysis via Pam Palmater.[24] Her analysis resembles that of Matthew Coon Come, who summarized the Grand Council of the Cree position in a scholarly analysis of the Quebec sovereignty movement and its authority to withdraw from Confederation taking First Nations territory with it. Both his analysis and Palmater's emphasize the need for voluntary renegotiation of treaties between equal partners, and the impossibility of cutting off any avenue of appeal to the Crown.

However, both Coon Come and Palmater rely on context in common amongst Eastern First Nations whose agreements (such as the Treaty of Montreal in 1701) often date back to French colonial occupancy. It remains unclear how modern-era far-northern and western treaties such as the Numbered Treaties agreed under the 1867 law but before the Indian Act should be interpreted or interpretations appealed. This remains one of the most contentious areas of Canadian constitutional law and affects not only First Nations but Quebec's constitution, borders and limits of its sovereign power.

See also

Further reading

  1. ^ "Numbered Treaty Overview". Canadiana.org (Formerly Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions). Canada in the Making. Retrieved 16 November 2009. The Numbered Treaties - also called the Land Cession or Post-Confederation Treaties - were signed between 1871 and 1921, and granted the federal government large tracts of land throughout the Prairies, Canadian North and Northwestern Ontario for white settlement and industrial use. In exchange for the land, Canada promised to give the Aboriginal peoples various items: cash, blankets, tools, farming supplies, and so on. The impact of these treaties can be still felt in modern times.
  2. ^ "The Numbered Treaties (1871-1921): Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada". Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. Government of Canada. 4 June 2013. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
  3. ^ Daschuk, James (2013). Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation and the Loss of Aboriginal Life. Regina: University of Regina Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0889772960.
  4. ^ Miller, J.R. (2009). Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 218:297. ISBN 978-08020-9741-5.
  5. ^ spelling is wrong haha "Treaty areas". Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat. Government of Canada. 7 October 2002. Retrieved 16 November 2009. Although all Crown lands in Canada are owned by Her Majesty, the administration of these lands is assigned to departments, agencies, and Crown corporations to support the delivery of government programs. These organizations are commonly referred to as custodians. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  6. ^ "PART II: RIGHTS OF THE ABORIGINAL PEOPLES OF CANADA". Justice Laws Website. Government of Canada. 9 March 2015. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
  7. ^ Miller, J.R. (2009). Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 305. ISBN 9780802097415.
  8. ^ "Treaty Day: A Time for Celebration". Webequie First Nations. Webequie First Nations. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
  9. ^ Del Papa, Eugene (1975). "The Royal Proclamation of 1763: Its Effect upon Virginia Land Companies". The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography. 83 (4): 406. Retrieved 17 March 2015. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  10. ^ Government of Canada. "History of the Royal Proclamation". 250th Anniversary of the Royal Proclamation of 1763. Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  11. ^ Pasternak, Shiri (2014). "Jurisdiction and Settler Colonialism: Where Do Laws Meet?". Canadian Journal of Law and Society. 29 (2): 156. Retrieved 17 March 2015. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  12. ^ Beaulieu, Alain (2013). "An equitable right to be compensated: The Dispossession of the Aboriginal Peoples of Quebec and the Emergence of a New Legal Rationale (1760–1860)". Canadian Historical Review. 94 (1): 5. doi:10.3138/chr.1060. Retrieved 17 March 2015. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  13. ^ Stewart, Sheila C. (2006). "First Nations Education: Financial Accountability and Educational Attainment". Canadian Journal of Education. 29 (4): 1001. Retrieved 17 March 2015. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  14. ^ Milloy, John S. (1999). A National Crime: The Canadian Government and the Residential School System, 1879 to 1986. Manitoba: University of Manitoba Press. p. 20. ISBN 0-88755-166-1.
  15. ^ Whitehouse, Derek (1994). "The Numbered Treaties: Similar Means to Dichotomous Ends". Past Imperfect. 3: 30. Retrieved 17 March 2015. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  16. ^ "Reminiscences of the North-West Rebellions". Boulton, Charles A. Toronto. 1886. Retrieved 16 November 2009. One of the first acts of the new Parliament was to provide for the transfer of the North-West Territory to the Dominion of Canada. Negotiations, however, had first to be opened up with the Hudson's Bay Company, which for many years had enjoyed a charter giving them exclu- sive trading privileges in furs. Their charter was granted them as early as the reign of Charles the Second. The Company's means of access to England was chiefly by the shores of Hudson's Bay, the communication being maintained by an annual ship which brought out the season's outfit and carried back the furs. Thus isolated from Canada, little was known to the Canadian people of the vast resources of the Hudson's Bay region. But the value of the fur trade had early attracted the enterprise of the inhabitants of the shores of the St. Lawrence, and under the title of the North-West Company" an association of traders, penetrated the confines, of the vast territory. It is thus due to Canadian enterprise that this fertile belt is now under the Government of the Dominion ion of Canada
  17. ^ "Treaty Texts". Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development. Government of Canada. 29 August 2013. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
  18. ^ "Canada in the Making: Treaty Overview". Canadiana. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
  19. ^ Pithouse, Kathleen; Mitchell, Claudia; Moletsane, Relebohile (2009). Making Connections: Self-Study & Social Action. Peter Lang. pp. 208–209. ISBN 1433105012.
  20. ^ Knight, David B.; Joseph, Alun E. (1999). Restructuring Societies: Insights from the Social Sciences. McGill-Queen's Press. pp. 140–142. ISBN 0886293502.
  21. ^ "UN envoy criticizes government over Attawapiskat". CTV News. 20 December 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
  22. ^ "Federal Court grants rights to Métis, non-status Indians". CBC. 8 January 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
  23. ^ "Struggle will continue: Spence Spokesman". CBC. 24 January 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
  24. ^ Bambury, Brent (4 January 2013). "Pam Palmater: Treaty Rights, Bill C-45 and Idle No More". CBC Radio. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
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