Jump to content

Brutalist architecture

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from New brutalism)
"Brutalism" redirects here. For other uses, see Brutalism (disambiguation).

Brutalist architecture
Top row: Park Hill flats in Sheffield, England; Soviet-era housing in Talnakh, Russia; Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex in Caracas, Venezuela. Middle row: Royal National Theatre in London; Boston City Hall; Soviet-era housing in Saint Petersburg. Bottom row: Robarts Library in Toronto, Canada; Barbican Centre in the City of London; Alexandra Road Estate in London.
Years active1950s – early 1980s
LocationInternational

Brutalist architecture is an architectural style that emerged during the 1950s in the United Kingdom, among the reconstruction projects of the post-war era.[1][2][3][4][5] Brutalist buildings are characterised by minimalist constructions that showcase the bare building materials and structural elements over decorative design.[6][7] The style commonly makes use of exposed, unpainted concrete or brick, angular geometric shapes and a predominantly monochrome colour palette;[7][8] other materials, such as steel, timber, and glass, are also featured.[9]

Descending from the modernist movement, brutalism is said to be a reaction against the nostalgia of architecture in the 1940s.[10] Derived from the Swedish phrase nybrutalism, the term "new brutalism" was first used by British architects Alison and Peter Smithson for their pioneering approach to design.[8][11][12] The style was further popularised in a 1955 essay by architectural critic Reyner Banham, who also associated the movement with the French phrases béton brut ("raw concrete") and art brut ("raw art").[13][14] The style, as developed by architects such as the Smithsons, Hungarian-born Ernő Goldfinger, and the British firm Chamberlin, Powell & Bon, was partly foreshadowed by the modernist work of other architects such as French-Swiss Le Corbusier, Estonian-American Louis Kahn, German-American Mies van der Rohe, and Finnish Alvar Aalto.[7][15]

In the United Kingdom, brutalism was featured in the design of utilitarian, low-cost social housing influenced by socialist principles and soon spread to other regions around the world, while being echoed by similar styles like in Eastern Europe.[16][6][7][17] Brutalist designs became most commonly used in the design of institutional buildings, such as provincial legislatures, public works projects, universities, libraries, courts, and city halls. The popularity of the movement began to decline in the late 1970s, with some associating the style with urban decay and totalitarianism.[7] Brutalism's popularity in socialist and communist nations owed to traditional styles being associated with bourgeoisie, whereas concrete emphasized equality.[18]

Brutalism has been polarising historically; specific buildings, as well as the movement as a whole, have drawn a range of criticism (often being described as "cold" or "soulless") but have also elicited support from architects and a small number of local communities (with many brutalist buildings having become official, if not popular, cultural icons, sometimes obtaining a protected status).[6]

History

[edit]
Villa Göth (1950) in Kåbo, Uppsala, Sweden. "New Brutalism" was used for the first time to describe this house.

The term nybrutalism (new brutalism)[19] was coined by the Swedish architect Hans Asplund to describe Villa Göth, a modern brick home in Uppsala, designed in January 1950[11] by his contemporaries Bengt Edman and Lennart Holm.[12] Showcasing the 'as found' design approach that would later be at the core of brutalism, the house displays visible I-beams over windows, exposed brick inside and out, and poured concrete in several rooms where the tongue-and-groove pattern of the boards used to build the forms can be seen.[20][13] The term was picked up in the summer of 1950 by a group of visiting English architects, including Michael Ventris, Oliver Cox, and Graeme Shankland, where it apparently "spread like wildfire, and [was] subsequently adopted by a certain faction of young British architects".[19][21][12]

The first published usage of the phrase "new brutalism" occurred in 1953, when Alison Smithson used it to describe a plan for their unbuilt Soho house which appeared in the November issue of Architectural Design.[13][9] She further stated: "It is our intention in this building to have the structure exposed entirely, without interior finishes wherever practicable."[12][13] The Smithsons' Hunstanton School completed in 1954 in Norfolk, and the Sugden House completed in 1955 in Watford, represent the earliest examples of new brutalism in the United Kingdom.[4] Hunstanton school, likely inspired by Mies van der Rohe's 1946 Alumni Memorial Hall at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago, United States, is notable as the first completed building in the world to carry the title of "new brutalist" by its architects.[22][23] At the time, it was described as "the most truly modern building in England".[24]

The term gained increasingly wider recognition when British architectural historian Reyner Banham used it to identify both an ethic and aesthetic style, in his 1955 essay The New Brutalism. In the essay, Banham described Hunstanton and the Soho house as the "reference by which The New Brutalism in architecture may be defined."[13] Reyner Banham also associated the term "new brutalism" with art brut and béton brut, meaning "raw concrete" in French, for the first time.[19][25][26] The best-known béton brut architecture is the proto-brutalist work of the Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier, in particular his 1952 Unité d'habitation in Marseille, France; the 1951–1961 Chandigarh Capitol Complex in India; and the 1955 church of Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp, France.

Banham further expanded his thoughts in the 1966 book, The New Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic?, to characterise a somewhat recently established cluster of architectural approaches, particularly in Europe.[27] In the book, Banham says that Le Corbusier's concrete work was a source of inspiration and helped popularise the movement, suggesting "if there is one single verbal formula that has made the concept of Brutalism admissible in most of the world's Western languages, it is that Le Corbusier himself described that concrete work as 'béton-brut'".[28] He further states that "the words 'The New Brutalism' were already circulating, and had acquired some depth of meaning through things said and done, over and above the widely recognised connection with béton brut. The phrase still 'belonged' to the Smithsons, however, and it was their activities above all others that were giving distinctive qualities to the concept of Brutalism."[29]

Motif

[edit]
Student dormitory (1971) by Georgi Konstantinovski in Skopje, North Macedonia
"TV buildings" named for the con­crete window frames that resemble TV screens (Belgrade, Serbia)

New brutalism is not only an architectural style; it is also a philosophical approach to architectural design, a striving to create simple, honest, and functional buildings that accommodate their purpose, inhabitants, and location.[30][31] Stylistically, brutalism is a strict, modernistic design language that has been said to be a reaction to the architecture of the 1940s, much of which was characterised by a retrospective nostalgia.[32] Peter Smithson believed that the core of brutalism was a reverence for materials, expressed honestly, stating "Brutalism is not concerned with the material as such but rather the quality of material",[33] and "the seeing of materials for what they were: the woodness of the wood; the sandiness of sand."[34] Architect John Voelcker explained that the "new brutalism" in architecture "cannot be understood through stylistic analysis, although some day a comprehensible style might emerge",[35] supporting the Smithsons' description of the movement as "an ethic, not an aesthetic".[36] Reyner Banham felt the phrase "the new brutalism" existed as both an attitude toward design as well as a descriptive label for the architecture itself and that it "eludes precise description, while remaining a living force". He attempted to codify the movement in systematic language, insisting that a brutalist structure must satisfy the following terms, "1, Formal legibility of plan; 2, clear exhibition of structure, and 3, valuation of materials for their inherent qualities 'as found'."[13] Also important was the aesthetic "image", or "coherence of the building as a visual entity".[13]

Brutalist buildings are usually constructed with reoccurring modular elements representing specific functional zones, distinctly articulated and grouped together into a unified whole. There is often an emphasis on graphic expressions in the external elevations and in the whole-site architectural plan in regard to the main functions and people-flows of the buildings.[37] Buildings may use materials such as concrete, brick, glass, steel, timber, rough-hewn stone, and gabions among others.[8] However, due to its low cost, raw concrete is often used and left to reveal the basic nature of its construction with rough surfaces featuring wood "shuttering" produced when the forms were cast in situ.[8] Examples are frequently massive in character (even when not large) and challenge traditional notions of what a building should look like with focus given to interior spaces as much as exterior.[13][8]

A common theme in brutalist designs is the exposure of the building's inner-workings—ranging from their structure and services to their human use—in the exterior of the building. In the Boston City Hall, designed in 1962, the strikingly different and projected portions of the building indicate the special nature of the rooms behind those walls, such as the mayor's office or the city council chambers. From another perspective, the design of the Hunstanton School included placing the facility's water tank, normally a hidden service feature, in a prominent, visible tower. Rather than being hidden in the walls, Hunstanton's water and electric utilities were delivered via readily visible pipes and conduits.[13]

Brutalism as an architectural philosophy was often associated with a socialist utopian ideology, which tended to be supported by its designers, especially by Alison and Peter Smithson, near the height of the style. Indeed, their work sought to emphasize functionality and to connect architecture with what they viewed as the realities of modern life.[30] Among their early contributions were "streets in the sky" in which traffic and pedestrian circulation were rigorously separated, another theme popular in the 1960s.[37] This style had a strong position in the architecture of European communist countries from the mid-1960s to the late 1980s (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, USSR, Yugoslavia).[38] In Czechoslovakia, Brutalism was presented as an attempt to create a "national" but also "modern socialist" architectural style. Such prefabricated socialist era buildings are called panelaky.

Designers

[edit]
Habitat 67 (1967) in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, is a Brutalist building.[39]
The Bayamón City Hall (1980) is an example of Brutalist architecture in Puerto Rico

In the United Kingdom, architects associated with the brutalist style include Ernő Goldfinger, wife-and-husband pairing Alison and Peter Smithson, some of the work of Sir Basil Spence, the London County Council/Greater London Council Architects Department, Owen Luder, John Bancroft, and, arguably perhaps, Sir Denys Lasdun, Sir Leslie Martin, Sir James Stirling and James Gowan with their early works. Some well-known examples of brutalist-influenced architecture in the British capital include the Barbican Centre (Chamberlin, Powell and Bon) and the National Theatre (Denys Lasdun).

In the United States, Paul Rudolph and Ralph Rapson were both noted brutalists.[40] Evans Woollen III, a pacesetter among architects in the Midwest, is credited for introducing the Brutalist and Modernist architecture styles to Indianapolis, Indiana.[41] Walter Netsch is known for his brutalist academic buildings. Marcel Breuer was known for his "soft" approach to the style, often using curves rather than corners. In Atlanta, Georgia, the architectural style was introduced to Buckhead's affluent Peachtree Road with the Ted Levy-designed Plaza Towers and Park Place on Peachtree condominiums. Many of the stations of the Washington Metro, particularly older stations, were constructed in the brutalist style. Architectural historian William Jordy says that although Louis Kahn was "[o]pposed to what he regarded as the muscular posturing of most Brutalism", some of his work "was surely informed by some of the same ideas that came to momentary focus in the brutalist position."[42]

The interior ceiling of the Washington Metro stations are Brutalist.

In Australia, examples of the brutalist style are Robin Gibson's Queensland Art Gallery, Ken Woolley's Fisher Library at the University of Sydney (his State Office Block is another), the High Court of Australia and Warringah Civic Centre by Christopher Kringas, the MUSE building (also referred to as C7A MUSE) which was the original Library at Macquarie University before the new library replaced it, and WTC Wharf (World Trade Centre in Melbourne).[43] John Andrews's government and institutional structures in Australia also exhibit the style.

Canada possesses numerous examples of brutalist architecture. In the years leading to the 100th anniversary of the Confederation in 1967, the Federal Government financed the construction of many public buildings.[44] Major brutalist examples, not all built as part of the Canadian Centennial, include the Grand Théâtre de Québec, the Édifice Marie-Guyart (formerly Complex-G), Hôtel Le Concorde, and much of the Laval University campus in Quebec City; Habitat 67, Place Bonaventure, the Maison de Radio-Canada, and several metro stations on the Montreal Metro's Green Line; the Confederation Centre of the Arts in Charlottetown;[44] the National Arts Centre in Ottawa; the Hotel Dieu Hospital in Kingston; the Ontario Science Centre, Robarts Library, Rochdale College in Toronto; Royal Manitoba Theatre Centre and Canadian Grain Commission building in Winnipeg;[45] and the church of the Westminster Abbey in British Columbia.[46]

In Serbia, Božidar Janković was a representative of the so-called "Belgrade School of residence", identifiable by its functionalist relations on the basis of the flat[47][48] and elaborated in detail the architecture. Known example, Western City Gate also known as the Genex Tower is a 36-storey skyscraper in Belgrade, Serbia, which was designed in 1977 by Mihajlo Mitrović.[49] It is formed by two towers connected with a two-storey bridge and revolving restaurant at the top. It is 117 m (384 ft) tall[50] (with restaurant 135–140 m (443–459 ft)) and is the second-tallest high-rise in Belgrade after Ušće Tower. The building was designed in the brutalist style with some elements of structuralism and constructivism. It is considered a prime representative of the brutalist architecture in Serbia and one of the best of its style built in the 1960s and the 1970s in the world. The treatment of the form and details is slightly associating the building with postmodernism and is today one of the rare surviving representatives of this style's early period in Serbia. The artistic expression of the gate marked an entire era in Serbian architecture.[50]

In Vietnam, brutalist architecture is particularly popular among old public buildings and has been associated with the bao cấp era (lit: subsidizing), the period during which the country followed Soviet-type economic planning. Many Soviet architects, most notably Garol Isakovich, were sent to Vietnam during that time to help train new architects and played an influential role in shaping the country's architectural styles for decades.[51] Isakovich himself also designed some of the most notable brutalist buildings in Vietnam, including the Vietnam-Soviet Friendship Palace of Culture and Labour (1985).[52] In his later years, Isakovich, who was awarded the Hero of Labor by the Vietnamese government in 1976, is said to have deviated from the brutalist style and adopted Vietnamese traditional styles in his design, which has been referred to by some Vietnamese architects as Chủ nghĩa hiện đại địa phương (lit: local modernism) and hậu hiện đại (postmodernism).[51] In the former South Vietnam, notable buildings that are said to carry brutalist elements include the Independence Palace (1966)[53] designed by Ngô Viết Thụ, the first Asian architect to become an Honorary Fellow of the American Institute of Architects.[54][55] However, whether South Vietnamese architecture prior to 1975 was brutalism or not remains a matter of dispute, with some architects argued it was actually modernism.[56] In recent years, public sentiments in Vietnam towards brutalist architecture has shifted negatively, but the style is said to have made a comeback recently.[57]

On university campuses

[edit]
James Stirling's History Faculty Building (1968), University of Cambridge
Denys Lasdun's 'ziggurats' (1968), University of East Anglia
William Pereira's Geisel Library (1970), University of California, San Diego

An early example of brutalist architecture in British universities was the extension to the department of architecture at the University of Cambridge in 1959 under the influenced of Leslie Martin, the head of the department, and designed by Colin St John Wilson and Alex Hardy, with participation by students at the university.[58] This inspired further brutalist buildings in Cambridge, including the Grade II listed University Centre and the Grade II listed Churchill College. The Grade II* listed History Faculty Building, the second building in architect James Stirling's Red Trilogy (along with the University of Leicester Engineering Building[59] and the Florey Building at Queen's College, Oxford,[60] both also Grade II*), is described in its listing as "a distinctive example of a new approach to education buildings, from a period when the universities were at the forefront of architectural patronage".[61][62][63][64]

The building of new universities in the UK in the 1960s led to opportunities for brutalist architects. The first to be built was the University of Sussex, designed by Basil Spence, with the Grade I listed Falmer House as its centerpiece. The building has been described as a "meeting of Arts and Crafts with modernism", with features such as hand-made bricks that contrast with the pre-fabricated construction of other 1960s campuses, and colonnades of bare, board-marked concrete arches on brick piers inspired by the Colosseum.[65] It is also considered one of the "key Brutalist buildings" by the Royal Institute of British Architects.[66][67]

Denys Lasdun's work at the University of East Anglia, including six linked halls of residence commonly referred to as 'ziggurats', is considered one of the finest examples of a 1960s brutalist university campus.[19][68] Other notable examples include the Grade II listed lecture block at Brunel University, used as a location in Stanley Kubrick's 1971 film A Clockwork Orange,[69] and the Central Hall of the University of York with its surrounding colleges, designed by Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshall & Partners, who would go on to build the universities of Bath, Stirling and Ulster.[70][71][72]

A notable pairing of brutalist campus buildings is found at Durham University, with Ove Arup's Grade I-listed Kingsgate Bridge (1963), one of only six post-1961 buildings to have been listed as Grade I by 2017,[73][74] and the Grade II-listed Dunelm House (Richard Raines of the Architects' Co-Partnership; 1964–66), described in its listing as "the foremost students' union building of the post-war era in England" but only saved from demolition in 2021 following a five-year campaign by the Twentieth Century Society.[75][76][77][78]

One of the earliest brutalist buildings in the US was Paul Rudolph's 1963 Art and Architecture Building at Yale University where, as department chair, he was both client and architect, giving him a unique freedom to explore new directions.[79] Rudolph's 1964 design for the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth is a rare example of an entire campus designed in the brutalist style,[80] and was considered by him to be "the most complete realisation of his experiments with urbanism and monumentality".[81] Walter Netsch similarly designed the entire University of Illinois-Chicago Circle Campus (now the East Campus of the University of Illinois at Chicago) under a single, unified brutalist design.[82] Netsch also designed the brutalist Joseph Regenstein Library for the University of Chicago[83] and the Northwestern University Library.[84] Crafton Hills College in California was designed by desert modern architect E. Stewart Williams in 1965 and built between 1966 and 1976. Williams' brutalist design contrasts with the steep terrain of the area and was chosen in part because it provided a firebreak from the surrounding environment.[85]

One of the most famous brutalist buildings in the United States is Geisel Library at the University of California, San Diego.[86][87] Designed by William Pereira and built 1969–70, it is said to "occup[y] a fascinating nexus between brutalism and futurism" but was originally intended as a modernist building in steel and glass before cost considerations meant the structural elements were redesigned in concrete and moved to the outside of the building.[88] Evans Woollen III's brutalist Clowes Memorial Hall, a performing arts facility that opened in 1963 on the campus of Butler University in Indianapolis, was praised for its bold and dramatic design.[89] The University of Minnesota's West Bank campus features the Rarig Center, a performing arts venue by Ralph Rapson from 1971 that has been called "the best example in the Twin Cities of the style called Brutalism".[90] Faner Hall at Southern Illinois University Carbondale has long been controversial for its use of brutalism and has been considered an eyesore on campus,[91] deemed to have a "facade only a mother could love" by the university itself.[92]

The Joseph Mark Lauinger Library, the main library of the Georgetown University Library System, was designed by John Carl Warnecke and opened in 1970. Originally conceived with a traditional design similar to other buildings at Georgetown University,[93] the final design of the Lauinger Library embraces brutalism and was intended as a modern interpretation of the nearby Healy Hall, a Flemish Romanesque building.[94] The building once received the Award of Merit by the American Institute of Architects in 1976 for distinguished accomplishment in library architecture.[93] However, in recent years, as public attitudes towards brutalism have shifted, the library has been referred to as one of the "ugliest" buildings in Georgetown and Washington, D.C.[95][96][97]

Examples of brutalist university campuses can be found in other countries as well. The Robarts Library at the University of Toronto was designed by Warner, Burns, Toan & Lunde and built between 1968 and 1973. Although it has been called "a crowning achievement of the brutalist movement", its opening in 1974 came after public sentiment had turned against brutalism, leading to it being condemned as "a blunder on the grandest scale".[98] Rand Afrikaans University in Johannesburg, South Africa (now Kingsway Campus Auckland Park, University of Johannesburg) is largely brutalist, designed as an expression of Afrikaans identity.[99][100] Several universities in Southeast Asia also feature brutalist designs, including those at the Ho Chi Minh City Medicine and Pharmaceutical University, the Royal University of Phnom Penh, and the Industrial College of Hue.[101]

Reception

[edit]
The Queen Elizabeth Square flats (1962) in Glasgow were demolished in 1993.

A 2014 article in The Economist noted its unpopularity with the public, observing that a campaign to demolish a building will usually be directed against a Brutalist one.[102] In 2005, the British TV programme Demolition ran a public vote to select twelve buildings that ought to be demolished, and eight of those selected were brutalist buildings.

One argument is that this criticism exists in part because concrete façades do not age well in damp, cloudy maritime climates such as those of northwestern Europe and New England. In these climates, the concrete becomes streaked with water stains and sometimes with moss and lichen, and rust stains from the steel reinforcing bars.[103]

Critics of the style find it unappealing due to its "cold" appearance, projecting an atmosphere of totalitarianism, as well as the association of the buildings with urban decay due to materials weathering poorly in certain climates and the surfaces being prone to vandalism by graffiti. Despite this, the style is appreciated by others, and preservation efforts are taking place in the United Kingdom.[26][104]

Modern brutalism

[edit]
After two unsuccessful proposals to demolish Preston bus station (1969, Lancashire, UK), it gained Grade II listed building status in September 2013.

Although the Brutalist movement was largely over by the late 1970s and early 1980s, having largely given way to Structural Expressionism and Deconstructivism, it has experienced a resurgence of interest since 2015 with the publication of a variety of guides and books, including Brutal London (Zupagrafika, 2015), Brutalist London Map (2015), This Brutal World (2016), SOS Brutalism: A Global Survey (2017), and the lavish Atlas of Brutalist Architecture (Phaidon, 2018).

Many of the defining aspects of the style have been softened in newer buildings, with concrete façades often being sandblasted to create a stone-like surface, covered in stucco, or composed of patterned, precast elements. These elements are also found in renovations of older Brutalist buildings, such as the redevelopment of Sheffield's Park Hill.

Villa Göth was listed as historically significant by the Uppsala county administrative board on 3 March 1995.[105] Several brutalist buildings in the United Kingdom have been granted listed status as historic, and others, such as Gillespie, Kidd & Coia's St. Peter's Seminary, named by Prospect magazine's survey of architects as Scotland's greatest post-war building, have been the subject of conservation campaigns. Similar buildings in the United States have been recognized, such as the Pirelli Tire Building in New Haven's Long Wharf.[106] The Twentieth Century Society has unsuccessfully campaigned against the demolition of British buildings such as the Tricorn Centre and Trinity Square multi-storey car park but successfully in the case of Preston bus station garage, London's Hayward Gallery, and others.

Notable buildings that have been demolished include the Smithsons' Robin Hood Gardens (2017) in East London, John Madin's Birmingham Central Library (2016), Marcel Breuer's American Press Institute Building in Reston, Virginia, Araldo Cossutta's Third Church of Christ, Scientist in Washington, D.C. (2014), and the Welbeck Street car park in London (2019).[citation needed]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Reclaiming Polish Brutalism: Discover the Emblems of Communism". ArchDaily. 28 October 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
  2. ^ Larsson, Naomi (6 August 2023). "Socialist modernism: remembering the architecture of the eastern bloc". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
  3. ^ "Definition of BRUTALISM". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
  4. ^ a b Bull, Alun (8 November 2013), What is Brutalism?, retrieved 10 October 2018
  5. ^ Đorđe, Alfirević & Simonović Alfirević, Sanja: Brutalism in Serbian Architecture: Style or Necessity? Facta Universitatis: Architecture and Civil Engineering (Niš), Vol. 15, No. 3 (2017), pp. 317–331.
  6. ^ a b c Hopkins, Owen (10 September 2014). "The Dezeen guide to Brutalist architecture". Dezeen. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
  7. ^ a b c d e Editorial Staff. "Brutalist architecture – a retrospective". Architecture and Design. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
  8. ^ a b c d e "Brutalist Architecture London | A Guide To Brutalism". 20 Bedford Way. 23 June 2014. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
  9. ^ a b Harwood, Elain. "The concrete truth? Brutalism can be beautiful". BBC Arts. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
  10. ^ Rasmus Wærn (2001). Guide till Sveriges Arkitektur : Byggnadskonst Under 1000 År. Stockholm: Arkitektur Förlag. ISBN 9789186050559.
  11. ^ a b Hans Asplund's letter to Eric De Mare, Architectural Review, August 1956
  12. ^ a b c d The New Brutalism, Reyner Banham, Architectural Press, London 1966, p10
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i Banham, Reyner (9 December 1955). "The New Brutalism". Architectural Review. Retrieved 10 October 2018 – via On Architecture.
  14. ^ Snyder, Michael (15 August 2019). "The Unexpectedly Tropical History of Brutalism". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
  15. ^ "A Movement in a Moment: Brutalism | Architecture | Agenda". Phaidon. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
  16. ^ Andrei, Mihai (15 May 2022). "Brutalist architecture and its unusual, raw appeal". ZME Science. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
  17. ^ Plitt, Amy (11 November 2019). "The history of Brutalist architecture in NYC affordable housing". Curbed NY. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
  18. ^ Levanier, Johnny (30 June 2021). "Brutalism in design: its history and evolution in modern websites". 99designs.
  19. ^ a b c d Meades, Jonathan (13 February 2014). "The incredible hulks: Jonathan Meades' A-Z of brutalism". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
  20. ^ "Edman, Bengt (1921–2000)". digitaltmuseum.org. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
  21. ^ Vidler, Anthony (October 2011). "Another Brick in the Wall". October. 136: 105–132. doi:10.1162/OCTO_a_00044. JSTOR 23014873. S2CID 57560154.
  22. ^ The New Brutalism, Reyner Banham, Architectural Press, London 1966, p. 19
  23. ^ Brutalism: Post-War British Architecture, Alexander Clement, Second Edition, Chapter 3
  24. ^ Johnson, Philip (19 August 1954). "School at Hunstanton, Norfolk, by Alison and Peter Smithson". Architectural Review. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
  25. ^ McClelland, Michael, and Graeme Stewart, "Concrete Toronto: A Guide to Concrete Architecture from the Fifties to the Seventies, Coach House Books, 2007, p. 12.
  26. ^ a b British Brutalism. World Monument Fund.
  27. ^ "Historian of the Immediate Future: Reyner Banham – Book Review Art Bulletin, The – Find Articles". 30 August 2007. Archived from the original on 30 August 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  28. ^ The New Brutalism, Reyner Banham, Architectural Press, London 1966 p. 16
  29. ^ Banham, Reyner (1966). The New Brutalism. London: Architectural Press. p. 41.
  30. ^ a b Goodwin, Dario (22 June 2017). "Spotlight: Alison and Peter Smithson". www.archdaily.com.
  31. ^ Heuvel, Dirk van den (4 March 2015). "Between Brutalists. The Banham Hypothesis and the Smithson Way of Life". The Journal of Architecture. 20 (2): 293–308. doi:10.1080/13602365.2015.1027721. ISSN 1360-2365. S2CID 219641726.
  32. ^ Rasmus Wærn (2001). Guide till Sveriges Arkitektur: Byggnadskonst Under 1000 År. Stockholm: Arkitektur Förlag. ISBN 9789186050559.
  33. ^ Hans Ulrich Obrist, Smithson Time (Cologne, Verlag der Buch- handlung Walther König, 2004), p. 17
  34. ^ A. and P. Smithson, 'The "As Found" and the "Found", in, D. Robbins, ed., The Independent Group, op. cit., p. 201.
  35. ^ Published Letter, John Voelcker, Architectural Design, June 1957
  36. ^ Davies, Colin (2017). A New History of Modern Architecture. London: Laurence King Publishing. p. 277. ISBN 978-1-78627-056-6.
  37. ^ a b Dutton, John (26 July 2013). "Featured Plan: Smithsons' Golden Lane Project (1952) – GRIDS blog". GRIDS blog. USC School of Architecture. Archived from the original on 13 June 2021. Retrieved 11 November 2017.
  38. ^ Kulić, Vladimir; Mrduljaš, Maroje; Thaler, Wolfgang (2012). Modernism In-Between: The Mediatory Architectures of Socialist Yugoslavia. Berlin: Jovis. ISBN 978-3-86859-147-7.
  39. ^ Paiement, Genevieve: Habitat 67, Montreal's 'failed dream' – a history of cities in 50 buildings, day 35. The Guardian, 13 May 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
  40. ^ "Architects: Brutalism". Circa Design. Archived from the original on 11 September 2016. Retrieved 28 August 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  41. ^ Trounstine, Philip J. (9 May 1976). "Evans Woollen". [Indianapolis] Star Magazine. Indianapolis, Indiana: 18. See also: "Prominent local architect Woollen Dies at 88". Indianapolis Business Journal. Indianapolis. 19 May 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2017.
  42. ^ Jordy, William (1972). The Impact of European Modernism in the Mid-twentieth Century. American Buildings and Their Architects. Vol. 5. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 363. ISBN 0-19-504219-0.
  43. ^ Farrelly, Elizabeth (9 October 2010). "Watch this space – Brutalism meets beauty in the National Gallery's new wing". The Sydney Morning Herald, Spectrum supplement. pp. 16–17.
  44. ^ a b "50 years on, nearly 900 centennial buildings still a symbol of national unity | CBC News". CBC. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  45. ^ "Brutalist Architecture in Winnipeg" (PDF). Winnipeg Architecture Foundation.
  46. ^ Waldron, Andrew (2010). "Manitoba Theatre Centre, 174 Market Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba" (PDF). The Journal of the Society for the Study of Architecture in Canada. 35 (2): 63–80.
  47. ^ "Centar za stanovanje – Center for Housing". stanovanje.yolasite.com. Retrieved 14 July 2017.
  48. ^ "Centar za stanovanje – Center for Housing". stanovanje.yolasite.com. Retrieved 14 July 2017.
  49. ^ "Genex Tower, Belgrade". EMPORIS. Retrieved 22 July 2017.[dead link]
  50. ^ a b Daliborka Mučibabić (8 May 2019). "Архитекте траже заштиту Западне капије" [Architects ask for the protection of the Western Gate]. Politika (in Serbian). p. 15.
  51. ^ a b Vũ, Hiệp (19 October 2021). "Isakovich và sự biến đổi kiến trúc Liên Xô ở Việt Nam" [Isakovich and the evolution of Soviet architecture in Vietnam]. Tạp chí Sông Hương. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  52. ^ Vũ, Hiệp (13 September 2021). "KTS Garol Isakovich và những công trình thời bao cấp ở Hà Nội – Hội Kiến Trúc Sư Việt Nam". Kiến Việt (in Vietnamese). Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  53. ^ Jain, Kripa (13 December 2020). "10 Reasons why architects must visit Vietnam". Rethinking The Future. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
  54. ^ Paul, Suneet (3 February 2023). "Vietnam: People with Resilience and Grit". ArchitectureLive. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
  55. ^ Thuan, Nguyen (23 June 2016). "Ngô Viết Thụ - Người tạo nên biểu tượng Dinh Độc Lập cho Sài Gòn". designs.vn (in Vietnamese). Retrieved 14 May 2023.
  56. ^ "Southern Vietnamese Modernist Architecture is the Antithesis of Brutalism". Architecture Vietnam. 12 May 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
  57. ^ "Phong cách nhà 'như lô cốt' trở lại". ZingNews.vn (in Vietnamese). 7 March 2023. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
  58. ^ Historic England. "Nos. 1-12 Scroope Terrace, the 1959 rear extension to no. 1 Scroope Terrace and the railings to the front. (Grade II) (1049092)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
  59. ^ Historic England. "ENGINEERING BUILDING, UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER (Grade II*) (1074756)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
  60. ^ Historic England. "Florey Building with attached walls and abutments (Grade II*) (1393211)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
  61. ^ "Cambridge in Concrete: the boom years of Brutalism". University of Cambridge. 3 May 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  62. ^ Historic England. "Cambridge University Centre (Grade II) (1407952)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  63. ^ Historic England. "Central buildings Churchill College (Grade II) (1227706)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  64. ^ Historic England. "History Faculty Building (Grade II*) (1380217)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  65. ^ Christopher Breward; Fiona Fisher; Ghislaine Wood (22 October 2015). British Design: Tradition and Modernity after 1948. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 106–107. ISBN 978-1-4742-5622-3.
  66. ^ "Brutalism". RIBA. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
  67. ^ Historic England. "FALMER HOUSE INCLUDING MOAT WITHIN COURTYARD (Grade II*) (1381044)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  68. ^ Historic England. "Norfolk Terrace and attached walkways, at the University of East Anglia (Grade II*) (1390647)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  69. ^ Historic England. "Lecture Theatre Block, Brunel University (Grade II) (1400162)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  70. ^ Historic England. "Central Hall, University of York (Grade II) (1456551)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  71. ^ Historic England. "Former Langwith College, University of York (Grade II) (1457043)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  72. ^ Historic England. "Derwent College, University of York (Grade II) (1457040)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  73. ^ "England's youngest Grade I listed structures". BBC News. 17 July 2017.
  74. ^ Historic England. "Kingsgate Bridge (Grade I) (1119766)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  75. ^ Peter Watts (17 October 2018). "'No other Grade I listed buildings would be treated with such disdain': why Britain's brutalist gems are under threat". The Telegraph.
  76. ^ Engelbrecht, Gavin (9 July 2021). "Durham University's Brutalist student building gets Grade II listed status". The Northern Echo.
  77. ^ Rowan Moore (12 February 2017). "Save Dunelm House from the wrecking ball". The Guardian.
  78. ^ Historic England. "Dunelm House including landing stage, steps and attached walls (Grade II) (1477064)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  79. ^ Jessica Mairs (26 September 2014). "Brutalist buildings: Yale Art and Architecture Building, Connecticut by Paul Rudolph". Dezeen.
  80. ^ Eric Sousa (2 November 2018). "UMass Dartmouth's Brutalist Style is brutal". The Torch.
  81. ^ Paul Rohan (10 July 2014). The Architecture of Paul Rudolph. Yale University Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-300-14939-5.
  82. ^ "Historic Netsch Campus at UIC" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 31 December 2010.
  83. ^ "Joseph Regenstein Library". Architecture at the University of Chicago. Retrieved 14 February 2023.
  84. ^ "University Library". Northwestern. Retrieved 14 February 2023.
  85. ^ Kopelk, William (2005). E. Stewart Williams: A Tribute to His Work and Life. Palm Springs, CA: Palm Springs Preservation Foundation.
  86. ^ Brad Dunning (29 August 2019). "The 9 Brutalist Wonders of the Architecture World". GQ.
  87. ^ Jessica Cherner (6 April 2022). "The 17 Most Beautiful Brutalist Buildings in the World". Architectural Digest.
  88. ^ David Langdon (11 November 2014). "AD Classics: Geisel Library / William L. Pereira & Associates". Arch Daily. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
  89. ^ Megan Fernandez (June 2010). "The Pillar: Evans Woollen". Indianapolis Monthly. Indianapolis, Indiana: 68. Retrieved 18 December 2017. See also: Philip J. Trounstine (9 May 1976). "Evans Woollen: Struggles of a 'Good Architect'". [Indianapolis] Star Magazine. Indianapolis, Indiana: 23.
  90. ^ Millett, Larry (2007). AIA Guide to the Twin Cities. Saint Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-87351-540-5.
  91. ^ O'Dell, Les (18 March 2022). "SIU's Faner Hall myths and mystique". Southern Illinoisan. Retrieved 9 April 2024.
  92. ^ "About Faner Hall | College of Liberal Arts | SIU". College of Liberal Arts. Retrieved 9 April 2024.
  93. ^ a b "Eight Things You May (or May Not) Know about Lauinger Library". Georgetown University Library. 3 February 2020. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  94. ^ Giesemann, Suzanne R. (2009). The Priest and the Medium. Hay House Inc. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-4019-2615-1.
  95. ^ Curran, Pat (29 August 2014). "Lauinger: The Past, Present and Future of Georgetown's 'Ugly' Library". The Hoya. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  96. ^ "Love for Lau". Georgetown University Library. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  97. ^ Garfield, Leanna. "The ugliest building in every US state, according to people who live there". Business Insider. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  98. ^ David Langdon (9 March 2015). "AD Classics: Robarts Library / Warner, Burns, Toan & Lunde". Arch Daily. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
  99. ^ Kathy Munro (5 February 2022). "First comprehensive review of the architecture of early apartheid in Pretoria". The Heritage Portal.
  100. ^ "Johannesburg the Segregated city". South African History Online. Retrieved 14 February 2023.
  101. ^ Mark (5 May 2018). "Brutalist and Modernist architecture in Southeast Asia". Kathmandu & Beyond. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  102. ^ "Nasty, brutish and tall – Architecture". The Economist. 29 August 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  103. ^ "CIP 25 – Corrosion of Steel in Concrete" (PDF). nrmca. National Ready Mixed Concrete Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
  104. ^ Winston, Anna: Five architectural treasures we must save from the UK's heritage war. The Guardian, 18 June 2015.
  105. ^ "Villa Göth". www.lansstyrelsen.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 23 April 2020.
  106. ^ "Historical Resources Inventory: Buildings and Structures: The Pirelli Building, New Haven" (PDF). Connecticut Historical Commission. Retrieved 24 September 2019.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Golan, Romy (June 2003). "Historian of the Immediate Future: Reyner Banham". The Art Bulletin (Book Review). 85 (2). Archived from the original on 30 December 2014. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  • Monzo, Luigi: Plädoyer für herbe Schönheiten. Gastbeitrag im Rahmen der Austellung "SOS Brutalismus – Rettet die Betonmonster". Pforzheimer Zeitung, 27. February 2018, p. 6. (in German)
  • Anna Rita Emili, Pure and simple, the architecture of New Brutalism, Ed.Kappa Rome 2008
  • Anna Rita Emili, Architettura estrema, il Neobrutalismo alla prova della contemporaneità, Quodlibet, Macerata 2011
  • Anna Rita Emili, Il Brutalismo paulista, L'architettura brasiliana tra teoria e progetto, Manifesto Libri, Roma ISBN 978872859759, pp. 335
  • Silvia Groaz, New Brutalism. The Invention of a Style, EPFL Press, Lausanne, 2023, ISBN 978-2-88915-510-1
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Brutalist architecture.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=Brutalist_architecture&oldid=1254551923"