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Meskhetian Turks

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Not to be confused with Meskhetians.

Meskhetian Turks
Total population
1944 deportee population only:
est. 400,000 in 1990[1]
(excludes pre-1944 muhacirs in Turkey)

current deportee population only:
500,000–600,000[2][3][4][5][6]
(excludes descendants of pre-1944 Meskhetian Turks in Turkey)
Regions with significant populations
 Georgia1,500[7][8]
 Turkey100,000–1,500,000 (latter including 19th- and 20th-century muhacir descendants)[9][10]
 Kazakhstan150,000–250,000[7][8][9]
 Azerbaijan90,000–130,000[7][8]
 Russia70,000–100,000[8][7][9]
 Kyrgyzstan42,000–55,000[7][8][9]
 Uzbekistan15,000–38,000[11][7][9]
 Dagestan15,000-20,000
 Ukraine8,000–15,000[7][11][9]
 United States9,000–16,000[11][7]
 Northern Cyprus180[7]
Languages
Meskhetian Turkish dialect
Azerbaijani  · Russian  · Georgian  · Kazakh
Religion
Predominantly Sunni Islam, minority Shia Islam[12][13]
Related ethnic groups
Karapapakhs
Meskhetian Turks in Karabük, Turkey

Meskhetian Turks, also referred to as Turkish Meskhetians,[14][15][16] Ahiska Turks, and Turkish Ahiskans,[17] (Turkish: Ahıska Türkleri;[18][19] Georgian: მესხეთის თურქები Meskhetis turk'ebi) are a subgroup of ethnic Turkish people formerly inhabiting the Meskheti region of Georgia, along the border with Turkey. The Turkish presence in Meskheti began with the Ottoman military expedition of 1578,[20] although Turkic tribes had settled in the region as early as the eleventh and twelfth centuries.[20]

Today, the Meskhetian Turks are widely dispersed throughout the former Soviet Union (as well as in Turkey and the United States) due to forced deportations during World War II. At the time, the Soviet Union was preparing to launch a pressure campaign against Turkey, and Joseph Stalin wanted to clear the strategic Turkish population in Meskheti deemed likely to be hostile to Soviet government intentions.[21] In 1944, the Meskhetian Turks were accused of smuggling, banditry and espionage in collaboration with their kin across the Turkish border. Expelled by Joseph Stalin from Georgia in 1944, they faced discrimination and human-rights abuses before and after deportation.[22] Approximately 115,000 Meskhetian Turks were deported to Central Asia and subsequently only a few hundred have been able to return to Georgia as Georgia does not allow repatriation. Those who migrated to Ukraine in 1990 settled in shanty-towns inhabited by seasonal workers.[22]

Genetics

[edit]

Out of the tested DNA samples of Meskhetian Turks, the most common Y-chromosomal haplogroup among them is Haplogroup J, in the second place is the Y-chromosomal haplogroup G.[23] The Meskhetian Turks are genetically very close to Georgians. [24]

Origins and terms

[edit]
Meskhetian/Ahıska Turks holding a banner which reads "Osmanlıların Torunları: Ahıskalı Türkler" (The Ottoman Grandchildren: Ahıska Turks)

Most Meskhetian Turks identify themselves as having descended from Ottoman settlers.[25] Pro-Georgian historiography has traditionally argued that the Meskhetian Turks, who speak the Kars dialect of the Turkish language and belong to the Hanafi school of Sunni Islam, are simply Turkified Meskhetians (an ethnographic subgroup of Georgians) converted to Islam in the period between the sixteenth century and 1829, when the region of Samtskhe–Javakheti (Historical Meskheti) was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, theory of the Georgian historians is supported by the fact Meskhetian Turks genetically are closely related to Georgians[26][27] However, the Russian anthropologist and historian Professor Anatoly Michailovich Khazanov has argued against the pro-Georgian narrative and has said that:

it is quite possible that the adherents of this [pro-Georgian] view oversimplified the ethnic history of the group, particularly if one compares it with another Muslim Georgian group, the Adzhar, who in spite of their conversion to Islam have retained, not only the Georgian language, but to some extent also the Georgian traditional culture and self-identification. Contrary to this, the traditional culture of Meskhetian Turks, though it contained some Georgian elements, was similar to the Turkish one.[26]

However, when making this comparison, Michailovich ignores the period during which the Adjara and Mesheti regions were under Turkish rule. Turkish-Armenian writer Nişanyan explains the loss of the Georgian language by the Meskhetians, although the Adjarians preserved the Georgian language, as follows:

The people of the city of Batumi and the autonomous region of Adjara (and the Borcka-Hopa side of Artvin and the Meydancık valley of Şavşat) are Muslim Georgians, speaking the Adjara dialect. They were subject to Georgia until the 1810s and lived under direct or indirect Christian rule. The people of Ahıska (and Şavşat-Yusufeli, Posof) have lived under Islamic rule for 450 years. They have long spoken Turkish, perhaps intertwined with other elements of Ottoman Islam.[28]

The DNA evidence has corroborated the Georgian thesis as it shows that Meskhetian Turks are genetically very close to Georgians [29]

Anthropologist Kathryn Tomlinson has pointed out that in Soviet documents about the 1944 deportations of the Meskhetian Turks, the community were referred to simply as "Turks" because of their faith Islam, not only them but also every Muslim of Georgia was referred as Turks and that it was after their second deportation from Uzbekistan that the term "Meskhetian Turks" was invented.[30] According to Ronald Wixman, the term "Meskhetian" only came into use in the late 1950s.[31] Indeed, the majority of the Meskhetian Turks call themselves simply as "Turks" or "Ahiskan Turks" (Turkish: Ahıska Türkleri) referring to the region, meaning "Turks of Ahiska Region". The Meskhetians claim sometimes that the medieval Cumans-Kipchaks of Georgia (Kipchaks in Georgia) may have been one of their possible ancestors.[32] According to historians, it is less likely because part of the Kipchaks left Georgia during the invasion of Mongols, while others joined Mongols.

History

[edit]
The area of distribution of Meskhetian Turks within Georgian SSR, 1926.

Ottoman conquest

[edit]

By the Peace of Amasya (1555), Meskheti was divided into two, with the Safavids keeping the eastern part and the Ottomans gaining the western part.[33] In 1578, the Ottomans attacked the Safavid possessions in Georgia, which initiated the Ottoman–Safavid War of 1578–1590, and by 1582 the Ottomans were in possession of the eastern (Safavid) part of Meskheti.[34] The Safavids regained control over the eastern part of Meskheti in the early 17th century.[34] However, by the Treaty of Zuhab (1639), all of Meskheti fell under Ottoman control, and it brought an end to Iranian attempts to retake the region.[35][34]

Soviet rule

[edit]

1944 deportation from Georgia to Central Asia

[edit]
Further information: Deportation of the Meskhetian Turks

On 15 November 1944, the then General Secretary of CPSU, Joseph Stalin, ordered the deportation of over 115,000 Meskhetian Turks from their homeland,[36] who were secretly driven from their homes and herded onto rail cars.[37] As many as 30,000 to 50,000 deportees died of hunger, thirst and cold and as a direct result of the deportations and the deprivations suffered in exile.[38][37] The Soviet guards dumped the Meskhetian Turks at rail sidings across a vast region, often without food, water, or shelter.

According to the 1989 Soviet Census, 106,000 Meskhetian Turks lived in Uzbekistan, 50,000 in Kazakhstan, and 21,000 in Kyrgyzstan.[36] As opposed to the other nationalities who had been deported during World War II, no reason was given for the deportation of the Meskhetian Turks, which remained secret until 1968.[21] It was only in 1968 that the Soviet government finally recognised that the Meskhetian Turks had been deported. The reason for the deportation of the Meskhetian Turks was because in 1944 the Soviet Union was preparing to launch a pressure campaign against Turkey.[21] In June 1945 Vyacheslav Molotov, who was then Minister of Foreign Affairs, presented a demand to the Turkish Ambassador in Moscow for the surrender of three Anatolia provinces (Kars, Ardahan and Artvin).[21] As Moscow was also preparing to support Armenian claims to several other Anatolian provinces, war against Turkey seemed possible, and Joseph Stalin wanted to clear the strategic Georgian-Turkish border where the Meskhetian Turks were settled and who were likely to be hostile to such Soviet intentions.[21]

Unlike the other deported Muslim groups, the Meskhetians have not been rehabilitated nor permitted to return to their homeland. In April 1970, the leaders of the Turkish Meskhetian national movement applied to the Turkish Embassy in Moscow for permission to emigrate to Turkey as Turkish citizens if the Soviet government persisted its refusal to allow them to resettle in Meskheti. However, the response of the Soviet government was to arrest the Meskhetian leaders.[39]

Meskhetian Turk woman and her child

1989 deportation from Uzbekistan to other Soviet countries

[edit]
Main article: Fergana massacre

In 1989, riots broke out between the Meskhetian Turks who had settled in Uzbekistan and the native Uzbeks.[36] Nationalist resentments against the Meskhetians who had competed with Uzbeks for resources in the overpopulated Fergana Valley boiled over. Hundreds of Meskhetian Turks were killed or injured, nearly 1,000 properties were destroyed and thousands of Meskhetian Turks fled into exile.[36] The majority of Meskhetian Turks, about 70,000, went to Azerbaijan, whilst the remainder went to various regions of Russia (especially Krasnodar Krai), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan[36][40] and Ukraine.

Khojaly Massacre

[edit]

Meskhetian Turk refugees who had been persecuted in Central Asia were forcibly relocated to the Azerbaijan where they settled in Khojaly in Nagorno Karabakh before being subsequently massacred along with Azerbaijanis in 1992.[41] According to Thomas de Waal, Khojaly had been the focus of a large resettlement program by the Azerbaijan government in the late 1980s and early 1990s. [42]

Russian journalist Victoria Ivleva took photos of the town streets strewn with dead bodies of its inhabitants, including women and children.[43] She described Meskhetian Turks from Khojaly who were captured by Armenian militants and she was hit by an Armenian soldier who took her for one of the captives when she was helping a Meskhetian Turk woman falling behind the crowd with four children, one of which wounded, and the other one newly born.[44]

Russo-Ukrainian War

[edit]

Around 2,000 Meskhetian Turks have been forced to flee from their homes in Ukraine since May 2014 amid fighting between government forces and pro-Russian separatists. Turkish Meskhetian community representative in the eastern city of Donetsk, Nebican Basatov, said that those who have fled have sought refuge in Russia, Azerbaijan, Turkey and different parts of Ukraine.[22] Over 300 Meskhetian Turks from the Turkish-speaking minority in eastern Ukraine have arrived in eastern Turkey's Erzincan province where they will live under the country's recently adopted asylum measures.[45]

Demographics

[edit]
Ahiska Turks outside the White House in Washington D.C..

According to the 1989 Soviet Census, there were 207,502 Turks living in the Soviet Union.[2] However, Soviet authorities recorded many Meskhetian Turks as belonging to other nationalities such as "Azeri", "Kazakh", "Kyrgyz", and "Uzbek".[2] Hence, official censuses do not necessarily show a true reflection of the real population of the Meskhetian Turks; for example, according to the 2009 Azerbaijani census, there were 38,000 Turks living in the country; however, no distinction is made in the census between Meskhetian Turks and Turks from Turkey who have become Azerbaijani citizens, as both groups are classified in the official census as "Turks" or "Azerbaijani".[46] According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees report published in 1999, that 100,000 Meskhetian Turks lived in Azerbaijan and the defunct Baku Institute of Peace and Democracy stated, in 2001, that between 90,000 and 110,000 Meskhetian Turks lived in Azerbaijan,[47][48] similarly, academic estimates have also suggested that the Turkish Meskhetian community of Azerbaijan numbers 90,000 to 110,000.[47]

More recently, some Meskhetian Turks in Russia, especially those in Krasnodar, have faced hostility from the local population. The Krasnodar Meskhetian Turks have suffered significant human rights violations, including the deprivation of their citizenship. They are deprived of civil, political and social rights and are prohibited from owning property and employment.[49] Thus, since 2004, many Turks have left the Krasnodar region for the United States as refugees. A large number of them, comprising nearly 1300 individuals, is in Dayton, Ohio. They are still barred from full repatriation to Georgia.[50] Apart from that, in Georgia, racism against Meskheti Turks is still prevalent due to differences in beliefs and ethnic tensions.[51]

Culture

[edit]
The former Ahmediye Mosque near the Akhaltsikhe Castle was built by the Ottomans in 1749.

Religion

[edit]

Most Meskhetian Turks are Sunni Muslims and a minority are Shiite Muslims.[12][13]

Language

[edit]

The Meskhetian Turks speak an Eastern Anatolian dialect of Turkish, which hails from the regions of Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin.[52] The Turkish Meskhetian dialect has also borrowed from other languages (including Azerbaijani, Georgian, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Russian, and Uzbek) which the Meskhetian Turks have been in contact with during the Russian and Soviet rule.[53]

Wedding

[edit]
Meskhetian bride in traditional attire.

Meskhetian Turks' weddings consist of a traditional proposal from the groom's parents and if the bride's parents accept the proposal, an engagement party, or Nişan, is done. Everyone at the Nişan is given a ceremonial sweet drink, called Sharbat. The actual wedding lasts for two days. On the first day the bride leaves her house and on the second day is when the marriage happens. Before the bride enters her husband's house she uses the heel on her shoe to break two plates with her foot and applies honey on the doorway. This tradition serves the purpose of wishing happiness upon the new bride and groom in their marriage. At the end of the wedding, a dance ensues with the men and women dancing separately. Finally, the newlyweds have their last dance which is called the ‘Waltz’ and that completes the wedding.[54]

Circumcision

[edit]

The Religious male circumcision Ceremony of the Ahiska Turks, is hold in a big way of Dance, Music, Guests, recitation of the Koran and a special Kirve (Sandek).[55]

Notable people

[edit]
Ömürbek Babanov, Billionaire and former Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan (2011-12).
Timur Kapadze, football player and manager of the Uzbekistan national football team.
Omar Faig Nemanzadeh, writer in Azerbaijan.

The following is list of people of Turkish Meshetian origin:

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Khazanov 1995, p. 202: "Because of the high birthrates their number is constantly increasing and, according to sources, has already reached 400,000 (Panesh and Ermolov, 1990)... It is true that the last Soviet census of 1989 gives a lower figure - 207,369; however, one should take into account that far from all Meskhetian Turks have been registered as such. For years many were even denied the right to register their nationality in legal documents. Thus, by 1988 in Kazakhstan, only one third of them were recorded as Turks on their passports. The rest had been arbitrarily declared members of other ethnic groups.."
  2. ^ a b c Aydıngün et al. 2006, 1
  3. ^ Seferov & Akış 2011, 393.
  4. ^ Today's Zaman (15 August 2011). "Historic Meskhetian Turk documents destroyed". Today's Zaman. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
  5. ^ Kanbolat, Hasan (7 April 2009). "Return of Meskhetian Turks to Georgia delayed". Today's Zaman. Archived from the original on 25 January 2011. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
  6. ^ Assembly of Turkish American Associations (5 February 2008). "ATAA and ATA-SC Visit Ahiska Turks in Los Angeles". Today's Zaman. Archived from the original on 12 December 2010. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Al Jazeera (2014). "Ahıska Türklerinin 70 yıllık sürgünü". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
  8. ^ a b c d e Aydıngün et al. 2006, 13
  9. ^ a b c d e f Karcı, Durmuş (2018), "The Effects of Language Characters and Identity of Meskhetian Turkish in Kazakhstan", The Journal of Kesit Academy, 4 (13): 301–303
  10. ^ Bursa'da Ahıskalıların vatandaşlık kuyruğu!, Bursada Bugün, 2018, retrieved 30 August 2021
  11. ^ a b c Aydıngün et al. 2006, 14
  12. ^ a b Aydıngün et al. 2006, 15
  13. ^ a b An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires.
  14. ^ Documents of the Helsinki Monitoring Groups in the U.S.S.R. and Lithuania (1976–1986), U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986, p. 97
  15. ^ Geyer, Michael; Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2009), Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared, Cambridge University Press, p. 222, ISBN 9780521897969
  16. ^ Hille, Charlotte (2010), State Building and Conflict Resolution in the Caucasus, Brill, p. 241, ISBN 9789004179011
  17. ^ Turkish Ahiskan American Foundation, Charity Navigator, retrieved 26 September 2021
  18. ^ page78.
  19. ^ "ahiskalilar.org (turkish)". Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
  20. ^ a b Aydıngün et al. 2006, 4
  21. ^ a b c d e Bennigsen & Broxup 1983, 30.
  22. ^ a b c "Clashes force 2,000 Meskhetian Turks to flee Ukraine - World Bulletin". World Bulletin. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
  23. ^ "FamilyTreeDNA - Ahiska DNA Project (Meskhetia)". www.familytreedna.com. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
  24. ^ https://i.imgur.com/sd0nqLk.png
  25. ^ Helmut Glück: Metzler Lexikon Sprache, 2005, p. 774
  26. ^ a b Khazanov 1995, 195.
  27. ^ "FamilyTreeDNA - Ahiska DNA Project (Meskhetia)". www.familytreedna.com. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
  28. ^ Nişanyan, Sevan (2018). "Ahıska Türkleri". Sevan Nişanyan / En son yazıları. nisanyan1.blogspot.com. Archived from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
  29. ^ https://imgur.com/sd0nqLk
  30. ^ Tomlinson 2005, 111.
  31. ^ Wixman 1984, 134.
  32. ^ Yunusov, Arif. The Akhiska (Meskhetian Turks): Twice Deported People. "Central Asia and Caucasus" (Lulea, Sweden), 1999 # 1(2), p. 162-165.
  33. ^ Mikaberidze 2015, p. xxxi.
  34. ^ a b c Floor 2001, p. 85.
  35. ^ Tomlinson 2005, 110.
  36. ^ a b c d e UNHCR 1999b, 20.
  37. ^ a b Minahan 2002, 1240.
  38. ^ Polian 2004, 155.
  39. ^ Bennigsen & Broxup 1983, 31.
  40. ^ UNHCR 1999b, 21.
  41. ^ Human Rights Watch/Helsinki (Organization : U.S.) (1994). Azerbaijan : Seven years of conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh. Internet Archive. New York : Human Rights Watch. ISBN 978-1-56432-142-8.
  42. ^ The Black Garden, Thomas de Waal, ISBN 0-8147-1944-9, Page 170
  43. ^ Victoria Ivleva. The corpses of people killed during the Armenian attack in the streets of the settlement of Khojaly, Nagorno-Karabakh, February 1992. Photograph 1 Archived 24 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Photograph 2 Archived 24 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  44. ^ "Дочь войны - Общество - Новая Газета". 9 February 2013. Archived from the original on 9 February 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
  45. ^ "Turkey welcomes Meskhetian Turks from east Ukraine - World Bulletin". World Bulletin. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
  46. ^ The State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan. "Population by ethnic groups". Archived from the original on 30 November 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
  47. ^ a b UNHCR 1999a, 14.
  48. ^ NATO Parliamentary Assembly. "Minorities in the South Caucasus: Factor of Instability?". Archived from the original on 8 March 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
  49. ^ Barton, Heffernan & Armstrong 2002, 9
  50. ^ Coşkun 2009, 5.
  51. ^ "Meskhetian Turks - Minority Rights Group". Minority Rights Group. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
  52. ^ Aydıngün et al. 2006, 23
  53. ^ Sürgünün 75. Yılında Ahıska Türkleri Belgeseli, 10 December 2019, archived from the original on 12 December 2021, retrieved 28 March 2021
  54. ^ Ranard, Donald, ed. (2006). Meskhetian Turks: An Introduction to their History, Culture and Resettlement Experiences. Washington, DC: the Center for Applied Linguistics. pp. 18–19.
  55. ^ Erol Sakallı (2020). "Ahıskalı Türklerde Sünnet Geleneği". Folklor Akademi Dergisi (in Turkish). 3 (2).
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  57. ^ Taner Akçam'la "soykırım" üzerine, Bizim Anadolu, 2010, retrieved 21 December 2020, (Gülerek) Herkes etnik kökenine bakıyor. Vallahi ben çok safkan bir Türküm. Ahıska Türkleri derler bize Kars'ta. Ve, bizim sülalemizden birilerinin Ermeni çeteleri tarafından öldürülmüş olabileceği ihtimali de oldukça kuvvetli. Ama bu tür şeyler benim için hiç önemli değil. Ben sonuçta bir akademisyenim ve bilim adamı olarak konuyu araştırıyorum.
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  60. ^ Ahıska Türkü: Aslan Atem dünya ikincisi, Ajans Ahıska, 2016, retrieved 21 December 2020, Dünya Grekoromen Güreş Şampiyonası'nda 80 kiloda mücadele eden milli sporcu ahıska Türkü Aslan Atem, finalde Rus güreşçi Ramazan Abacharaev'e 3-1 yenilerek dünya 2'incisi olarak gümüş madalya kazandı.
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  68. ^ FATMA GİRİK VE TÜRKAN ŞORAY'I SİNEMAMIZA KAZANDIRAN AHISKA KÖKENLİ Erdoğan Çakıcı, Ajans Ahiska, 2015, retrieved 20 December 2020
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  73. ^ Agezova, Sevilya (2019), Sürgün Öncesinde Ahıska Türkleri İçerisinde Eğitim Anlayışı: Şefika Şeyhzade-Efendizade ve Fürget Hocazade Örneğinde (PDF), ULUSAM
  74. ^ Memmedli, Şureddin (2012), ŞEFİKA ŞEYHZADE-EFENDİZADE (PDF), Bizim Ahıska, p. 13, Bizim Ahıska'mızın okuyucularıyla paylaştığımız Ahıskalı kadın aydınımız Şefika Şeyhzade-Efendizade'dir. Övüncümüzün kaynağı, onun birkaç yönden ilk ve öncü olmasıdır. Azerbaycan ve genellikle Türk dünyası eğitim, kültür, edebiyat tarihinde önemli yer tutan Şefika Şeyhzade-Efendizade, ilk kadın öğretmen, ilk kadın eğitimci-pedagog, ilk kadın gazeteci, ilk kadın yazar olmak gibi şeref payelerine sahiptir
  75. ^ Gasimov, Zaur (2019), ""The Turkish Wall": Turkey as an Anti-communist and Anti-Russian Bulwark in the Twentieth Century", Rampart Nations: Bulwark Myths of East European Multiconfessional Societies in the Age of Nationalism, Berghahn Books, ISBN 978-1789201482, At that time, Muharrem Ergin (1923-1995) was one of the leading Turkish philologists and an expert in ancient Turkish literature. Ergin was the descendant of an emigrant family from the Ahiska region of Georgia and studied philology at Istanbul University under the exiled Azerbaijani professor Ahmet Caferoğlu
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  94. ^ Fırat Tanış Kimdir?, Sabah, 2016, retrieved 20 December 2020, Fırat Tanış, 5 Mayıs 1975 tarihinde İstanbul, Kadıköy'de doğmuştur. Tam adı Nuri Fırat Tanış'dır. Gürcistan; Ahıska kökenli ve annesi babası terzi olan Fırat Tanış ailenin en küçük çocuğudur.
  95. ^ Kazakistan Cumhurbaşkanı Nazarbayev'den Yalçın Topçu'ya Madalya, Haber7, 2019, retrieved 20 December 2020, esepsiyonda konuşan Topçu minnettarlıklarını belirterek "ben bir Ahıska Türk'ü ailenin çocuğuyum. Yıllar önce akrabalarımı bağırlarına bastıkları için Kazakistan halkına minnettarım.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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