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Mann Act
Great Seal of the United States
Other short titlesWhite-Slave Traffic Act of 1910
Long titleAn Act to further regulate interstate and foreign commerce by prohibiting the transportation therein for immoral purposes of women and girls, and for other purposes.
NicknamesWhite-Slave Traffic Act
Enacted bythe 61st United States Congress
EffectiveJune 25, 1910
Citations
Public lawPub. L. 61–277
Statutes at Large36 Stat. 825a
Codification
Titles amended
U.S.C. sections created
Legislative history
Newspaper clip: "Wanted 60,000 girls to take the place of 60,000 white slaves who will die this year"

The Mann Act, previously called the White-Slave Traffic Act of 1910, is a United States federal law, passed June 25, 1910 (ch. 395, 36 Stat. 825; codified as amended at 18 U.S.C. §§ 2421–2424). It is named after Congressman James Robert Mann of Illinois.

In its original form, the act made it a felony to engage in interstate or foreign commerce transport of "any woman or girl for the purpose of prostitution or debauchery, or for any other immoral purpose". Its primary stated intent was to address prostitution, immorality, and human trafficking, particularly where trafficking was for the purposes of prostitution. It was one of several acts of protective legislation aimed at moral reform during the Progressive Era. In practice, its ambiguous language about "immorality" resulted in it being used to criminalize even consensual sexual behavior between adults. It was amended by Congress in 1978 and again in 1986 to limit its application to transport for the purpose of prostitution or other illegal sexual acts.[1]

Background and motivation

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In the 19th century, many of America's cities had designated legally protected areas of prostitution. Increased urbanization, as well as greater numbers of young women entering the workforce, led to greater flexibility in courtship without supervision. It was in this changing social sphere in the mid-1800s that concern over "white slavery" began. This term referred to women kidnapped for the purposes of prostitution and derives from Charles Sumner's 1847 description of the Barbary slave trade.[2]

Numerous communities appointed vice commissions to investigate the extent of local prostitution, whether prostitutes participated in it willingly or were forced into it, and the degree to which it was organized by any cartel-type organizations. The second significant action at the local level was to close the brothels and the red-light districts. From 1910 to 1913, city after city changed previously tolerant approaches and forced the closing of their brothels. Opposition to openly practiced prostitution had been growing steadily throughout the last decades of the 19th century. The federal government's response was the Mann Act. The purpose of the act was to make it a crime to "transport or cause to be transported, or aid to assist in obtaining transportation for" or to "persuade, induce, entice or coerce" a woman to travel.[3] Many of the changes that occurred after 1900 were a result of tensions between social ideals and practical realities. Family form and functions changed in response to a complex set of circumstances that were the effects of economic class and ethnicity.[4]

Rescuing sex trafficked young women

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Exploitation of young women to work as prostitutes was not merely a figment of social panic or racist hysteria. Suffrage activists, especially Harriet Burton Laidlaw[5] and Rose Livingston, took up the concerns. They worked in New York City's Chinatown and in other cities to rescue young white and Chinese girls from forced prostitution, and helped pass the Mann Act to make interstate sex trafficking a federal crime.[3] Other groups like the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and Hull House focused on children of prostitutes and poverty in community life while trying to pass protective legislation. The American Purity Alliance also supported the Mann Act.[6]

Conspiracy narrative

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According to historian Mark Thomas Connelly, "a group of books and pamphlets appeared announcing a startling claim: a pervasive and depraved conspiracy was at large in the land, brutally trapping and seducing American girls into lives of enforced prostitution, or 'white slavery.' These white-slave tracts, began to circulate around 1909."[7] Such narratives often misleadingly portrayed innocent girls "victimized by a huge, secret and powerful conspiracy controlled by foreigners"[8] as they were drugged or imprisoned and forced into prostitution.[7]

"Does her mother know the character of the place and the man she is with?"−The War on the White Slave Trade by Ernest Albert Bell, 1910

This excerpt from The War on the White Slave Trade was written by the United States District Attorney in Chicago:

One thing should be made very clear to the girl who comes up to the city, and that is that the ordinary ice cream parlor is very likely to be a spider's web for her entanglement. This is perhaps especially true of those ice cream saloons and fruit stores kept by foreigners. Scores of cases are on record where young girls have taken their first step towards "white slavery" in places of this character.[7]

While prostitution was widespread, studies by local vice commissions at the time indicate that it was "overwhelmingly locally organized without any large business structure, and willingly engaged in by the prostitutes."[9]

Some contemporaries did question the idea of abduction and foreign control of prostitution through cartels. For example, noted radical and feminist Emma Goldman observed, "Whether our reformers admit it or not, the economic and social inferiority of woman is responsible for prostitution."[10]

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Although the law was created to stop forced sexual slavery of women, the most common initial use of the Mann Act was to prosecute men for having sex with underage females.[4] The phrase "immoral purpose" in the statute allowed a broad application of the law following its affirmation in Caminetti v. United States, 242 U.S. 470 (1917) ("The authority of Congress to keep the channels of interstate commerce free from immoral and injurious uses has been frequently sustained, and is no longer open to question.")

In addition to its stated purpose of preventing human trafficking, the law was used to prosecute unlawful premarital, extramarital, and interracial relationships. The penalties would be applied to men whether or not the woman involved consented and, if she had consented, the woman could be considered an accessory to the offense. Some attribute enactment of the law to the case of world champion heavyweight boxer Jack Johnson.[11] Johnson was known to be intimate with white women, some of whom he met at the fighting venue after his fights. In 1912, he was prosecuted, and later convicted, for "transporting women across state lines for immoral purposes" as a result of his relationship with a white prostitute named Belle Schreiber;[11] the month prior to the prosecution, Johnson had been charged with violating the Mann Act due to traveling with his white girlfriend, Lucille Cameron, who refused to cooperate with the prosecution and whom he married soon thereafter.[12]

The 1948 prosecution of Frank LaSalle for abducting Florence Sally Horner is believed to have been an inspiration for Vladimir Nabokov in writing his novel Lolita.[13] Humbert Humbert, the narrator, at one point explicitly refers to LaSalle.

The Mann Act has also been used by the U.S. federal government to prosecute polygamists such as Mormon fundamentalists.[14][10] Bigamy is illegal in the U.S. and all states have anti-polygamy laws. Colorado City, Arizona; Hildale, Utah; Bountiful, British Columbia, northern Mexico are historic locations of several Mormon sects that practiced polygamy,[15] although The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has expressly forbidden polygamy since the start of the 20th century. Sect leaders and individuals have been charged under the Mann Act when "wives" are transported across the Utah–Arizona state line or the U.S.–Canadian and U.S.–Mexican borders.[6]

Notable prosecutions under the Mann Act

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Person Year Decision Notes
Bella Moore 1910 Convicted In People v. Moore, an all-white jury convicted Bella Moore, a mixed race woman from New York, for the "compulsory prostitution" of two white women, Alice Milton and Belle Woods, using the Mann Act.[16][17]
Jack Johnson 1913 Convicted (pardoned in 2018) In October and November 1912, boxer Jack Johnson was arrested twice under the Mann Act. It was generally acknowledged that the arrests were racially motivated. A posthumous presidential pardon was granted in 2018 by President Donald Trump.[18]
Farley Drew Caminetti 1913 Convicted Caminetti and Maury Diggs took their mistresses from Sacramento, California to Reno, Nevada. Their wives informed the police, and both men were arrested in Reno. Caminetti v. United States expanded Mann Act prosecutions from prostitution to non-commercial extramarital sex.[19]
William I. Thomas 1918 Acquitted Pioneering sociologist William I. Thomas's academic career at the University of Chicago was irreversibly damaged after he was arrested under the Mann Act when caught in the company of Mrs. Granger, whose husband was an army officer with the American forces in France. Thomas was acquitted at trial.[20]
Fred Toney 1918 Convicted Toney, a professional baseball player, pleaded guilty to traveling with a woman, whom he falsely claimed was his wife, from Louisville, Kentucky to Cincinnati, Ohio where they lived together while he played for the Cincinnati Reds. He was sentenced to four months in jail.[21]
Frank Lloyd Wright 1926 Charges dropped In October 1926, Wright and his future wife, Olga Lazovich Hinzenburg were accused of violating the Mann Act and he was arrested in Minnetonka, Minnesota.[22]
Finis Dake 1937 Convicted In 1937, he was convicted of violating the Mann Act by willfully transporting Emma Barelli, age 16, across the Wisconsin state line "for the purpose of debauchery and other immoral practices". The May 27, 1936, issue of the Chicago Daily Tribune reported that Dake registered at hotels in Waukegan, Bloomington, and East St. Louis with the girl under the name "Christian Anderson and wife". In order to avoid a jury trial and the possibility of being sentenced to a maximum of 10 years in prison and a fine of $10,000, Dake pleaded guilty. Subsequently, he served six months in the House of Corrections in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.[23]
George Barker 1940 Charges dropped The British poet was arrested crossing a state border with his lover Canadian author Elizabeth Smart in 1940. She described the arrest in her book By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept.
Charlie Chaplin 1944 Acquitted Chaplin met Joan Barry, age 24, in 1941. He signed her to a $75-a-week contract for a film he was putting together, and she became his mistress. By mid-1942, Chaplin let her contract expire. To send her home, Chaplin paid her train fare to New York which led to his arrest.[22][24] Chaplin was acquitted of the charges.
Rex Ingram 1949 Convicted Pleading guilty to the charge of transporting a teenage girl to New York for immoral purposes, the actor was sentenced to eighteen months in jail. He served just ten months of his sentence, but the incident had a serious impact on his career for the next six years.[25]
Frank La Salle 1950 Convicted La Salle was tried, convicted, and sentenced to 30 to 35 years in prison under the Mann Act for abducting and raping Florence Sally Horner during a 21-month period while traveling from New Jersey to California.[citation needed]
Kid Cann 1959 Convicted/
Acquitted on appeal		 Cann, who was an organized crime figure from Minneapolis, Minnesota, was prosecuted and convicted for transporting a prostitute from Chicago to Minnesota. His conviction was later overturned on appeal. Cann was later prosecuted and convicted of offering a $25,000 bribe to a juror at his Mann Act trial.[citation needed]
Charles Manson 1960 Charges dropped Manson took two prostitutes from California to New Mexico to work.[26]
Chuck Berry 1962 Convicted In January 1962, Berry was sentenced to three years in prison for offenses under the Mann Act when he had transported a girl, age 14, across state lines.[27][22][28]
Tony Alamo 2008 Convicted The former American religious leader was arrested under the Mann Act in September 2008.[29] He was subsequently convicted on 10 counts of interstate transportation of minors for illegal sexual purposes, rape, sexual assault, and contributing to the delinquency of minors.[30][31]
Brian David Mitchell 2010 Convicted Former street preacher and pedophile; convicted in 2010 of interstate kidnapping and unlawful transportation of a minor across state lines in connection with the 2002 abduction of Elizabeth Smart; currently serving a life sentence in federal prison.[32]
Jack Schaap 2012 Convicted Pastor at mega-church First Baptist Church and Chancellor of Hyles–Anderson College, pleaded guilty to transportation of a minor, age 16, across state lines to have sex with her.[33][34] He was sentenced to 12 years in prison.[35]
R. Kelly 2021 Convicted Singer/actor[36]
Ghislaine Maxwell 2021 Convicted Socialite/publishing heiress charged with sex trafficking of minors for Jeffrey Epstein.[37] On December 29, 2021, a jury found her guilty on five of six counts involving sex trafficking of minors[38] and she was sentenced to 20 years.[39]
Sean Combs 2024 Pending case Sean Combs sexual misconduct allegations; alleged violation of the Mann Act is one of three charges.[40]

Notable individuals considered for prosecution under the Act

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Mann Act case decisions by the United States Supreme Court

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  • Hoke v. United States, 227 U.S. 308 (1913). The Court held that Congress could not regulate prostitution per se, as that was strictly the province of the states. Congress could, however, regulate interstate travel for purposes of prostitution or "immoral purposes".
  • Athanasaw v. United States, 227 U.S. 326 (1913). The Court decided that the law was not limited strictly to prostitution, but to "debauchery" as well.[45][46]
  • Holte v. United States, 236 U.S. 14 (1915) In a 1915 ruling, the Court determined that it is not impossible for a victim of the Act to be charged with conspiracy under specific circumstances. The requirements for conspiracy by a victim of the Act were limited in a 1932 ruling.Gebardi v. United States, 287 U.S. 112 (1932)
  • Caminetti v. United States, 242 U.S. 470 (1917). In 1917, the Court decided that the Mann Act did not apply strictly to purposes of prostitution, but to other noncommercial consensual sexual liaisons; thus consensual extramarital sex fell within the category of "immoral sex".
  • Gebardi v. United States, 287 U.S. 112 (1932) In 1932, the Court ruled that consent by the victim to their own transportation does not constitute conspiracy or culpability under the Act.
  • Cleveland v. United States, 329 U.S. 14 (1946). The Court decided that a man can be prosecuted under the Mann Act even when married to the woman if the marriage is polygamous; therefore, in 1946, polygamous marriage was determined to be an "immoral purpose".
  • Bell v. United States, 349 U.S. 81 (1955). The Court decided that simultaneous transportation of two women across state lines constituted only one violation of the Mann Act, not two violations.
  • Wyatt v. United States, 362 U.S. 525 (1960) The Court affirmed that a victim can be compelled to testify against a spouse who violated the Act, in exception to the common law spousal privilege rule.

Congressional amendments to the law

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In 1978, Congress updated the act's definition of "transportation" and added protections against commercial sexual exploitation for minors.

Congress added a 1986 amendment which further protected minors and added protection for adult males. In particular, as part of a larger 1986 bill focused on criminalizing various aspects of child pornography, which was passed unanimously by both houses of Congress,[47] the Mann Act was revised by replacing the ambiguous "debauchery" and "any other immoral purpose" with the more specific "any sexual activity for which any person can be charged with a criminal offense" as well as making it gender-neutral.[47]

Date of Enactment Public Law Number U.S. Statute Citation U.S. Legislative Bill U.S. Presidential Administration
June 25, 1948 P.L. 80-772 62 Stat. 683 H.R. 3190 Harry S. Truman
February 6, 1978 P.L. 95–225 92 Stat. 7 S. 1585 Jimmy Carter
November 7, 1986 P.L. 99–628 100 Stat. 3510 H.R. 5560 Ronald Reagan
September 13, 1994 P.L. 103–322 108 Stat. 1796 H.R. 3355 Bill Clinton
February 8, 1996 P.L. 104–104 110 Stat. 56 S. 652 Bill Clinton
October 30, 1998 P.L. 105–314 112 Stat. 2974 H.R. 3494 Bill Clinton
April 30, 2003 P.L. 108–21 117 Stat. 650 S. 151 George W. Bush
July 27, 2006 P.L. 109–248 120 Stat. 587 H.R. 4472 George W. Bush

Effects and alterations of the Mann Act

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The Mann Act was one of the more salient legislation passed during the early 20th century Progressive Era. While the Mann Act was meant to combat forced prostitution, it had repercussions that extended into consensual sexual activity, including criminalizing many people who were not participating in prostitution. It was also abused for political persecution and as a tool for blackmail.[8]

The scope of the Mann Act was expanded in September 1913, as a result of charges brought against Drew Caminetti and Maury Diggs, both of Sacramento, California. The two men were married, and took their mistresses (Lola Norris and Marsha Warrington, respectively) to Reno, Nevada. The men's wives contacted the police, and the men were arrested in Reno and found guilty under the Mann Act.[8]

Such an interpretation of the law in effect criminalized all premarital or extramarital sexual relationships that involved interstate travel. With behavior that was so commonplace now illegal, federal prosecutors had a weapon that could very easily be abused in order to prosecute "undesirables" who were otherwise law-abiding citizens.[8]

Jack Johnson marries Lucille Cameron, 1912

"Undesirables" included black men who had consensual premarital affairs or married women who weren't black, as well as men with perceived left-of-center political views. For example, the heavyweight champion of the world, Jack Johnson, as well as Charlie Chaplin, and later, Chuck Berry were all prosecuted and convicted under the Mann Act. The instigating circumstances resulting in prosecution were that Johnson married a white woman,[48] Chaplin had a premarital relationship with a 24 year old actress then later paid her train fare home (crossing over state lines), and Berry paid for transportation of an underage Apache girl to her home, across state lines.[8][11]

Following multiple blackmail accounts, The New York Times became an advocate against the Mann Act. In 1915, the paper published an editorial pointing out how the Act led to extortion. In 1916, it labeled the Mann Act "The Blackmail Act", arguing that its dangers had been clear from the start as the Act could make a harmless spree or simple elopement a crime. The paper also called the "blackmail that resulted from the Mann Act [...] worse than the prostitution it sought to suppress".[49]

One author wrote about an incident of blackmail in 1914. A woman met a U.S. Army colonel in Los Angeles and was his mistress for two years. He promised to divorce his wife and marry her. When the colonel decided to leave her and return to his wife in Providence, Rhode Island, his former mistress and her mother pursued him there. The two women consulted lawyers and then the former mistress unsuccessfully tried to bring charges against him under the Mann Act, attempting to bribe an official to assist in her favor.[49]

While the Mann Act has never been repealed, it has been amended and altered since its initial passing. The Mann Act continued essentially unchanged until 1978 amendments that expanded coverage to issues around child pornography and exploitation. Most recently, in 1986, the Mann Act was significantly altered to make the whole Act gender neutral and to redress the specific ambiguous phrasing that had enabled decades of unjust applications of the Act. With the 1986 amendments, the Mann Act outlaws interstate or foreign transport of "any person" for purposes of "any sexual activity for which any person can be charged with a criminal offense."[50][11] Prior to the Supreme Court ruling in Lawrence v. Texas (2003), old laws still in effect in many states made sodomy illegal, which left open the possibility of prosecution under the Mann Act of consenting adult couples, especially gay couples, though there is no record of such enforcement actions.[9]

By 2024, both the terms "White Slave Traffic Act" and the "Mann Act" had fallen out of use although the associated law continues to be enforced.[51]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Weiner, Eric (March 11, 2008). "The Long, Colorful History of the Mann Act". NPR.org. Retrieved September 27, 2021.
  2. ^ Sumner, Charles (1847). White Slavery in The Barbary States. A Lecture Before The Boston Mercantile Library Association, Feb. 17, 1847. Boston: William D. Ticknor and Company. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-0922-8981-8. I propose to consider the subject of White Slavery in Algiers, or perhaps is might be more appropriately called, White Slavery in the Barbary States. As Algiers was its chief seat, it seems to have acquired a current name for the place. This I shall not disturb; though I shall speak of white slavery, or the slavery of Christians, throughout the Barbary States.
  3. ^ a b Landsberg, Brian K (2004). "Major Acts of Congress". Macmillan Reference USA. London, ENG: Macmillan. pp. 251–53.
  4. ^ a b Faue, Elizabeth (2003). "The Emergence of Modern America (1890 to 1923)". Encyclopedia of American History. New York City: Infobase. pp. 169–70.
  5. ^ Laidlaw, Harriet Burton, "A Finding Aid", Papers, 1851–1958, Harvard, archived from the original on April 3, 2015, retrieved May 26, 2015
  6. ^ a b Bell, pp. 44–45.
  7. ^ a b c Bell, Ernest Albert (1910), The War on the White Slave Trade (ebook), Chicago: GS Ball – via Archive.
  8. ^ a b c d e Burns, Ken. "The Mann Act". www.pbs.com. Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved March 2, 2025.
  9. ^ a b Langum, David J. (1994). Crossing Over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-46880-1.
  10. ^ a b Goldman, Emma (1972). Kates Shulman, Alix (ed.). Red Emma Speaks: Selected Writings and Speeches. New York City: Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-47095-5.
  11. ^ a b c d Burns, Ken. "The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson". Unforgivable Blackness. PBS. Retrieved March 2, 2025.
  12. ^ "Year in Cell for Johnson; $1,000 Fine, Too, for Pugilist's White Slavery Offense". New York Times. June 4, 1913. Retrieved March 14, 2018.
  13. ^ Dolinin, Alexander. "What Happened to Sally Horner?: A Real-Life Source of Nabokov's Lolita". State College, Pennsylvania: Art & Humanities Library of Pennsylvania State University. Retrieved March 10, 2008.
  14. ^ Langum, David J (1994). Crossing Over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-226-46880-8.
  15. ^ Lui Yi, Mary Ting (September 1, 2009). "Saving young girls from Chinatown: white slavery and woman suffrage, 1910–1920". Journal of the History of Sexuality. 18 (3): 393–417. doi:10.1353/sex.0.0069. JSTOR 20542730. PMID 19739340. S2CID 27886467.
  16. ^ Donovan, Brian; Barnes-Brus, Tori (2011). "Narratives of Sexual Consent and Coercion: Forced Prostitution Trials in Progressive-Era New York City". Law & Social Inquiry. 36 (3): 597–619. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2011.01244.x. ISSN 0897-6546. JSTOR 23011884. S2CID 143108977.
  17. ^ Donovan, Brian (2006). White slave crusades : race, gender, and anti-vice activism, 1887–1917. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-09100-1. OCLC 1154853069.
  18. ^ Eligon, John; Michael D., Shear (May 24, 2018). "Trump Pardons Jack Johnson, Heavyweight Boxing Champion". The New York Times. Retrieved May 24, 2018.
  19. ^ "Caminetti Guilty On Only One Count. Two Jurors Hold Out for Acquittal for Three Hours, but Finally Compromise". The New York Times. September 6, 1913. Retrieved August 20, 2010. Farley Drew Caminetti, son of the Commissioner General of Immigration, was found guilty late to-day on one count of the indictment charging him with violation of the Mann White Slave act.
  20. ^ "Thomas and Woman Freed. Evidence Sought for Prosecution under the Mann Act". The New York Times. April 20, 1918. Retrieved August 22, 2010.
  21. ^ "Fred Toney Pleads Guilty To White Slave Charge; Sentenced". The Tennessean. January 1, 1919. p. 12. Retrieved July 19, 2023.
  22. ^ a b c Weiner, Eric (March 11, 2008). "All Things Considered: The Long, Colorful History of the Mann Act". NPR. Retrieved July 23, 2009.
  23. ^ Chambers, Pastor Joseph (September 19, 1999). "An Open Letter to Pastor Joseph Chambers, Author of an Article Entitled 'Confused Charismatic Theology & the Dake's Bible'". dakebible.com. Charlotte, NC: Paw Creek Ministries. Retrieved July 23, 2009.
  24. ^ "Mann & Woman". Time. April 3, 1944. Archived from the original on January 17, 2008. Retrieved August 21, 2007.
  25. ^ Eder, Bruce. "Rex Ingram Biography". All Movie Guide. AMC. Retrieved July 23, 2009.
  26. ^ Bugliosi, Vincent with Gentry, Curt (1994). Helter Skelter – The True Story of the Manson Murders 25th Anniversary Edition. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-08700-X. pp. 137–146.
  27. ^ "Chuck Berry". The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum.
  28. ^ "295 F.2d 192". ftp.resource.org. Archived from the original on October 13, 2010. Retrieved June 4, 2010.
  29. ^ Evangelist arrested, charged with child pornography crimes. CNN. September 26, 2008. Retrieved July 30, 2011.
  30. ^ Trial of Arkansas evangelist. July 24, 2009. CNN. Retrieved July 30, 2011.
  31. ^ "Evangelist Arrested In Child Sex Probe". CBS News. September 25, 2008. Retrieved April 30, 2018.
  32. ^ Enos, Robin (May 25, 2011), "Kidnapper Brian David Mitchell Sentenced to Life. findlaw.com
  33. ^ "Jack Schaap Confesses To Sexual Relationship With Teen After Firing From Megachurch". The Huffington Post. August 2, 2012. Retrieved December 24, 2012.
  34. ^ "Jack Schaap Pleads Guilty in Teen Sex Case, Denies Knowing Act Was Crime". Christian Post. August 27, 2012. Archived from the original on January 26, 2013. Retrieved December 24, 2012.
  35. ^ "Judge Rejects Reduced Sentence In Former Pastor's Sex Case". CBS Chicago. January 5, 2013. Retrieved April 8, 2015.
  36. ^ Lauren Aratani and Gloria Oladipo (September 27, 2021). "R Kelly found guilty on racketeering and sex trafficking charges". The Guardian. Retrieved September 27, 2021.
  37. ^ United States v. Ghislaine Maxwell (S.D.N.Y.), Text.
  38. ^ "Ghislaine Maxwell convicted in Epstein sex abuse case". December 29, 2021.
  39. ^ "Ghislaine Maxwell sentenced to 20 years in Jeffrey Epstein sex trafficking case". June 28, 2022.
  40. ^ "Lawyer for Sean 'Diddy' Combs says 'under no circumstances can I continue' as hip hop mogul's defense counsel". New York, New York: Fortune. Associated Press. February 21, 2025. Retrieved March 2, 2025.
  41. ^ Rhee, Joseph; Mark Schone (November 30, 2009). "How Anwar Awlaki Got Away: Fort Hood Investigation". ABC News. ABC News. Retrieved December 1, 2009.
  42. ^ Gentry, Curt (2001). J. Edgar Hoover: The Man and the Secrets. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-393-32128-9.
  43. ^ Hakim, Danny; Rashbaum, William K. (March 10, 2008). "Spitzer Is Linked to Prostitution Ring". The New York Times. Retrieved August 22, 2010.
  44. ^ Anthony, Paul (January 28, 2009). "FLDS leader invokes 5th in deposition: He pleads it more than 250 times, court transcript says". San Angelo Standard-Times. Archived from the original on February 5, 2009. Retrieved July 24, 2009.
  45. ^ wikisource:Louis Athanasaw v. United States
  46. ^ "Athanasaw v. United States". Findlaw.
  47. ^ a b "Reagan Signs Tough Bill In Crackdown on Child Porn". United Press International via the San Francisco Chronicle November 8, 1986. "President Reagan signed a bill yesterday strengthening provisions of existing child pornography laws. The new measure, passed unanimously by both houses of Congress, would make it a crime to advertise to buy or sell child pornography, to seek children for the production of pornography or to participate with children in the production of it. [...] On another subject, the bill rewrites the Mann Act, a relic of the early part of the century, which makes it a crime to transport a woman across state lines for 'immoral' purposes. The new provision makes the statute gender-neutral and eliminates archaic language."
  48. ^ Burns, Ken. "Johnson's Arrest". Unforgivable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson. PBS. Retrieved March 2, 2025.
  49. ^ a b McLaren, Angus. "Entrapping the Jazz-Age American Male." Sexual Blackmail: A Modern History. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002. page 87. Print.
  50. ^ Langum, David J. "Mann Act (1910)." Major Acts of Congress. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. November 14, 2013 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>
  51. ^ Cevallos, Danny (September 22, 2024). "The checkered origins of the law at the center of Sean 'Diddy' Combs' prosecution". MSNBC. Retrieved September 22, 2024.

Further reading

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