Macedonian Struggle: Difference between revisions
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The '''Macedonian Struggle''' ({{lang-el|Μακεδονικὸς Ἀγών}}, was a series of military, political, cultural, and economic activities by [[Greece]] in the region of Ottoman [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] between 1904 and 1908, aimed at protecting the Greek population and strengthening Greek presence in the region, to prepare it for eventual union with Greece.<ref>John Shea, Macedonia and Greece: The Struggle to Define a New Balkan Nation, 2008, p 170"It refers to Greek-supporting Macedonians and others taking action in support of Greek political ambitions"</ref><ref>Douglas Dakin, The Greek struggle in Macedonia 1897-1913, 1993, p 5-140</ref><ref>Richard Clogg, A Concise History of Greece, 2002, p 67 "initially these rivalries played out in ecclesiastical, educational and cultural propaganda" and p 72 "Makedonomakhoi, guerrilla fighters who, in the early years of the present century, pursued by armed force the Greek claim to Macedonia as Ottoman rule in European Turkey crumbled"</ref><ref>Andre Gerolymatos, The Balkan Wars: conquest, revolution, and retribution from the Ottoman era to the twentieth century and beyond, 2002, p 187-191</ref><ref>Apostolos Vakalopoulos, O Makedonikos agonas (1904-1908) os koryphaia phase ton agonon ton ellenon gia te Makedonia, 1986, p 3-37</ref> |
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The '''Macedonian Struggle''' ({{lang-el|Μακεδονικὸς Ἀγών}}, ''Macedonian Struggle'', {{lang-bg|Гръцка въоръжена пропаганда в Македония}}, ''Greek armed propaganda in Macedonia'') was a conflict between [[Greeks|Greek]] and [[Bulgarian people|Bulgarian]] guerrillas in the region of Ottoman [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] between 1904 and 1908. Gradually the Greek bands gained the upper hand, paving the way for the annexation of large parts of Ottoman Macedonia by Greece during the [[Balkan Wars]] in 1912-1913.<ref name="Clogg"/> |
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==Background== |
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As Ottoman rule in the Balkans crumbled in the late 19th century, competition arose between Greeks and Bulgarians (and to a lesser extent also other ethnic groups such as Serbs, Aromanians and Albanians) over the multi-ethnic region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]].<ref name="Clogg">Clogg, Richard. ''A Concise History of Greece''. Cambridge University Press, 1992. 257 pages. pp 74-75.</ref> Initially the conflict was waged through educational and religious propaganda, with a fierce rivalry developing between supporters of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] in Istanbul, who generally identified as Greek, and supporters of the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]], which had been established in 1870.<ref name="Clogg"/> In 1894, an organization known as the as the [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]] (IMRO) was founded by Bulgarian anti-Ottoman revolutionaries in Thessaloníki, with the aim of liberating Macedonia and Thrace from Ottoman rule. Initially IMRO was declared as a Bulgarian organization, but later it was opened to all ethnic groups in Macedonia and IMRO's claimed that it was fighting for the autonomy of Macedonia and not for annexation to Bulgaria. In practice, most of the followers of the IMRO were Bulgarians<ref>[http://books.google.bg/books?id=AIET_7ji7YAC&pg=PA209&lpg=PA209&dq=Internal+Macedonian+Revolutionary+Organization+BULGARIAN+IMRO&source=web&ots=A-3L-9AjP5&sig=8vP1r0Q0djb9fNyQOJkFG4HZpX4&hl=bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 2, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808-1975, by Stanford J. Shaw, 1977, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521291668, p. 209.]</ref>, though they also had some Aromanian supporters (for example [[Pitu Guli]]). Many of the members of the organization saw Macedonian autonomy as an intermediate step to unification with Bulgaria,<ref>''Идеята за автономия като тактика в програмите на национално-освободителното движение в Македония и Одринско (1893-1941), Димитър Гоцев, 1983, Изд. на Българска Академия на Науките, София, 1983, c. 34.; in English: The idea for autonomy as a tactics in the programs of the National Liberation movements in Macedonia and Adrianople regions 1893-1941", Sofia, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Dimitar Gotsev, 1983, p 34.'' Among others, there are used the memoirs of the IMRO revolutionary Kosta Tsipushev, where he cited Delchev, that the autonomy then was only tactics, aiming future unification with Bulgaria. (55. ЦПА, ф. 226); срв. К. Ципушев. 19 години в сръбските затвори, СУ Св. Климент Охридски, 2004, ISBN 954-91083-5-X стр. 31-32. in English: Kosta Tsipushev, 19 years in Serbian prisons, Sofia University publishing house, 2004, ISBN 954-91083-5-X, p. 31-32.</ref><ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20091027085642/http://geocities.com/mac_truth/secrets/vmro.html Таjните на Македониjа. Се издава за прв пат, Скопjе 1999.] in Macedonian - Ете како ја објаснува целта на борбата Гоце Делчев во 1901 година: "...Треба да се бориме за автономноста на Македанија и Одринско, за да ги зачуваме во нивната целост, како еден етап за идното им присоединување кон општата Болгарска Татковина". In English - How Gotse Delchev explained the aim of the struggle against the Ottomans in 1901: "...We have to fight for autonomy of Macedonia and Adrianople regions as a stage for their future unification with our common fatherland, Bulgaria."</ref> but others saw as their aim the creation of a Balkan federal state, with Macedonia as an equal member.<ref>[http://www.macedoniainfo.com/Independent_Macedonia.htm The last interview with the leader of IMRO, Ivan Michailov in 1989 - newspaper 'Democratsia', Sofia, January 8, 2001, pp. 10-11.]</ref> [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] and especially [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] opposed the IMRO movement, with the Greek organization named [[Ethniki Etairia]] ("National Society") becoming IMRO's chief rival.<ref name="Clogg"/> A vicious guerrilla war broke out between Bulgarian and Greek armed bands within Ottoman Macedonia in 1904, ending in 1908 when the [[Young Turks]] movement came into power in the Ottoman Empire with its initially democratic and modernization agenda. |
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==Causes== |
==Causes== |
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[[Image:Refugees from Strentza.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Greek refugees from Strentza near Bitola-Monaster, leaving their village |
[[Image:Refugees from Strentza.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Greek refugees from Strentza near Bitola-Monaster, leaving their village in fear of anti-Greek thugs]] |
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The defeat of Greece in the [[Greco-Turkish War of 1897]] |
The defeat of Greece in the [[Greco-Turkish War of 1897]] (the first time the Greek armed forces had seen action since Greek independence in 1828) was a loss that appalled Greeks. The nationalist organization [[Ethniki Etairia]], considered to be responsible for the outbreak of the war, dissolved under the pressure of Prime Minister [[Georgios Theotokis]]. But the young officers that had established the organization did not lose contact. They conferred with each other over the situation in Macedonia in order to fulfill the [[Great Idea]]; there was also the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]], a Bulgarian Church that had rebelled against (and achieved independence from) the Ecumenical Patriarchate, with generous Turkish assistance.<ref>Clogg, 2002</ref> |
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Since 1899, Bulgarian paramilitaries from the [[IMRO]] turned against Ottoman authorities with the slogan "autonomy for Macedonia". The guerrillas purported to be protectors of all Christians in the area; However, the Greeks were not interested in autonomy, but in enosis (union) with Greece. Furthermore, the Greeks were the wealthiest among the ethnic groups in Ottoman Macedonia, and did not feel comfortable being "protected" by the IMRO, an organization composed of poor Slavic peasants that also included terrorists<ref>LIFE, March 29, 1939</ref><ref>Καραβαγγέλης, 1959, p 6-41</ref>. Gradually, increasing tensions emerged among the followers of the [[Patriarchate of Constantinople]] (the patriarchalists, mostly, but not only, Greeks) and those of the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]]; this brought to the assassination by the IMRO of members of pro-Greek and pro-Serbian parties. |
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| ⚫ | The situation became heated in Macedonia and started to affect European public opinion. In April 1903, a group called ''Gemidzhii'' (in Greek: ''βαρκάρηδες'' "boat-men") with some assistance from the IMRO [[Thessaloniki bombings of 1903|blew up]] the French ship ''Guadalquivir'' and the Ottoman Bank in the harbour of [[Thessaloniki]]. In August 1903, IMRO organized an uprising (the [[Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising]]) in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and the [[Adrianople Vilayet]]. After the forming of the short-lived Krushevo Republic, the insurrection was suppressed by the [[Ottomans]] with the subsequent destruction of many villages and the devastation of large areas in Western Macedonia and around [[Kırklareli|Kırk Kilise]] near [[Adrianople]]. |
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As noted above , the guerrillas of the IMRO were fighting against the Ottoman authorities with the slogan "autonomy for Macedonia". IMRO had declared as its intention the uniting of all "disgruntled elements in Macedonia and the Adrianople region, regardless of their nationality" and for this reason they initially did not bother Greece. But gradually, increasing tensions emerged between the followers of the [[Patriarchate of Constantinople]] (the Patriarchalists, mostly, but not only, Greeks) and those of the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]]; this resulted in the assassination by the IMRO of members of pro-Greek and pro-Serbian parties.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} |
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| ⚫ | The situation |
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In [[Athens]], nationalist organizations staged demonstrations against Bulgaria, but the official Greek State, numbed from the defeat of 1897 hesitated over what to do.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} |
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==Early stage== |
==Early stage== |
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As Ion Dragoumis wrote in his calendar "I am thinking how these communities of Greece outside of the Greek Kingdom can affiliate in our state. Why wait their liberation only from Greece? Let them work as Greece didn’t exist and then she will help them." Dragoumis later called, in his book Martyron kai Iroon Aima (Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Blood), for Greeks to follow the example of Basil II: "Basil II, instead of blinding so many people should have better killed them instead. On one hand this people would not suffer as eyeless survivors, on the other the sheer number of Bulgarians would have diminished by 15 000, which is something very useful."<ref>Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Blood, 1907, Ion Dragoumis, p.1110</ref> |
As Ion Dragoumis wrote in his calendar "I am thinking how these communities of Greece outside of the Greek Kingdom can affiliate in our state. Why wait their liberation only from Greece? Let them work as Greece didn’t exist and then she will help them." Dragoumis later called, in his book Martyron kai Iroon Aima (Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Blood), for Greeks to follow the example of Basil II: "Basil II, instead of blinding so many people should have better killed them instead. On one hand this people would not suffer as eyeless survivors, on the other the sheer number of Bulgarians would have diminished by 15 000, which is something very useful."<ref>Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Blood, 1907, Ion Dragoumis, p.1110</ref> |
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While Dragoumis concerned himself with the financial organisation of the efforts, Bishop Germanos animated the [[Greek Macedonians|Greek population]] against the IMRO and formed committees to promote the Greek national interests. Taking advantage of the internal political and personal disputes in IMRO, Karavangelis initially succeeded to recruit some IMRO former members and to organize guerilla groups, that were later reinforced with people sent from Greece and thus were mainly composed of ex-officers of the [[Hellenic Army]], volunteers brought from [[Crete]], from the [[Mani Peninsula|Mani]] area of the Peloponnese, as well as [[Macedonian Greeks]], such as Vangelis Strebreniotis from the village of Asprogia and Christos Kottas from the village of Rulya, a former adherent of the IMRO. |
While Dragoumis concerned himself with the financial organisation of the efforts, the central figure in the military struggle was the very capable [[Cretan]] officer [[Georgios Katehakis]] (Γεώργιος Κατεχάκης in Greek)<ref>Bulgarian Historical Review, vol 31, 1-4, 2003, p 117 "Only a few days later -on November 1- Katehakis arrived in Macedonia as Melas' successor</ref>. Katehakis later became a war hero in the [[Balkan Wars]] and [[World War I]], and was Defense Minister in the interwar years. Bishop Germanos Karavangelis animated the [[Greek Macedonians|Greek population]] against the IMRO and formed committees to promote the Greek national interests. Taking advantage of the internal political and personal disputes in IMRO, Katehakis and Karavangelis initially succeeded to recruit some IMRO former members and to organize guerilla groups, that were later reinforced with people sent from Greece and thus were mainly composed of ex-officers of the [[Hellenic Army]], volunteers brought from [[Crete]], from the [[Mani Peninsula|Mani]] area of the Peloponnese, as well as [[Macedonian Greeks]], such as Vangelis Strebreniotis from the village of Asprogia and Christos Kottas from the village of Rulya, a former adherent of the IMRO. |
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The fighters for the Greek cause labelled themselves ''Makedonomachoi'' (Μακεδονομάχοι - Macedonian Fighters) and were portrayed by Greek writer [[Penelope Delta]] in her novel ''Τά μυστικά τοῦ Βάλτου'' (Ta Mystiká tou Váltou - The Secrets of the Swamp), as well as in the book of memoirs ''Ὁ Μακεδονικός Ἀγών'' (The Macedonian Struggle) by Germanos Karavangelis, while on the other side, the fighters of IMRO and their activities are depicted in the book ''Confessions of a Macedonian Bandit: A Californian in the Balkan Wars'', written by Albert Sonnichsen, an American volunteer in the IMRO during the |
The fighters for the Greek cause labelled themselves ''Makedonomachoi'' (Μακεδονομάχοι - Macedonian Fighters) and were portrayed by Greek writer [[Penelope Delta]] in her novel ''Τά μυστικά τοῦ Βάλτου'' (Ta Mystiká tou Váltou - The Secrets of the Swamp), as well as in the book of memoirs ''Ὁ Μακεδονικός Ἀγών'' (The Macedonian Struggle) by Germanos Karavangelis, while on the other side, the fighters of IMRO and their activities are depicted in the book ''Confessions of a Macedonian Bandit: A Californian in the Balkan Wars'', written by Albert Sonnichsen, an American volunteer in the IMRO during the Greek struggle for Macedonia. |
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==Official Greek involvement== |
==Official Greek involvement== |
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[[Image:Agras-Tellos-Agapinos Nikiforos-Ioannis-Demestihas Kalas-Constantine-Sorros.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Tellos Agras]] in the middle, with Nikiforos (Ioannis Demestihas) to his left and Kalas (Constantine Sorros)]] |
[[Image:Agras-Tellos-Agapinos Nikiforos-Ioannis-Demestihas Kalas-Constantine-Sorros.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Tellos Agras]] in the middle, with Nikiforos (Ioannis Demestihas) to his left and Kalas (Constantine Sorros)]] |
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The Greek |
The Greek State became concerned, not only because of the Bulgarian penetration in Macedonia, but also due to the Serbian interest, which was concentrated mainly in Skopje and Bitola area. The rioting in Macedonia and especially the death of [[Pavlos Melas]] in 1904 (he was the first Greek officer to enter Macedonia with guerrillas and was killed in battle with the Ottoman army) caused intense nationalistic feelings in Greece. This led to the decision to send more guerrilla troops in order to thwart Bulgarian efforts to bring all of the Slavic-speaking majority population of Macedonia on their side. |
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The Greek Consulate in [[Thessaloniki]] became the centre of the struggle, coordinating the guerrilla troops, distributing military materiel and nursing the wounded. Fierce conflicts between the Greeks and Bulgarians started in the area of [[Kastoria]], in the Giannitsa Lake area, and elsewhere; both parties committed cruel crimes at points{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}. The greatest bloodshed was the massacre in the village Zagorichani (was predominantly populated by Bulgarians) near [[Kastoria]] on 25 March 1905, when 79 villagers were executed by Greek andartes at nighttime. |
The Greek Consulate in [[Thessaloniki]] became the centre of the struggle, coordinating the guerrilla troops, distributing military materiel and nursing the wounded. Fierce conflicts between the Greeks and Bulgarians started in the area of [[Kastoria]], in the Giannitsa Lake area, and elsewhere; both parties committed cruel crimes at points{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}. The greatest bloodshed was the massacre in the village Zagorichani (was predominantly populated by Bulgarians) near [[Kastoria]] on 25 March 1905, when 79 villagers were executed by the Greek andartes of Katehakis at nighttime. |
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Both guerrilla groups had also to confront the Turkish Army |
Both guerrilla groups had also to confront the Turkish Army. These conflicts ended after the revolution of "[[Young Turks]]" in July, 1908, as they promised to respect all ethnicities and religions, and to provide a constitution. |
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==Consequences== |
==Consequences== |
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The success of Greek efforts in Macedonia was an experience that |
The success of Greek efforts in Macedonia was an experience that greatly helped the realization of Macedonia's union with Greece, and the -at least partial- fulfillment of the [[Megali Idea]]. |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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*[[Macedonian Question]] |
*[[Macedonian Question]] |
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Revision as of 15:26, 3 August 2011
The Macedonian Struggle (Greek: Μακεδονικὸς Ἀγών, was a series of military, political, cultural, and economic activities by Greece in the region of Ottoman Macedonia between 1904 and 1908, aimed at protecting the Greek population and strengthening Greek presence in the region, to prepare it for eventual union with Greece.[1][2][3][4][5]
Causes
The defeat of Greece in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 (the first time the Greek armed forces had seen action since Greek independence in 1828) was a loss that appalled Greeks. The nationalist organization Ethniki Etairia, considered to be responsible for the outbreak of the war, dissolved under the pressure of Prime Minister Georgios Theotokis. But the young officers that had established the organization did not lose contact. They conferred with each other over the situation in Macedonia in order to fulfill the Great Idea; there was also the Bulgarian Exarchate, a Bulgarian Church that had rebelled against (and achieved independence from) the Ecumenical Patriarchate, with generous Turkish assistance.[6] Since 1899, Bulgarian paramilitaries from the IMRO turned against Ottoman authorities with the slogan "autonomy for Macedonia". The guerrillas purported to be protectors of all Christians in the area; However, the Greeks were not interested in autonomy, but in enosis (union) with Greece. Furthermore, the Greeks were the wealthiest among the ethnic groups in Ottoman Macedonia, and did not feel comfortable being "protected" by the IMRO, an organization composed of poor Slavic peasants that also included terrorists[7][8]. Gradually, increasing tensions emerged among the followers of the Patriarchate of Constantinople (the patriarchalists, mostly, but not only, Greeks) and those of the Bulgarian Exarchate; this brought to the assassination by the IMRO of members of pro-Greek and pro-Serbian parties.
The situation became heated in Macedonia and started to affect European public opinion. In April 1903, a group called Gemidzhii (in Greek: βαρκάρηδες "boat-men") with some assistance from the IMRO blew up the French ship Guadalquivir and the Ottoman Bank in the harbour of Thessaloniki. In August 1903, IMRO organized an uprising (the Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising) in Macedonia and the Adrianople Vilayet. After the forming of the short-lived Krushevo Republic, the insurrection was suppressed by the Ottomans with the subsequent destruction of many villages and the devastation of large areas in Western Macedonia and around Kırk Kilise near Adrianople.
Early stage
The Bishop of Kastoria, Germanos Karavangelis sent to Macedonia by the ambassador of Greece Nikolaos Mavrokordatos and the consul of Greece in Monastiri, Ion Dragoumis, realised that it was time to act in a more efficient way and started organising Greek opposition.
As Ion Dragoumis wrote in his calendar "I am thinking how these communities of Greece outside of the Greek Kingdom can affiliate in our state. Why wait their liberation only from Greece? Let them work as Greece didn’t exist and then she will help them." Dragoumis later called, in his book Martyron kai Iroon Aima (Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Blood), for Greeks to follow the example of Basil II: "Basil II, instead of blinding so many people should have better killed them instead. On one hand this people would not suffer as eyeless survivors, on the other the sheer number of Bulgarians would have diminished by 15 000, which is something very useful."[9]
While Dragoumis concerned himself with the financial organisation of the efforts, the central figure in the military struggle was the very capable Cretan officer Georgios Katehakis (Γεώργιος Κατεχάκης in Greek)[10]. Katehakis later became a war hero in the Balkan Wars and World War I, and was Defense Minister in the interwar years. Bishop Germanos Karavangelis animated the Greek population against the IMRO and formed committees to promote the Greek national interests. Taking advantage of the internal political and personal disputes in IMRO, Katehakis and Karavangelis initially succeeded to recruit some IMRO former members and to organize guerilla groups, that were later reinforced with people sent from Greece and thus were mainly composed of ex-officers of the Hellenic Army, volunteers brought from Crete, from the Mani area of the Peloponnese, as well as Macedonian Greeks, such as Vangelis Strebreniotis from the village of Asprogia and Christos Kottas from the village of Rulya, a former adherent of the IMRO.
The fighters for the Greek cause labelled themselves Makedonomachoi (Μακεδονομάχοι - Macedonian Fighters) and were portrayed by Greek writer Penelope Delta in her novel Τά μυστικά τοῦ Βάλτου (Ta Mystiká tou Váltou - The Secrets of the Swamp), as well as in the book of memoirs Ὁ Μακεδονικός Ἀγών (The Macedonian Struggle) by Germanos Karavangelis, while on the other side, the fighters of IMRO and their activities are depicted in the book Confessions of a Macedonian Bandit: A Californian in the Balkan Wars, written by Albert Sonnichsen, an American volunteer in the IMRO during the Greek struggle for Macedonia.
Official Greek involvement
The Greek State became concerned, not only because of the Bulgarian penetration in Macedonia, but also due to the Serbian interest, which was concentrated mainly in Skopje and Bitola area. The rioting in Macedonia and especially the death of Pavlos Melas in 1904 (he was the first Greek officer to enter Macedonia with guerrillas and was killed in battle with the Ottoman army) caused intense nationalistic feelings in Greece. This led to the decision to send more guerrilla troops in order to thwart Bulgarian efforts to bring all of the Slavic-speaking majority population of Macedonia on their side.
The Greek Consulate in Thessaloniki became the centre of the struggle, coordinating the guerrilla troops, distributing military materiel and nursing the wounded. Fierce conflicts between the Greeks and Bulgarians started in the area of Kastoria, in the Giannitsa Lake area, and elsewhere; both parties committed cruel crimes at points[citation needed]. The greatest bloodshed was the massacre in the village Zagorichani (was predominantly populated by Bulgarians) near Kastoria on 25 March 1905, when 79 villagers were executed by the Greek andartes of Katehakis at nighttime.
Both guerrilla groups had also to confront the Turkish Army. These conflicts ended after the revolution of "Young Turks" in July, 1908, as they promised to respect all ethnicities and religions, and to provide a constitution.
Consequences
The success of Greek efforts in Macedonia was an experience that greatly helped the realization of Macedonia's union with Greece, and the -at least partial- fulfillment of the Megali Idea.
See also
- Macedonian Question
- History of Modern Greece
- History of modern Macedonia
- Macedonia
- Greek Macedonia
- Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization
References
- ^ John Shea, Macedonia and Greece: The Struggle to Define a New Balkan Nation, 2008, p 170"It refers to Greek-supporting Macedonians and others taking action in support of Greek political ambitions"
- ^ Douglas Dakin, The Greek struggle in Macedonia 1897-1913, 1993, p 5-140
- ^ Richard Clogg, A Concise History of Greece, 2002, p 67 "initially these rivalries played out in ecclesiastical, educational and cultural propaganda" and p 72 "Makedonomakhoi, guerrilla fighters who, in the early years of the present century, pursued by armed force the Greek claim to Macedonia as Ottoman rule in European Turkey crumbled"
- ^ Andre Gerolymatos, The Balkan Wars: conquest, revolution, and retribution from the Ottoman era to the twentieth century and beyond, 2002, p 187-191
- ^ Apostolos Vakalopoulos, O Makedonikos agonas (1904-1908) os koryphaia phase ton agonon ton ellenon gia te Makedonia, 1986, p 3-37
- ^ Clogg, 2002
- ^ LIFE, March 29, 1939
- ^ Καραβαγγέλης, 1959, p 6-41
- ^ Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Blood, 1907, Ion Dragoumis, p.1110
- ^ Bulgarian Historical Review, vol 31, 1-4, 2003, p 117 "Only a few days later -on November 1- Katehakis arrived in Macedonia as Melas' successor
- Koliopoulos, Ioannis: History of Greece from 1800, Nation, State and Society, Thessaloniki, 2000 ISBN 960-288-072-4
- Dakin, Douglas: "The Greek Struggle in Macedonia 1897-1913" Thessaloniki, 1966 ISBN 960-8303-2-6
- Vakalopoulos, Apostolos: "History of the Greek Nation 1204-1985" (in Greek language)
- Karavangelis, Germanos: "The Macedonian Struggle" (Memoirs)
- Sonnichsen, Albert: Confessions of a Macedonian Bandit: A Californian in the Balkan Wars, The Narrative Press, ISBN 1-58976-237-1 (the Macedonian struggle from a perspective of an American volunteer in IMRO)
- Rappoport, Alfred: [http://www.abebooks.de/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=966647133&searchurl=an%3DAlfred%2BRappoport%26ph%3D2%26sortby%3D3%26tn%3DAu%2BPays%2BDes%2BMartyrs
- Richards, Louise Parker (1903). "What the Macedonian Trouble Is". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. VII: 4066–4073. Retrieved 10 July 2009.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - Au pays des martyrs. Notes et souvenirs d'un ancien consul-général d'Autriche-Hongrie en Macédoine (1904–1909)]. Librarie Universitaire J. Gamber, Paris, 1927. Memoirs of the General Consul of Austro-Hungary in Macedonia. Cat. No. 7029530203814
External links
- Official Site For Hellenic History`
- Macedonian Struggle Museum
- An on-line review on Macedonian affairs,history and culture