Jump to content

List of oldest continuously inhabited cities

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from List of ancient cities)

This is a list of present-day cities by the time period over which they have been continuously inhabited as a city. The age claims listed are generally disputed. Differences in opinion can result from different definitions of "city" as well as "continuous habitation" and historical evidence is often disputed. Caveats (and sources) to the validity of each claim are discussed in the "Notes" column.

Africa

[edit]

North Africa

[edit]
Name Historical region Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
Girga (as Thinis) Ancient Egypt  Egypt c. 3273 BC Settlement served as the capital of the first Pharaoh of Egypt, Narmer (c. 3273–2987 BC)[1]
Faiyum (as Shedet) Ancient Egypt  Egypt c. 2181 BC Settlement established by the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BC)[1]
Luxor (as Waset, better known by its Greek name Thebes) Ancient Egypt  Egypt c. 2150 BC First established as capital of Upper Egypt, Thebes later became the religious capital of the nation until its decline in the Roman period.
Aswan (as Swenett) Ancient Egypt  Egypt c. 650 BC Gained prominence in the Late Period (664–332 BC).[2]
Benghazi (as Euesperides) Cyrenaica  Libya c. 525 BC Founded in the 5th century BC, by the Greeks.[3]
Alexandria Ancient Egypt  Egypt 332 BC Founded by Alexander the Great on the town of Rhacotis, which dates back to the Old Kingdom[4][5]

East Africa

[edit]
Name Historical region Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
Aksum Kingdom of Axum  Ethiopia c. 400 BC Ancient capital of the Kingdom of Axum.[6]
Antananarivo Merina Kingdom  Madagascar 1610 AD[7] or 1625 AD[8] Founded by the Merina King Andrianjaka, it is the oldest city in Madagascar.
Zeila (as Avalites) Bilad al-Barbar  Somalia c. 100 AD Major trading city in the Horn of Africa.[9]

West Africa

[edit]
Name Historical region Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
Gao Gao Empire, Songhai Empire  Mali c.600 AD Gao-Saney called al-kawkaw, Gaw-Gaw[10] by ancient Arab chroniclers is the first site of Gao, founded in the 7th century, it was the capital of the Gao Empire of Za Dynasty.[11]

A marble palace, stelae, houses and cemeteries dating from this period were discovered by archaeologists.[12][13][14] The current Gao built on a site near Gao-Saney was the capital of the largest contiguous land Empire of Songhai (1464-1591,[15] destroyed during the invasion of Songhai by the Saadians it is today the regional capital of the Gao regions in Mali. in Gao is the pyramidal Tomb of Askia where is buried the emperor Askia the Great of Songhai.[16]

Benin City Kingdom of Benin  Nigeria c. 1000 AD City of Benin, the oldest city in Nigeria.
Agadez Songhai Empire  Niger 11th century AD Founded in the 11th century, Agadez was an important stop for caravans crossing the Saharan Desert for centuries. Agadez was captured by the Songhai empire in 1515, and controlled by Bornu in the 17th century.[17]
Kano Kingdom of Kano  Nigeria 11th century AD The foundation for the construction of Kano City Walls was laid by Sakri Gijimasu at some point between 1095 and 1134, and was completed in the middle of the 14th century during the reign of Usman Zamnagawa.[18]
Timbuktu Mali Empire, Songhai Empire  Mali 11th century AD Settled by Tuareg traders as an outpost, its incorporation into the Mali Empire and Songhai, Mande, and Soninke settlement from the 13th century rapidly developed the town.[19]
Cidade Velha (as Ribeira Grande) Santiago Island  Cape Verde 1462 AD The first European settlement in West Africa.[20]
Lagos Kingdom of Benin  Nigeria 16th century AD Initially established as a war camp for soldiers from the Kingdom of Benin.[21]
Ouidah Kingdom of Whydah  Benin 16th century AD The primary port of the Kingdom of Whydah, originally called Glehue by the Fon inhabitants. The town was conquered by the Kingdom of Dahomey in the 18th century.[22]

Central Africa

[edit]
Name Historical region Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
M'banza-Kongo Kongo Empire  Angola c. 1390 AD Capital of the Kongo Empire, founded by the Kongo people in current day Angola.[23]
Luanda (as São Paulo da Assunção de Loanda) Portuguese Empire  Angola 1576 AD Founded by Portuguese explorer Paulo Dias de Novais on 25 January 1576 as "São Paulo da Assumpção de Loanda".[24]

Southern Africa

[edit]
Name Historical region Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
Cape Town Dutch East India Company  South Africa 1652 AD Founded by Dutch colonists from Dutch East India Company and is the oldest recorded city in South Africa.

Americas

[edit]
Further information: List of cities in the Americas by year of foundation

North America

[edit]
Name Historical region Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
Cholula Old Cholula  Mexico c. 1000[25] – c. 500 BC[26][need quotation to verify] Pre-Columbian Cholula grew from a small village to a regional center during the 7th century. The city was the site of the Massacre of Cholula during the military campaign of Hernán Cortés.
Flores Maya civilisation, then New Spain  Guatemala 900–600 BC[27] Formerly Nojpetén, the capital of the Itza kingdom, it has been occupied continuously since prehispanic times.[28] Earliest archaeological traces date back to 900–600 BC, with major expansion of the settlement occurring around 250–400 AD.[29] Ethnohistoric documents claim the founding of Nojpetén in the mid-15th century AD.[30]
Izamal Maya civilisation, then New Spain  Mexico 700–450 BC[31] Also known as the Yellow City. Small city in the Mexican state of Yucatán, 72 kilometres east of state capital Mérida. Izamal is an important archaeological site of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization. Continuously occupied until the Spanish Conquest. The most important pre-Hispanic constructive activity occurred during the early and late classical periods. It was partially abandoned with the rise of a group that hailed from Chichen Itza, probably around the final classical period (800–1000 AD).
Monte Albán-Zaachila-Oaxaca City Zapotec civilisation (Otomí people), Mixtec civilisation (Otomí people)  Mexico c. 500 BC[32][better source needed][33][failed verification] The valley of modern Oaxaca City, founded by the Spanish in 1532, has been continuously inhabited by the Oto-Manguean peoples of Mesoamerica since ancient times. The outskirts of Oaxaca City host the ruins of Monte Albán, once the capital of the Zapotecs for around 1000 years. Although Monte Albán proper was abandoned around 1000 AD, the city of Zaachila next to it rose in its place and was continuously inhabited until the arrival of Europeans.
Toluca-Calixtlahuaca Otomí peoples  Mexico c. 400 – c. 200 BC[34][35] Toluca, in the State of Mexico, has been continuously inhabited at least since the 8th century BC.[36][dubious – discuss] The oldest sedentary remains (Calixtlahuaca) date from around the 600 BC to 400 BC.[citation needed]
Papantla / El Tajín Totonac people  Mexico c. 1st century AD[37][need quotation to verify] The town of Papantla in the state of Veracruz was founded by the Totonac people around the 13th century AD.[38] The neighboring monumental city of El Tajín was settled around the 1st century AD[39][37] until it was destroyed around the same time Papantla was founded.[37][38]
Oraibi Puebloan peoples  United States c. 1100 AD[40]
Cuernavaca (Cuauhnahuac)-Teopanzolco Nahuan peoples  Mexico c. 1200 AD[41] Founded by the Nahuatl-speaking people of the Valley of Mexico with the name Cuauhnahuac. The ruins of Teopanzolco, now in downtown Cuernavaca, are thought to be the downtown of Cuauhnahuac, which was sieged and occupied by the Spanish in 1521, who renamed it to Cuernavaca.
Tucson Hohokam  United States c. 1300 AD[42] Hohokam village founded at the base of Sentinel Peak, later Tohono O'odam. Afterwards, became a Spanish presidio.[43]
Mexico City Mexica culture (Nahuan peoples)  Mexico 1325 AD Founded as twin cities Tenōchtitlān (1325) and Tlāltelōlco (1337) by the Mexica. Name changed to Ciudad de México (Mexico City) after the Spanish conquest of the city in 1521. Several other pre-Columbian towns such as Azcapotzalco, Tlatelolco, Xochimilco and Coyoacán have been engulfed by the still growing metropolis and are now part of modern Mexico City. Oldest capital city in the Americas.
Santo Domingo New Spain  Dominican Republic 1496 AD Oldest European settlement in the New World.
San Juan New Spain  Puerto Rico 1508 AD Oldest continuously inhabited city in a U.S. territory.
Nombre de Dios, Colón New Spain  Panama 1510 AD Oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in continental America.
Baracoa New Spain  Cuba 1511 AD Oldest European settlement in Cuba.
Havana New Spain  Cuba 1519 AD Oldest major city in Cuba, established 1515, granted city status in 1592 by Philip II of Spain as "Key to the New World and Rampart of the West Indies".
Veracruz New Spain  Mexico 1519 AD[44] The actual location of the settlement known as Veracruz changed multiple times. Originally established by Hernán Cortés in April 1519 – near where he made landfall[a] – as the Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz,[b] it was moved within a month to Totonac Quiahuiztlan. This location lay further inland and required a long overland trek from the port at San Juan de Ulúa to unload cargo, due to which the settlement was again moved in 1525, this time to the present-day location of La Antigua. Veracruz remained there until 1599, when pressure from mercantile elites in Seville, Mexico City, and Puebla de los Ángeles to relocate the settlement closer to the port to speed and secure trade caused it to be refounded at its present location as Nuevo Veracruz.[44]
Panama City Cueva Civilisation. After European colonisation: New Spain  Panama 1519 AD[45] Oldest European settlement on the Pacific.
Taxco New Spain  Mexico 1529 AD[46][better source needed]
Compostela New Spain  Mexico 1530 AD[47][better source needed]
Querétaro New Spain, Otomi people, Purépecha people  Mexico 1531 AD[48]
Puebla New Spain  Mexico 1531 AD[49]
Tepic New Spain  Mexico 1531 AD[50][better source needed]
Culiacán New Spain  Mexico 1531 AD[51][better source needed]
Campeche New Spain  Mexico 1540 AD[52]
Morelia New Spain  Mexico 1541 AD[53]
Guadalajara New Spain  Mexico 1542 AD[54][better source needed]
Mérida (previously known as T'ho by the Mayan) Maya civilization, New Spain  Mexico 1542 AD (as the Spanish city)[55]
Zacatecas New Spain  Mexico 1548 AD[56][better source needed]
Guanajuato New Spain  Mexico 1548 AD[57][better source needed]
Acapulco New Spain  Mexico 1550 AD[58]
Cartago New Spain  Costa Rica 1563 AD Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Costa Rica.
St. Augustine New Spain  United States 1565 AD Oldest continuously inhabited European-founded city of the current 50 U.S. states.
Santa Fe New Spain  United States 1607 AD Oldest continuously inhabited state or territorial capital in the continental United States.
Quebec City New France  Canada 1608 AD Oldest city in Canada and oldest French-speaking city in the Americas.
Hopewell Virginia Company  United States 1613 AD Founded as Bermuda City in 1613 and later known as City Point, Virginia, this location has undergone several name changes but has remained continuously inhabited.
Albany New Netherlands  United States 1614 AD Followed by Jersey City, New Jersey (Communipaw) in 1617 and New York City (as New Amsterdam) in 1624. (Note: While there was an abandonment in 1617 or 1618 of the Albany settlement, it was re-established within a few years; also, the Jersey City settlement was a factorij or trading post in the 1610s and did not become a "homestead" (bouwerij) until the 1630s. Settlements in New Netherlands sometimes moved around in the early years.)
Plymouth Plymouth Colony  United States 1620 AD Fourth-oldest continuously inhabited European-founded city in the United States[59]
New York City New Amsterdam  United States 1624 AD Founded in 1624 as New Amsterdam. Was renamed New York City in 1667. Is the 12th oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement in the continental United States[60]
Boston Massachusetts Bay Colony  United States c. 1625 AD Settled in 1625 and established in 1630, the city of Boston, Massachusetts, was established as the capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony on the Shawmut Peninsula. It is one of the oldest major cities of the United States. Boston was a key city in the early American Revolution against the British Empire, eventually becoming the first city free of British rule in the United States. Boston is still one of the wealthiest and most important cities in the United States.
St. John's Newfoundland  Canada c. 1630 AD On 5 August 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed the area as England's first overseas colony under a royal charter by Queen Elizabeth I.[61] Some claim[citation needed] to being the oldest city in Canada. Incorporated in 1883; inhabited continuously since sometime after 1610.[citation needed]
Port Royal-Annapolis Royal New France  Canada 1629 AD[62] Oldest continuously inhabited settlement incorporated as a Town in North America. Initial settlement was 1605, with confirmed continuous settlement since at least 1629.
Saint John New France  Canada 1631 AD Oldest incorporated city in Canada.
Trois-Rivières New France  Canada 1634 AD Fourth-oldest city in Canada.
Montreal New France  Canada 1642 AD Fifth-oldest city in Canada.
Sault Ste. Marie New France  Canada 1668 AD A single settlement until 1817, when it was divided into Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada and Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, United States. The latter is the oldest European-founded city in the Midwestern United States and third-oldest US city west of the Appalachian Mountains.
Philadelphia Province of Pennsylvania  United States 1681 AD In 1681, King Charles II gave William Penn a large piece of his newly acquired American land holdings to repay a debt the king owed to Admiral Sir William Penn, Penn's father. Afterwards, Penn founded Philadelphia with a core group of accompanying Quakers and others seeking religious freedom on lands he purchased from the local chieftains of the Lenape or Delaware nation.[63]
Natchitoches New France  United States 1699 AD Natchitoches was established in 1714 by French explorer Louis Juchereau de St. Denis. It is the oldest permanent European settlement within the borders of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase.[64] Natchitoches was founded as a French outpost on the Red River for trade with Spanish-controlled Mexico; French traders settled there as early as 1699.
Detroit New France  United States 1701 AD First European settlement above tidewater in North America.
San Antonio New Spain  United States 1718 AD Founded as a Spanish mission and colonial outpost in 1718, the city in 1731 became the first chartered civil settlement in what is now present-day Texas.
New Orleans New France  United States 1718 AD Jean Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville in 1718 upon the slightly elevated banks of the Mississippi River approximately 95 miles (153 km) above its mouth.[citation needed]
Winnipeg British America  Canada 1738 AD Founded as Fort Rouge. Oldest city in the Canadian Prairies.
Charlotte Province of North Carolina  United States 1768 AD Area said to have been pre-colonially settled by the Catawba tribe with records dating back to 1567.
San Diego New Spain  United States 1769 AD Birthplace of California and oldest city on the West Coast of the United States.
Toronto Upper Canada  Canada 1793 AD Founded as York, Upper Canada.
Victoria Colony of Vancouver Island  Canada 1843 AD Oldest city on the West Coast of Canada.

South America

[edit]
Name Historical region Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
Cusco Inca Empire  Peru c. 1100 AD [dubious – discuss] The Killke occupied the region from 900 to 1200, prior to the arrival of the Incas in the 13th century. Carbon-14 dating of Sacsayhuamán, the walled complex outside Cusco, has demonstrated that the Killke culture constructed the fortress about 1100.[65]
Cumaná New Granada  Venezuela 1515 AD Oldest continuously inhabited, European-established settlement in the continent.
Santa Marta New Granada  Colombia 1525 AD Oldest still-inhabited city founded by Spaniards in Colombia.
São Vicente, São Paulo Governorate General of Brazil  Brazil 1532 AD First Portuguese city in the Americas.[66]
Piura Peru  Peru 1532 AD Oldest European-founded city in Peru.[67]
Lima Peru  Peru 1535 AD Second-oldest continuously inhabited European-settled capital city in South America. The oldest being Quito.
Vila Velha, Espírito Santo Governorate General of Brazil  Brazil 1535 AD Second-oldest continuously inhabited Portuguese-settled village in South America. The oldest being São Vicente.
Cali New Granada  Colombia 1536 AD On 25 July 1536 Belalcázar founded Santiago de Cali, first established a few kilometres north of the present location, near what are now the towns of Vijes and Riofrío.
Asuncion Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata  Paraguay 1537 AD Juan de Salazar y Espinoza, traversing the Paraguay River on his way from Buenos Aires, stopped briefly at a bay in the left bank to resupply his ships. He found the natives friendly, and decided to found a fort there in August 1537. He named it Nuestra Señora Santa María de la Asunción (Our Lady Saint Mary of the Assumption – the Roman Catholic Church celebrates the Feast of the Assumption on August 15).
Bogotá New Granada  Colombia 1540 AD The name of Bogotá, is derived from Bacatá, an indigenous area inhabitanted by the native Muisca encompassing what is presently the Colombian capital.
Santiago Captaincy General of Chile  Chile 1541 AD Oldest continuously inhabited European established settlement in Chile.
Salvador Governorate General of Brazil  Brazil 1549 AD First planned city founded by Portuguese, and first capital of Brazil.
Santiago del Estero Río de la Plata  Argentina 1553 AD Oldest continuously inhabited city in Argentina.
São Paulo Governorate General of Brazil  Brazil 1554 AD On January 25, 1554, a group of Jesuit missionaries, led by Father Manuel da Nóbrega, settled on a plateau then called Piratininga, where they founded a college dedicated to the evangelization of the Amerindian populations. The name São Paulo, initially São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga, was given to it because it was the day dedicated to the apostle with that name.[68]

Asia

[edit]

Middle East

[edit]
Name Historical region Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
Aleppo Levant  Syria c. 5000 BC[69][70] The site of Aleppo may have been inhabited since the 6th millennium BC.[71][72]
Byblos Levant  Lebanon c. 5000 BC[73] Inhabited since Neolithic times, it has been closely linked to the legends and history of the Mediterranean region for thousands of years. Byblos is also directly associated with the history and diffusion of the Phoenician alphabet.
Damascus Levant  Syria c. 3000 BC[74][75] Excavations on the outskirts of the city have revealed evidence of inhabitation as early as 8000 to 10,000 BC.[75][76]
Jerusalem Levant
Israel and Palestine 		c. 3000 BC[77][78] The Execration Texts (c. 19th century BC), which refer to a city called rwš3lmm, variously transcribed as Rušalimum/Urušalimum/Rôsh-ramen[79][80] and the Amarna letters (c. 14th century BC) may be the earliest mention of the city.[81][82] Nadav Na'aman argues its fortification as the centre of a kingdom dates to around the 18th century BC.[83]
Jenin Levant Palestine c. 2450 BC[citation needed] Jenin's history goes back to 2450 BC, when it was built by the Canaanites. After 1244, Jenin flourished economically because of its location on the trade route, until a major earthquake completely destroyed the city.
Hama Levant  Syria c. 2400 BC[84]
Erbil Mesopotamia  Iraq 2300BC[85] The Citadel of Erbil is a fortified settlement in Erbil, Iraq. The city corresponds to the ancient Assyrian city of Arbela. Settlement at Erbil can be dated back to possibly 6000 BC, but not urban life until c. 2300.[86][87]
Ankara Anatolia  Turkey c. 2000 BC[88] The oldest settlements in and around the city center of Ankara belonged to the Hattic civilization which existed during the Bronze Age.
Jaffa Levant  Israel c. 2000 BC Archaeological evidence shows habitation from 7500 BC.[89]
Acre Levant  Israel c. 2000 BC There were initial settlements in the Acre area dated around 3000 BC.[90]
Jableh Levant  Syria 2nd millennium BC[91][92] There were initial settlements in the area of Jableh, such as Tell Sukas, dated between the 6th-7th millenium BC, and Tell Tweini.
Beirut Levant  Lebanon c. 2000 – c. 1800 BC[93][better source needed]
Latakia Syria  Syria 2nd millennium BC[94][95][better source needed] In the 2nd millennium BC, the city was the Canaanite port of Ramitha; it was part of the Kingdom of Ugarit, only a few miles further north.[96]
Dumat al-Jandal Al-Jawf  Saudi Arabia c. 1000 BC It was named after Dumah, son of Ishmael and was The Capital City of Qedarite Kingdom
Eskişehir Anatolia  Turkey c. 1000 BC The city was founded by the Phrygians in at least 1000 BC, although it has been estimated to be older than 4,000 years old. Many Phrygian artifacts and sculptures can still be found in the city's archeological museum.
Gaza Levant Palestine c. 1000 BC While evidence of habitation dates back at least 5,000 years, it is said to be continuously inhabited for a little more than 3,000 years.[97][98]
Hebron Levant Palestine Iron Age[99]
Jericho Levant Palestine early 1st millennium BC Traces of habitation from 9000 BC.[100][101] Fortifications date to 6800 BC (or earlier), making Jericho the earliest known walled city.[102]

Archaeological evidence indicates that the city was destroyed and abandoned several times (sometimes remaining uninhabited for hundreds of years at a time), with later rebuilding and expansion.[103][104]

Medina Hejaz  Saudi Arabia 9th century BC[105] Medina has been inhabited at least 1500 years before the Hijra.[105]
Vani Colchis  Georgia before 8th century BC[106][107]
Hamadan (Ecbatana) Media  Iran c. 800 BC[108] The capital city of the Median Empire.
Yerevan Yerevan  Armenia 782 BC[109][110] Founded as Erebuni Fortress by the Urartians[110] and most likely inhabited continuously thereafter; though, historical sources from the 5th century BC to the 7th century AD are lacking.[109] Alternatively, it was founded in 3000 BC (Shengavit Settlement).[citation needed]
Tabriz Media  Iran 714 B.C.[111] An important and prosperous city along the silk road, it was made the capital city several times during various periods under various ruling dynasties of the region.
Istanbul (as Byzantion) Thrace, Anatolia  Turkey 685 BC Anatolia; 660 BC Thrace[112] Founded as a colony of Megara. Neolithic site dated to 6400 BC, over port of Lygos by Thracians c. 1150 BC.
Kutaisi Colchis  Georgia 6th to 4th century BC Archaeological evidence indicates that the city functioned as the capital of the kingdom of Colchis in the sixth to fifth centuries BC.[113]
Bosra Levant  Syria c. 500 BC[114][better source needed]

Central and South Asia

[edit]
Name Historical region Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
Multan Punjab  Pakistan 3000–2800 BC[115] Perhaps the oldest city in Central and South Asia. Also known as Mulasthana or Kashyapapura, this city was founded by Kashyapa, according to Hindu Puranas.[116] The region is home to numerous archaeological sites dating to the era of the Early Harappan period of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
Kandahar Arachosia  Afghanistan 3000–1500 BC[117] Perhaps the oldest city in Afghanistan. Mundigak is an important archeological site and is located in the present day Kandahar Province.[118]
Balkh Bactria  Afghanistan 2000-1000 BC[119] It was considered a major stop on the Silk Road as well as the birthplace of Zoroastrianism and was a major hub for Buddhism. Arab conquerors have called it Umm-al-belad, mother of cities.
Delhi Indraprastha  India 1200–900 BC[120][121][122] Established as the ancient city of Indraprastha, the later capital of the Kuru empire (after Hastinapura) by the ruling Kuru dynasty, around 12th-9th BCE over the Upper Ganges-Yamuna doabs of Northern India.
Varanasi Kashi  India c. 1200 BC[123][124] Oldest continuously inhabited city in India. Finds its mention in Ancient Vedas.
Sayram Transoxiana  Kazakhstan 1000 BC[125] Oldest continuously inhabited city in Kazakhstan. The city of Sayram is believed by some historians to have been mentioned in the Avesta, with Sairima possibly meaning Sayram. Evidence of an early plumbing system has been found around Sayram and Transoxiana.
Dushanbe Achaemenid  Tajikistan 1000 BC[126] Bronze Age burials were discovered dating from the end of the second to the beginning of the first millennium BC. Achaemenid dishes and ceramics were found 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) east of Dushanbe in Qiblai, as the city was controlled by the Achaemenids from the sixth century BC.[127]
Samarkand Sogdia  Uzbekistan 800–500 BC[128] Oldest continuously inhabited city in Uzbekistan.
Ujjain Malwa  India c. 600 BC[129] Rose to prominence in c. 600 BC as capital of Avanti.[citation needed]
Peshawar Gandhara  Pakistan 539 BC[130] One of the oldest cities of Pakistan.
Bukhara Sogdia  Uzbekistan c. 500 BC[131]
Patna (Pataliputra) Haryanka dynasty of Magadha  India 490 BC The city of Pataliputra was formed by fortification of a village by Haryanka ruler Ajatashatru, son of Bimbisara.
Sialkot (Sagala) Punjab  Pakistan 4th century BC The first record of Sialkot dates from the invasion of Alexander the Great, who conquered upper Punjab in 326 BCE.[132]
Anuradhapura Kingdom of Rajarata  Sri Lanka 4th century BC[133]
Madurai Pandyan Kingdom  India 3rd century BC Carbon dating evidences of artefacts found at Vaigai Civilisation are found to be from 3rd century BC[134]Megasthenes may have visited Madurai during the 3rd century BC, with the city referred as "Methora" in his accounts.[135] The view is contested by some scholars who believe "Methora" refers to the north Indian city of Mathura, as it was a large and established city in the Mauryan Empire.[136]
Tiruchirappalli Chola  India At least from 200 BCE. Currently a major city in Tamil Nadu
Guwahati Pragjyotishpura  India 2nd century BC The Ambari excavations trace the time period of the city of Guwahati between the 2nd century BCE and the 1st century CE, in the Shunga-Kushana period of Indian history.[137]
Bamyan Bactria  Afghanistan 1st century AD
Lahore Punjab  Pakistan c. 1-7th century AD The origin of Lahore can be traced back somewhere between 1st and 7th centuries A.D.[138] One of the oldest cities of South Asia. The first document that mentions Lahore by name is the Hudud al-'Alam ("The Regions of the World"), written by an unknown author in 982 AD.
Kathmandu-Lalitpur, Nepal Nepal  Nepal 2nd century AD The epigraphically attested history of Kathmandu valley begins in the 2nd century.

East Asia

[edit]
Name Historical region Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
Yanshi, Henan (Erlitou Site) Xia dynasty  China c. 1900 BC[139]
Luoyang (as Xibo, Luoyi, Zhongguo, Henan, Dongdu, Shendu) Shang dynasty  China c. 1600 BC[140]
Handan Jin, Zhao  China c. 1080 BC[141]
Beijing (as Ji, Youzhou, Fanyang, Yanjing, Zhongdu, Dadu) Ji, Yan  China c. 1045 BC Paleolithic Homo sapiens lived in the caves from about 27,000 to 10,000 years ago.[142]
Zibo (as Yingqiu, Linzi, Qiling, Zichuan, Boping) Qi  China c. 1045 BC[143] The Lord of Qi, Jiang Ziya, set the capital of his manor at Yingqiu (营丘), which is today's Linzi District.
Jingzhou (as Jinan, Yingdu, Jiangling, Jingsha, Nanjun) Chu  China c. 689 BC[144]
Weinan (as Dongfu) Qin  China c. 668 BC
Hefei (as Luyi, Ruyin, Luzhou, Hezhou, Lujiang) Zhou dynasty  China c. 650 BC The Viscount of Lu was asked to set the capital of his manor at Luyi (庐邑), which is in the north of today's downtown Hefei.
Suzhou (as Gusu, Wu, Pingjiang) Wu  China 514 BC
Taiyuan (as Jinyang) Jin  China c. 497 BC
Nanjing (as Yecheng, Moling, Jianye, Jiankang, Jinling, Yingtian, Jiangning) Wu  China c. 495 BC Fu Chai, Lord of the State of Wu, founded a fort named Yecheng (冶城) in today's Nanjing area.
Chengdu Shu  China c. 400 BC The 9th Kaiming king of the ancient Shu moved his capital to the city's current location from today's nearby Pixian.
Changsha (as Linxiang, Xiangzhou, Tanzhou, Tianlin) Chu  China c. 365 BC
Kaifeng (as Daliang, Bianzhou, Dongjing, Bianjing) Wei  China c. 364 BC The State of Wei founded a city called Daliang (大梁) as its capital in this area.
Chongqing Ba  China c. 316 BC
Liaoyang (as Xiangping, Changping, Liaodong, Pingzhou, Liaozhou, Dongdu, Dongjing) Yan  China c. 279 BC
Guangzhou (as Panyu) Qin dynasty  China 214 BC[145][146] Some traditional Chinese histories placed Nanwucheng's founding during the reign of Ji Yan,[147][148] king of Zhou from 314 to 256 BC. It was said to have consisted of little more than a stockade of bamboo and mud.[149][148]
Hangzhou (as Lin'an, Yuhang, Qiantang) Qin dynasty  China c. 200 BC The city of Hangzhou was founded about 2,200 years ago during the Qin dynasty.
Kashgar Shule Kingdom  China 2nd century BC The city of Kashgar was the capital of the Iranic Shule Kingdom and served as a major hub of the Silk Road.[150]
Pyeongyang (as Wanggeom-seong) Gojoseon  North Korea 194 BC Built as the capital city of Gojoseon in 194 BC.
Gyeongju Silla  South Korea 57 BC Built as the capital city of Silla in 57 BC.
Seoul (as Wiryeseong) Baekje  South Korea 18 BC Built as the capital city of Baekjae in 18 BC.
Osaka (as Osumi) Japan  Japan 390 AD It was inhabited as early at the 6th–5th centuries BC, and became a port city during the Kofun period. It temporarily served as the capital of Japan from 645 to 655.
Nara (as Heijō) Japan  Japan 708 AD Built in 708 and became the capital city in 710 as Heijō-kyō.
Kyoto (as Heian, and sometimes known in the west as Miyako) Japan  Japan 710 AD Shimogamo Shrine was built in the 6th century, but the city was officially founded as Heian in 710 and became the capital city in 794 as Heian-kyō.

Southeast Asia

[edit]
Name Historical region Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
Hanoi Âu Lạc  Vietnam 257 BC In 257 BC, after defeating the last Hùng king, An Dương Vương merged Văn Lang and Nam Cương in to Âu Lạc and set the capital at Cổ Loa citadel, nowadays Đông Anh district of Hanoi. It was also mentioned as Tống Bình in 454 AD and the Đại La citadel was built in 767 during the reign of Emperor Daizong of Tang. Ly Cong Uan then renamed it Thăng Long in 1010.
Huế Lâm Ấp  Vietnam 192 AD Huế was built under the name Kandarpapura and used for about 1 century from the beginning of the 4th century to the end of the 4th century (after 380) during the period when Hinayana Buddhism (Thevarada) and Hinduism heavily influenced Lâm Ấp.[151][152]
Pyay Pyu city-states  Myanmar 638 AD Much debate surrounds the construction of Sri Ksetra. Htin Aung suggests that Pyu might have been founded in 78 CE, based on the Sanskrit / Pyu Era. D. G. E. Hall and Gordon Luce, however, claim that civilisation of the Irrawaddy Valley could not have been possible before the 4th century, thus, attributing the founding of Sri Ksetra to 638, from which the current Burmese Kawza Era begins.
Palembang Srivijaya  Indonesia 683 AD[153] Believed to be the oldest city in the Malay realm, capital of the Srivijaya empire. According to Kedukan Bukit inscription[153] Jayanasa established Srivijaya kingdom in Palembang area.
Luang Prabang Muang Sua  Laos 698 AD
Yogyakarta Mataram Kingdom  Indonesia 732 AD[154] The historic realm of Mataram of Southern Central Java region, which corresponds to today Yogyakarta city and its surrounding has its root in 8th century Mataram Kingdom. According to Canggal inscription dated 732, the area traditionally known as "Mataram" became the capital of the Medang Kingdom, identified as Mdang i Bhumi Mataram established by King Sanjaya.[154] The city reestablished again as the capital of Mataram Sultanate in 1587, and Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1755.
Malang Kanjuruhan Kingdom  Indonesia 740 AD According to Dinoyo inscription, Malang in the past known as Kanjuruhan kingdom and badut temple dated 740 AD but the city itself established older than the temple and inscription. Today Malang Raya or Malang city is the 2nd largest city and metro area in east Java.
Nakhon Si Thammarat Tambralinga  Thailand 775 AD An inscription was found at Wat Sema Muang that bore: The king of Srivijaya "had established a foothold on the Malay Peninsula at Ligor" by 775, where he "built various edifices, including a sanctuary dedicated to the Buddha and to the Bodhisattvas Padmapani and Vajrapani."[155]: 84–85, 91 
Siem Reap Khmer Empire  Cambodia 801 AD[156] Capital of the Khmer Empire.
Lamphun Hariphunchai  Thailand 896 AD
Magelang Mataram  Indonesia 907 AD Magelang was established on 11 April 907. Magelang was then known as a village called Mantyasih, which is now known as Meteseh.[157]
Hưng Yên Tĩnh Hải quân  Vietnam 966 AD Set as the temporary capital of area controlled by warlord Phạm Bạch Hổ during the Anarchy of the 12 Warlords
Hoa Lư Đại Cồ Việt  Vietnam 968 AD After reunifying Vietnam and ending the anarchy of the 12 warlords, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh was crowned Emperor of Đại Cồ Việt and set the capital at Hoa Lư, Ninh Bình. The city lies in a mountainous area and had a defensive position that contributed to the victory of Đại Cồ Việt against the Song dynasty of China.
Bandar Seri Begawan Po-ni and Bruneian Empire  Brunei 977 AD[158] Oldest city in Borneo.
Butuan Rajahnate of Butuan  Philippines 1001 AD[159][160] Oldest continuously inhabited city in Mindanao.
Bắc Ninh Đại Cồ Việt  Vietnam 1009 AD In 1009, Cổ Pháp village was converted into the city of Thiên Đức, nowadays Bắc Ninh city.
Kediri Kediri Kingdom  Indonesia 1042 AD[161] Along with changes in name, it is essentially a union of the two capitals of Panjalu Kingdom and Janggala Kingdom. The settlements are always interspersed along both banks of Brantas River. Administratively, the Government of Indonesia divides Kediri into two political entities, Kediri Regency and the Town of Kediri which is located in the middle of the regency. Nevertheless, archaeological remains exist beyond administrative boundaries and settlements often spread disregarding administrative boundaries between both entities.
Yangon Konbaung dynasty  Myanmar 1043 AD[162] Yangon was founded as Dagon in the early 11th century (circa 1028–1043) by the Mon but was renamed to "Yangon" after King Alaungpaya conquered Dagon.
Surabaya Janggala Kingdom  Indonesia 1045 AD[163]: 147 

The port city of Janggala or Hujung Galuh was one of the two Javanese capital city that was formed when Airlangga abdicated his throne in 1045 in favour of his two sons.[163]: 147  The Kingdom of Janggala comprised the northeastern part of the Kingdom of Kahuripan. The other Kingdom was Kediri. Derived its name from the words "suro" (shark) and "boyo" (crocodile), two creatures which are in a local myth.[164]

Singapore Kingdom of Singapura  Singapore 1170 AD[165]
Sukhothai Lavo Kingdom  Thailand 1180 AD
Singhapala Rajahnate of Cebu  Philippines c. 1300 AD[166][167] Ancient city founded by Sri Rajahmura Lumaya or Sri Lumay, a half Tamil Chola prince.[168] Now part of Barangay Mabolo in Northern district of Cebu City.[166][167]
Banda Aceh Aceh Sultanate  Indonesia 1205 AD

Originally named Kutaraja, which means "City of the King".

Manila Tondo and Rajahnate of Maynila  Philippines 1258 AD[169] A settlement in the Manila area already existed by the year 1258. This settlement was ruled by Rajah Avirjirkaya whom described as a "Majapahit Suzerain". This settlement was attacked by a Bruneian commander named Rajah Ahmad, who defeated Avirjirkaya and established Manila as a "Muslim principality".[169] By 1570, when the Spanish, led by Miguel López de Legazpi, arrived, it was still inhabited and led by at least one Lakan and several Rajahs.
Nam Định Đại Việt  Vietnam 1262 AD In 1262, Tức Mặc village was converted into the city of Thiên Trường, nowadays Nam Định city.
Chiang Rai Ngoenyang  Thailand 1262 AD
Chiang Mai Lanna Kingdom  Thailand 1294 AD or 1296 AD Mangrai founded Chiang Mai in 1294[170] or 1296[171]: 209  on a site that the Lawa people called Wiang Nopburi.[172][173]
Taungoo Pagan Kingdom  Myanmar 1279 AD Taungoo was founded in 1279 in the waning days of Pagan as part of frontier expansion southwards.
Sagaing Sagaing Kingdom  Myanmar 1315 AD Sagaing was the capital of Sagaing Kingdom (1315-1364), one of the minor kingdoms that rose up after the fall of Pagan dynasty, where one of Thihathu's sons, Athinkhaya, established himself.[155]: 227 
Ayutthaya Ayutthaya Kingdom  Thailand 1350 AD

Derived its name from the holy Hindu city of Ayodhya, it was the capital city of Siam from 1350 until 1767.

Muar Majapahit  Malaysia 1361 AD[174]
Phnom Penh Khmer Empire  Cambodia 1372 AD[175]
Malacca Malacca Sultanate  Malaysia 1396[176]
Bangkok Ayutthaya Kingdom  Thailand Early 15th century AD The history of Bangkok dates at least back to the early 15th century, when it was a village on the west bank of the Chao Phraya River, under the rule of Ayutthaya.[177]
Hải Dương Đại Việt  Vietnam 1469 AD[178]
Hội An Đại Việt  Vietnam 1471 AD[179]
Bogor Sunda Kingdom  Indonesia 1482 AD

Europe

[edit]
Name Historical region/period Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
Plovdiv Neolithic Europe, Iron Age Europe  Bulgaria 6000 BC[180][better source needed] Evidence of continuous settlement since 6000 BC.[181][180][better source needed] Later a Thracian settlement in the Iron Age. In the 4th century BC, Philipopolis (Plovdiv) emerged as a city, founded as such by Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great.[182][183]
Argos Neolithic Europe, Mycenaean Greece  Greece 5000 BC[184] The city has been continuously inhabited mostly as an urban settlement for 7,000 years. Recorded history begins in mid 2nd millennium BC.
Athens Mycenaean Greece  Greece 5th–4th millennia BC[185][186][187] Oldest recorded history begins at least from 1600 BC,[188] making it the oldest European capital city.
Thebes Mycenaean Greece  Greece c. 5000 BC[189]
Larisa Mycenaean Greece  Greece c. 4000–5000 BC[190] According to archaeological excavations, inhabited continuously from Early Bronze Age.
Shkodra Illyria  Albania 2250–2000 BC[191] Continuously inhabited since the Early Bronze Age,[191] an urban settlement called Skodra was founded by Illyrians in the 4th century BC and fortified in moenia aeacia style,[192][193] it became the capital of the Illyrian kingdom under the Ardiaei and Labeatae and was one of the most important cities of the Balkans in ancient times.[194]
Chania Crete  Greece c. 1700–1500 BC[195][unreliable source?] Minoan foundation as Kydonia.
Nafplio Mycenaean Greece  Greece Early 14th century BC[196] Mentioned as Nuplija, the port of Mycenae, in the "Aegean List" of the Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III, early 14th century BC.[196]
Cádiz Phoenicia  Spain c. 1100 BC[197] Founded as Gadir by the Phoenicians.
Matera Prehistoric Italy  Italy c. 1000 BC[198] According to Leonardo A. Chisena, the area was first settled in the Palaeolithic (10th millennium BC).[199][verification needed] According to Anne Parmly Toxey, Matera has been "occupied continuously for at least three millennia".[198]
Derbent Caucasus  Russia 8th century BC Continuously inhabited since the 8th century BC, it was a part of Caucasian Albania that became a satrap of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.[200]
Lisbon Lusitania  Portugal 8th century BC[201][202][203] Roman city of Olisipo. Phoenician settlement since as early as 1200 BC.[204][205][206][207]
Málaga Phoenicia  Spain 8th century BC[208][page needed] Founded as Málaka by the Phoenicians.
Mdina Antiquity Malta  Malta 8th century BC[209][page needed] Founded as Phoenician Melite.
Rome Latium  Italy c. 753 BC The traditional founding date is 753 BC. Archaeology shows that the site has been inhabited since c. 1200 – c. 1000 BC, with urbanisation beginning around the mid-eighth century BC.[210]
Reggio di Calabria (as Rhegion) Magna Graecia  Italy 743 BC[211]
Catania (as Katane) Sicily, Magna Graecia  Italy 729 BC[212] Built at the foot of Mount Etna, the city has a seismic history and it was destroyed several times by earthquakes or by eruptions and lava flows; but every time it was rebuilt again. For this reason, Catania adopted the symbol of the Phoenix and the Latin motto Melior de cinere surgo (I rise from my ashes in a better state than before).
Corfu (city) (as Kerkyra) Corfu  Greece c. 709 BC.[213] Founded as a colony of the Greek city of Corinth
Istanbul (as Byzantion) Thrace, Anatolia  Turkey 685 BC Anatolia; 660 BC Thrace[112] Founded as a colony of Megara; Neolithic site dated to 6400 BC, over port of Lygos by Thracians c. 1150 BC.
Syracuse Sicily  Italy ca. 680-675 BC (traditionally 734 BC)[214][215][216] A colony of the Greek city of Corinth.
Naples Magna Graecia  Italy c. 680 BC[217] Actually the date at which an older settlement close by, called Parthenope, was founded by settlers from Cumae. This eventually merged with Neapolis proper, which was founded c. 470 BC.
Durrës Illyria  Albania 627–625 BC[218] Founded as the Greek colony of Epidamnos in cooperation with the local Illyrian Taulantii.[219]
Sozopol Thrace  Bulgaria 610 BC[220] Founded by Milesian colonists around 610 BC, was named Apollonia Pontica in honour of the patron deity of Miletus – Apollo. The Ancient authors identify the philosopher named Anaximander as the founder of the city.
Kerch Crimea  Ukraine c. 610 BC Founded as an Ancient Greek colony known as Panticapaeum.[221]
Marseille (as "Massalia) Gaul  France 600 BC[222][223][224] Founded as a colony of the Greek city of Phocaea.
Constanța Dobruja  Romania c. 600 BC[225][226] Founded as the Greek colony of Tomis.[227]
Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi Budjak  Ukraine 6th century BC[228] Founded as an Ancient Greek colony of Tyras.[229][230]
Nesebar Thrace  Bulgaria beginning of the 6th century BC[231] Originally a Thracian settlement, known as Mesembria, the town became a Greek colony when settled by Dorians from Megara at the beginning of the 6th century BC, then known as Mesembria. It was an important trading centre from then on and a rival of Apollonia (Sozopol). It remained the only Dorian colony along the Black Sea coast, as the rest were typical Ionian colonies. At 425–424 BC the town joined the Delian League, under the leadership of Athens.[231]
Mangalia Dobruja  Romania middle or end of the 6th century BC[232][233] Founded as the Greek colony of Callatis by the city of Heraclea Pontica. The Greek colony was likely developed on the site of an earlier Getic settlement named Acervetis or Carbatis.[234]
Varna Thrace  Bulgaria 585–570 BC[235] Founded as Odessos by settlers from the Greek city of Miletus.[236]
Sofia Moesia  Bulgaria 4th century BC[237] Celtic foundation as Serdica.[238] Habitation in the area since 7000 BC,[239]
Lezhë Illyria  Albania 4th century BC Founded by Illyrians in the 4th century BC as an urban settlement with the name Lissos, it became an important city in the Illyrian kingdom under the Ardiaei and Labeatae.[240]: 177 [241][242][243]
Stara Zagora Thrace  Bulgaria 342 BC[244][245] It was called Beroe in ancient times and was founded by Philip II of Macedon[244][246][247][245] although a Thracian settlement neolithic inhabitation have been discovered as well. It also has the oldest copper mines in Europe (5th millennium BC)
Thessaloniki Macedonia (ancient kingdom)  Greece 315 BC[248][249] Founded as a new city in the same place of the older city Therme.
Berat Illyria  Albania 4th century BC Founded by Illyrians or Cassander of Macedon as Antipatreia.[250][251]
Belgrade Illyria  Serbia 279 BC[252] The present day territory of Belgrade continuously inhabited for more than 7000 years. Proto-urban Vinča culture prospered around Belgrade in the 6th millennium BC. The fortified city of Belgrade founded around 279 BC as Singidunum.
Braga Lusitania  Portugal c. 16-15 BC[253] Bracara Augusta was founded in 16-15 BC under the order of the emperor Augustus.
Strasbourg Germania Superior  France 12 BC First official mention as the Roman camp of Argentoratum. The area had been populated since the Middle Paleolithic.[254]
Colchester Britain  United Kingdom 20-10 BC Considered to be the oldest recorded town in the United Kingdom. First British town to be given the status Colonia in the Roman empire, where it was known as Camulodunum and was recorded by Pliny the Elder. The Celtic name of the city, Camulodunon appears on coins minted by tribal chieftain Tasciovanus in the period 20–10 BC. Before the Roman conquest of Britain, it was already a centre of power for Celtic king Cunobeline.[255]

Oceania

[edit]
Further information: List of towns and cities in Australia by year of settlement
Name Historical region Present location Continuously
inhabited since 		Notes
Sydney New South Wales  Australia 1788 AD Oldest city in Australia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity occurred in and around Sydney for at least 30,000 years, in the Upper Paleolithic period.[256][257] However, numerous Aboriginal stone tools found in Sydney's far western suburbs' gravel sediments were dated to be from 45,000 to 50,000 years BP, which would mean that humans could have been in the region earlier than thought, although they lived exclusively as hunter-gatherer tribes until the early British colonial period.[258][259][260] The first people to occupy the Sydney region were an Indigenous Australian group called the Eora.[261][262]
Hobart Tasmania  Australia 1803 AD Second-oldest city in Australia. Prior to British settlement, the area had been occupied for at least 8,000 years, but possibly for as long as 35,000 years,[263] by the semi-nomadic Mouheneener tribe, a sub-group of the Nuennone, or South-East tribe.[264]
George Town Tasmania  Australia 1804 AD Third-oldest city in Australia.
Newcastle New South Wales  Australia 1804 AD Fourth-oldest city in Australia.
Launceston Tasmania  Australia 1806 AD Fifth-oldest city in Australia.
Kerikeri Northland  New Zealand c. 1818 AD Oldest European-founded settlement in New Zealand.
Levuka Kubuna  Fiji 1820[265] Oldest European settlement in Fiji.[265]
Bluff Southland  New Zealand 1824 AD Previously known as Campbelltown, the oldest European-founded settlement in the South Island.
Brisbane Queensland  Australia 1825 AD Oldest city in Northern Australia, State Capital.
Albany Western Australia  Australia 1827 AD Oldest city on the West Coast of Australia.
Perth Western Australia  Australia 1829 AD The area had been inhabited by the Whadjuk Noongar people for over 40,000 years, as evidenced by archaeological findings on the Upper Swan River.[266]
Melbourne Victoria  Australia 1835 AD Before the arrival of European settlers, the area was occupied for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years.[267] At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 20,000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous regional tribes: the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong.[268][269]
Kingscote South Australia  Australia 1836 AD First official European settlement in South Australia, Australia's first free settled colony. Situated on Kangaroo Island, it was occupied by an Aboriginal group from as long as 16,000 years ago until their disappearance 2,000–4,000 years ago.
Adelaide South Australia  Australia 1836 AD State Capital of South Australia, Australia's first free settled colony. European settlement began in 1836.
Geelong Victoria  Australia 1838 AD The second-largest city in Victoria.
Wellington Wellington Region  New Zealand 1839 AD New Zealand's capital city from 1865 until the present day.[270]
Auckland Auckland Region  New Zealand 1840 AD New Zealand's capital city from 1841 to 1865. Prior to this, it was inhabited by Māori from about the 14th century.
Dunedin Otago Region  New Zealand 1848 AD First New Zealand centre to be officially named a city (1865). Briefly the country's largest settlement.
Bendigo Victoria  Australia 1851 AD Fourth-largest city in Victoria.
Darwin Northern Territory  Australia 1869 AD Territory Capital.
Canberra Australian Capital Territory  Australia 1913 AD Capital city of Australia. Artifacts suggests early human activity occurred at some point in Canberra dating at around 21,000 years ago.[271]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ It is salient to the discussion of continuous habitation that Cortés's initial founding of Veracruz was symbolic, rather than because he was actually establishing a permanent settlement. Founding a town allowed Cortés and his men to portray the land as not part of the Caribbean, thereby removing them from under the authority of the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar. Velázquez had revoked permission for the expedition before Cortés departed Cuba.[44]
  2. ^ lit. Rich Town of the New Cross.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Bagnall, Roger S. (2004). Egypt from Alexander to the Early Christians: An Archaeological and Historical Guide. Getty Publications. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-89236-796-2. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
  2. ^ Baines, John; Malek, Jaromir (March 1983). Atlas of Ancient Egypt (Cultural Atlas). New York, NY: Facts On File Inc. p. 240. ISBN 9780871963345.
  3. ^ Economou, Maria (August 1993). "Euesperides: A Devastated Site". Electronic Antiquity: Communicating the Classics. 1 (4). Digital Library and Archives, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Archived from the original on 4 June 2017. Retrieved 6 February 2009.
  4. ^ Véron, A.; Goiran, J. P.; Morhange, C.; Marriner, N.; Empereur, J. Y. (2006). "Pollutant lead reveals the pre-Hellenistic occupation and ancient growth of Alexandria, Egypt". Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (6). Bibcode:2006GeoRL..33.6409V. doi:10.1029/2006GL025824. S2CID 131190587.
  5. ^ Jean-Daniel Stanley et al., "Alexandria, Egypt, before Alexander the Great: A multidisciplinary approach yields rich discoveries"; GSA Today 17 (8), August 2007; doi:10.1130/GSAT01708A.1.
  6. ^ S.C. Munro-Hay, Excavations at Aksum (London: British Institute in Eastern Africa, 1989), pp. 12-25 ISBN 0500970084
  7. ^ Desmonts (2004). Madagascar (in French). New York: Editions Olizane. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-2-88086-387-6.
  8. ^ Roman Adrian Cybriwsky, Capital Cities around the World: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2013, p. 15
  9. ^ Lee V. Cassanelli, The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600–1900, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1982), p. 75.
  10. ^ Cissé, M.; McIntosh, S.K.; Dussubieux, L.; Fenn, T.; Gallagher, D.; Chipps Smith, A. (2013), "Excavations at Gao Saney: new evidence for settlement growth, trade, and interaction on the Niger Bend in the first millennium CE", Journal of African Archaeology, 11 (1): 9–37, doi:10.3213/2191-5784-10233
  11. ^ Bethwell A. Ogot, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, (UNESCO Publishing, 2000), 303.
  12. ^ Sauvaget, J. (1950), "Les épitaphes royales de Gao", Bulletin de l'Ifan, XII (2): 418–440
  13. ^ Moraes Farias, Paulo F. de (1990), "The oldest extant writing of West Africa: medieval epigraphs from Essuk, Saney, and Egef-n-Tawaqqast (Mali)", Journal des Africanistes, 60 (2): 65–113, doi:10.3406/jafr.1990.2452
  14. ^ Lange, Dierk (1991), "Les rois de Gao-Sané et les Almoravides", Journal of African History (in French), 32 (2): 251–275, doi:10.1017/s002185370002572x, JSTOR 182617, S2CID 162674956
  15. ^ Kâti, Mahmoûd Kâti ben el-Hâdj el-Motaouakkel (1913), Tarikh el-fettach ou Chronique du chercheur, pour servir à l'histoire des villes, des armées et des principaux personnages du Tekrour (in French), Houdas, O., Delafosse, M. ed. and trans., Paris: Ernest Leroux, p. 262
  16. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "UNESCO World Heritage Centre - State of Conservation (SOC 2021) Tomb of Askia (Mali)". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 2022-12-13. Retrieved 2022-12-08.
  17. ^ Idrissa, Abdourahmane; Decalo, Samuel (2012). Historical Dictionary of Niger (2nd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810860940.
  18. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Ancient Kano City Walls and Associated Sites – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". whc.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 2019-09-13. Retrieved 2019-12-26.
  19. ^ Saad, Elias. "Social history of Timbuktu: 1400–1900. The role of Muslim scholars and notables. (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1980)
  20. ^ RTP Ensina, in Portuguese. "Cidade Velha de Santiago Em Cabo Verde". Archived from the original on 2022-06-29. Retrieved 2022-03-19.
  21. ^ Mann, Kristin (2007). Slavery and the Birth of an African City. Indiana University Press.
  22. ^ Anderson, David and Rathbone, Richard. "Africa's Urban Past." Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) pp. 85–87
  23. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Mbanza Kongo, Vestiges of the Capital of the former Kingdom of Kongo". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2024-02-27.
  24. ^ Ruela Pombo, Manuel (1926). Paulo Dias de Novais e a Fundação de Luanda. Imprensa Nacional de Angola.
  25. ^ McCafferty, Geoffrey G. (1996). "The Ceramics and Chronology of Cholula, Mexico". Ancient Mesoamerica. 7 (2): 299–323. doi:10.1017/S0956536100001486. ISSN 1469-1787. Cholula is one of the oldest continuously occupied centers in Mesoamerica, with settlement dating back at least into the Middle Formative period (ca. 1000 B.C.).
  26. ^ Müller, Florencia (1973). "La extensión arqueológica de Cholula a través del tiempo". Comunicaciones, Proyecto Puebla-Tlaxcala. 8: 19–22.
  27. ^ Gámez, Laura (2007). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Mejía) (eds.). "Salvamento arqueológico en el área central de Petén: Nuevos resultados sobre la conformación y evolución del asentamiento prehispánico en la isla de Flores" (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (in Spanish). XX, 2006. Guatemala City, Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 259–260, 269. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-05. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
  28. ^ Gámez, Laura (2007). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Mejía (eds.). "Salvamento arqueológico en el área central de Petén: Nuevos resultados sobre la conformación y evolución del asentamiento prehispánico en la isla de Flores" (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (in Spanish). XX. Guatemala City, Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 258–259. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-05. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
  29. ^ Gámez, Laura (2007). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Mejía) (eds.). "Salvamento arqueológico en el área central de Petén: Nuevos resultados sobre la conformación y evolución del asentamiento prehispánico en la isla de Flores" (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (in Spanish). XX, 2006. Guatemala City, Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 261. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-05. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
  30. ^ Rice, Prudence M. (2009). "The Kowoj in Geopolitical-Ritual Perspective". In Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.). The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala. Boulder, Colorado, US: University Press of Colorado. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-87081-930-8. OCLC 225875268.
  31. ^ Millet Cámara, Luis (2009). "Notes on Izamal City of Three Cultures" (PDF). Voices of Mexico.
  32. ^ "Oaxaca | Mexico, Population, Map, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-03-05. Oaxaca, city, capital of Oaxaca estado (state), southern Mexico, lying in the fertile Oaxaca Valley, 5,085 feet (1,550 metres) above sea level. The city site, which has been inhabited for thousands of years, was important to numerous pre-Columbian civilizations, as evidenced by the Zapotec ruins at Monte Albán,
  33. ^ Spencer, Charles S.; Redmond, Elsa M. (2001-06-01). "Multilevel Selection and Political Evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, 500–100 B.C." Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 20 (2): 195–229. doi:10.1006/jaar.2000.0371. ISSN 0278-4165.
  34. ^ Carbajal Correa, María del Carmen (2018). "Four Archaeological Sites in the State of Mexico" (PDF). Voices of Mexico: 92–94. From the late pre-classical period (400 B.C. to A.D. 200) on, there were organized settlements with Olmec influence in the Valley of Toluca.
  35. ^ "Calixtlahuaca". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  36. ^ Huster, Angela C.; Smith, Michael E. (March 2015). "A New Archaeological Chronology for Aztec-Period Calixtlahuaca, Mexico". Latin American Antiquity. 26 (1): 3–25. doi:10.7183/1045-6635.26.1.3. ISSN 1045-6635.
  37. ^ a b c Zaleta, Leonardo (2007). Tajín: Misterio y belleza. Artes Impresas Eón SA de CV. p. 23.
  38. ^ a b "Historia de la Ciudad de Papantla". Archived from the original on 2021-05-10. Retrieved 2024-02-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  39. ^ Wilkerson, S. Jeffrey K. (1987). El Tajín : a guide for visitors. Internet Archive. Veracruz Universidad Veracruzana. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-968-499-293-1. 100 D.C: Subestructura del edificio 4 (100 A.D: Substructure of building 4)". "Ciudades mesoamericanas. 100 D.C: El Tajín (Mesoamerican cities. 100 D.C: El Tajín)
  40. ^ "Hopi Places". Cline Library, Northern Arizona University. Archived from the original on 2022-10-06. Retrieved 2022-08-20.
  41. ^ Valencia Valera, Víctor Hugo (2022). "Zona Arqueológica Teopanzolco" (in Spanish). Teopanzolco es una zona arqueológica del Valle de Morelos, cuyas evidencias más tempranas de ocupación se remontan al Posclásico Medio. Las excavaciones arqueológicas confirman que hubo por lo menos tres etapas constructivas de este asentamiento; en cada una de ellas se destruían parcialmente los edificios antiguos y sobre sus restos, se levantaban nuevos, a veces con una distribución distinta. Bajo el piso de la gran plaza se encuentran sepultados restos de los desplantes de los viejos muros y al interior de los basamentos, hay evidencias de la presencia de otros, más antiguos. Los primeros pobladores de Teopanzolco posiblemente eran los Tlahuicas, como lo mencionan las fuentes escritas del siglo XVI. A la llegada de los mexicas que conquistaron esta región y lo incluyeran a su imperio, Teopanzolco estaba en apogeo de su desarrollo. Los renovados templos, basamentos, casas y palacio, tuvieron que impresionar a los mexicas, sobre todo el imponente basamento de los templos de Tlaloc y Huitzilopochtli. En su interior estaban ocultos todavía dos templos más antiguos, que vieron luz hasta los años 1921 y 2018, respectivamente. Desafortunadamente el crecimiento de la moderna ciudad de Cuernavaca, borro muchas evidencias sobre la extensión original de este asentamiento y de la magnitud de sus construcciones durante el apogeo de su desarrollo. En los predios colindantes con la zona arqueológica se han detectado huellas de muros y materiales arqueológicos que nos amplían información sobre la historia de este lugar en época prehispánica. Ubicación cronológica principal: Posclásico Medio y Tardío, 1200 a 1521 d.C.
  42. ^ Thiel, J. Homer. Cultural History of the Tucson Basin and the Project Area. pp. 7–11.
  43. ^ Downum, Charles E. (1993). Between Desert and River. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. pp. 1–30. ISBN 9780816518128.
  44. ^ a b c Clark, Joseph M. H. (19 January 2023). "Chapter 1: Veracruz Before the Caribbean". Veracruz and the Caribbean in the Seventeenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–48. doi:10.1017/9781009180337.002.
  45. ^ Arango, J.; Durán, F.; Martín, J.G.; Arroyo, S. (Eds.). Panamá Viejo. De la aldea a la urbe. Patronato Panamá Viejo, Panamá, 2007.
  46. ^ "A Brief History of Taxco De Alarcon". Santa Prisca Silver. 2019-10-16. Retrieved 2024-02-05.
  47. ^ CZ, Joel (2021-09-30). "Compostela Nayarit: A Magical Town to Discover » Savoteur". Retrieved 2024-02-05.
  48. ^ Thompson, Ginger (2002-01-27). "Querétaro, Witness To History". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2024-02-05.
  49. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Historic Centre of Puebla". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2024-02-05.
  50. ^ visit-mexico.mx (2023-01-12). "Tepic, Nayarit, Mexico - Tourist Guide -". visit-mexico.mx. Retrieved 2024-02-05.
  51. ^ México, Travel By. "La Historia de Culiacán (The History of Culiacan), Culiacán". Travel By Mexico. Retrieved 2024-02-05.
  52. ^ The Fortified Town of Campeche, 2009-03-16, retrieved 2024-02-05
  53. ^ Snyder, Michael (2022-10-07). "The Central Mexican City of Morelia Is Home to Historic Monuments and Heritage Crafts". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2024-02-05.
  54. ^ "History - In Guadalajara". inguadalajara.com (in Mexican Spanish). 2022-11-28. Retrieved 2024-02-05.
  55. ^ "Merida | Map, Mexico, Population, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-01-17. Retrieved 2024-02-05.
  56. ^ Soudip (2015-04-01). "Historic Centre of Zacatecas Historical Facts and Pictures". The History Hub. Retrieved 2024-02-05.
  57. ^ "5 Brief Legends from Guanajuato – Mexico Unexplained". 2018-05-14. Retrieved 2024-02-05.
  58. ^ "Acapulco | Mexico, Map, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-02-04. Retrieved 2024-02-05.
  59. ^ Santa Fe, New Mexico, which is sometimes cited for this, was abandoned due to Indian raiding from 1680 to 1692, and its inhabitants did not succeed in living in the area continuously until after 1692.
  60. ^ Briney, Amanda. "15 Oldest Cities in the United States". About.com. Archived from the original on February 28, 2017. Retrieved April 5, 2021.
  61. ^ Quinn, David B. (1979) [1966]. "Gilbert, Sir Humphrey". In Brown, George Williams (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. I (1000–1700) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
  62. ^ "Annapolis Royal Historic District". Directory of Federal Heritage Designations – Parks Canada.
  63. ^ Trigger, Bruce C. (1978). Sturtevant, William C. (ed.). Handbook of North American Indians. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
  64. ^ "City of Natchitoches". www.natchitochesla.gov. Archived from the original on 2016-01-08. Retrieved 2016-01-16. [verification needed]
  65. ^ Kelly Hearn, "Ancient Temple Discovered Among Inca Ruins" Archived 2017-07-21 at the Wayback Machine, National Geographic News, 31 March 2008, accessed 12 January 2010
  66. ^ Zimmermann, Marc (2010). Wege durchs Küstengebirge: Zwischen Vergangenheit und Zukunft [Paths through the coastal mountains: between the past and the future] (in German and Portuguese) (2nd ed.). Books on Demand. p. 51. ISBN 978-3842336612.
  67. ^ Marzal, M. (1996). Historia de la antropología indigenista: México y Perú. Ed. Anthropos, Extremadura
  68. ^ São Paulo - A Tale of Two Cities (PDF). United Nations Human Settlements Programme. 2010. p. 13. ISBN 978-92-1-132214-9.
  69. ^ Magazine, Smithsonian; Blakemore, Erin. "Five Times Aleppo Was the Center of the World's Attention". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2024-09-18.
  70. ^ Mansel, Philip (2016-02-28). Aleppo: The Rise and Fall of Syria's Great Merchant City. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-85772-924-8.
  71. ^ Research, United Nations Institute for Training and (2019-05-30). Five years of conflict: the state of cultural heritage in the Ancient City of Aleppo; A comprehensive multi-temporal satellite imagery-based damage analysis for the Ancient City of Aleppo. UNESCO Publishing. p. 20. ISBN 978-92-3-100284-7.
  72. ^ Versaci, Antonella; Bougdah, Hocine; Akagawa, Natsuko; Cavalagli, Nicola (2022-03-01). Conservation of Architectural Heritage. Springer Nature. p. 190. ISBN 978-3-030-74482-3.
  73. ^ Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E.; Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (2006). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa. ABC-CLIO. p. 104. ISBN 1-57607-919-8. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2009-07-22. Archaeological excavations at Byblos indicate that the site has been continually inhabited since at least 5000 B.C.
  74. ^ Wagner, Wolfgang (2011-07-16). Groundwater in the Arab Middle East. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 68. ISBN 978-3-642-19351-4. The towns of Aleppo and Damascus exist continuously since 5,000 years
  75. ^ a b "Ancient City of Damascus". Archived from the original on 2023-03-29. Retrieved 2023-04-05. Historical and archaeological sources testify to origins in the third millennium BC, and Damascus is widely known as among the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world.
  76. ^ Burns, Ross (2007). Damascus: A History. Routledge. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-415-41317-6. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2020-11-15. It has long been a self-fulfilling assumption that Damascus is a city older than time. The belief that this was one of the first urban centres appears a little fanciful as we have no evidence of any large-scale settlement on the site of the present walled city at least until the second millennium BC. There is certainly evidence of earlier settlement in the wider Barada basin going back to 9000 BC but there is so far no consistent picture of how the Damascus area was exploited though it seems to have been only lightly populated.
  77. ^ Negev, Avraham; Gibson, Shimon (2001). "Jerusalem". Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land. New York and London: Continuum. pp. 260–61. ISBN 0-8264-1316-1. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
  78. ^ Freedman, David Noel (2000). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 694–95. ISBN 0-8028-2400-5. 1. Ceramic evidence indicates some occupation of Ophel as early as early as the Chalcolithic period. 2. Remains of a building witness to a permanent settlement on Ophel during the early centuries (ca. 3000–2800 B.C.E.) of the Early Bronze Age
  79. ^ Freedman, David Noel (2000-01-01). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 694–695. ISBN 0-8028-2400-5.
  80. ^ Nadav Na'aman, op.cit pp. 178–179.
  81. ^ Vaughn, Andrew G.; Ann E. Killebrew (1 August 2003). "Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy". Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: the First Temple Period. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 32–33. ISBN 1-58983-066-0. Archived from the original on 3 July 2019. Retrieved 18 August 2019.
  82. ^ Shalem, Yisrael (3 March 1997). "History of Jerusalem from its Beginning to David". Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University, Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. Archived from the original on 17 January 2007. Retrieved 18 January 2007.
  83. ^ Nadav Naʼaman, Canaan in the 2nd Millennium B.C.E., p. 180.
  84. ^ Bartl, Karin; al-Maqdissi, Michel (2016-12-01). "Archaeological Survey in the Hama Region 2003–2005". Syria. Archéologie, art et histoire (IV): 303–320. doi:10.4000/syria.5107. ISSN 0039-7946.
  85. ^ "Revitalization Project of Erbil Citadel". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 2014-10-25. Retrieved 2014-10-16.
  86. ^ "Erbil | Geography, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-09-13.
  87. ^ "Features - Erbil Revealed - Archaeology Magazine - September/October 2014". Archaeology Magazine. Retrieved 2024-09-13.
  88. ^ Vale, Lawrence (2008) [1992]. Architecture, Power and National Identity (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 115. ISBN 978-1-134-72921-0. When the decision to designate Ankara as the capital of a modern nation-state was taken in the 1920s, it represented the reinvigoration of a small town that had been inhabited continuously since the twentieth century B.C.
  89. ^ Excavations at Ancient Jaffa (Joppa). Tel Aviv University.
  90. ^ Negev, Avraham; Gibson, Shimon, eds. (2001). "Akko (Tel)". Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land. New York and London: Continuum. p. 27. ISBN 0-8264-1316-1. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 26 July 2021. (Snippet view).
  91. ^ "Small historical coastal cities: Urban development and freshwater resources". librarysearch.chemeketa.edu. Retrieved 2024-09-12.
  92. ^ "Small Historical Coastal Cities: Urban Development and Freshwater Resources". 2002-06-16. Archived from the original on 2002-06-16. Retrieved 2024-09-14.
  93. ^ Nassif, Rawane (Fall 2011). "The politics of memory in the reconstruction of Downtown Beirut". ERA. p. 2. doi:10.7939/R36W3T. Retrieved 2024-09-15.
  94. ^ "Factbox: Syria's ancient city of Latakia bombarded". August 15, 2011.
  95. ^ Pandey, Akhil (2018). "Chapter 10 (Damascus to Tartus – Latakia – Antakya: Unfolding Dream of Ibn Battuta)". EURODASH79: The Quest (Inspired and Relentless Search for the True Knowledge, Culture & Values). Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-93-88134-59-0. Though the site has been inhabited since the second millennium BC, the modern-day city was first founded in the 4th century BC under the rule of the Seleucid empire.
  96. ^ Ball, Warwick (2002-01-04). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-82387-1.
  97. ^ Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E.; Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (2007). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 155. ISBN 9781576079195.
  98. ^ "Life at the Crossroads [New Edition]: A History of Gaza". Rimal Books. Archived from the original on 2011-07-15. Retrieved 2009-01-24.
  99. ^ Lemche, Niels Peter (9 April 2010). The A to Z of Ancient Israel. Scarecrow Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-1-4616-7172-5. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
  100. ^ Gates, Charles (2003). "Near Eastern, Egyptian, and Aegean Cities". Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome. Routledge. p. 18. ISBN 0-415-01895-1. Jericho, in the Jordan River Valley in Palestine, inhabited from ca. 9000 BC to the present day, offers important evidence for the earliest permanent settlements in the Near East.
  101. ^ Martell, Hazel Mary (2001). "The Fertile Crescent". The Kingfisher Book of the Ancient World: From the Ice Age to the Fall of Rome. Kingfisher Publications. p. 18. ISBN 0-7534-5397-5. People first settled there from around 9000 B.C., and by 8000 B.C., the community was organised enough to build a stone wall to defend the city.
  102. ^ Michal Strutin, Discovering Natural Israel (2001), p. 4.
  103. ^ Ryan, Donald P. (1999). "Digging up the Bible". The Complete Idiot's Guide to Lost Civilizations. Alpha Books. p. [1]. ISBN 0-02-862954-X. Archived from the original on 2020-05-17. Retrieved 2020-04-23. The city was walled during much of its history and the evidence indicates that it was abandoned several times, and later expanded and rebuilt several times.
  104. ^ Kenneth Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament (Eerdmans 2003), pp. 187
  105. ^ a b "Medina". www.al-madinah.org. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2020-06-24.
  106. ^ "COLCHIS, THE LAND OF THE GOLDEN FLEEAD, REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA". www.great-adventures.com. Archived from the original on 2017-03-24. Retrieved 2017-03-18.
  107. ^ "Vani". eurasia.travel. Archived from the original on 2017-03-19. Retrieved 2017-03-18.
  108. ^ International dictionary of historic places By Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, K. A. Berney, Paul E. Schellinger
  109. ^ a b Harootunian, N.V. (1959). "К датировке основания города Еревана" [On the date of the foundation of Yerevan]. Historical-Philological Journal (in Russian) (2–3): 94–96. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. [С]тановится вполне ясным, что время основания этого города падает на 782 год до нашей эры. ... [А]рхеологический материал, происходивший из раскопок Эребуни-Еревана, с достаточной достоверностью показывает, что этот город продолжал свое существование не только в последний период урартского владычества ... но и после него, т.е. в VI-V вв. до нашей еры. О дальнейшей судьбе Еревана, вплоть до начала VII века нашей эры, история, к сожалению, умалчивает. После потери своего первенствующего значения еще в эпоху Урарту, он, по всей вероятности, свыше десяти веков продолжал оставаться одним из многочисленных рядовых поселков («аван»-ов) исторической Армении. С начала же VII века нашей эры Ереван снова начинает приобретать удельный вес и фигурирует снова в «Книге посланий» а затем — в «Истоии» Себеоса. В дальнейшем название Еревана все чаще и чаще упоминается в средневековых армянских источниках ... [ [I]t becomes quite clear that the founding of this city falls on 782 BC. ... [A]rcheological material originating from the excavations at Erebuni-Yerevan shows with sufficient credibility that this city continued to exist not only in the final period of Urartian rule ... but also after it, i.e. in the 6th–5th centuries BC. Regarding the subsequent fate of Erevan, history is unfortunately silent until the beginning of the 7th century AD. After losing its foremost significance all the way back in the era of Urartu, it most likely continued to be one of the many rank-and-file villages ('avans') of historical Armenia. Then, from the beginning of the 7th century AD Erevan once again begins to acquire particular weight and appears for the first time in the Book of Messages, then in Sebeos's History. Thereafter the name of Erevan is mentioned with increasing frequency in medieval Armenian sources ...]
  110. ^ a b Deschamps, Stephane (22 February 2016) [23 October 2015]. "Erebuni in the context of Urartean fortresses in the Ararat plain: Sources and problems". Quaternary International. 395: 208–215. Bibcode:2016QuInt.395..208D. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.08.056. Erebuni fortress, located on the hill of Arin Berd (Yerevan) is one of the three main Urartian fortresses erected in the Ararat plain ... Built during the reign of king Argishti I in 782 BC, it marks the extension of the kingdom of Urartu to the north since the reign of Menua and the control of the Ararat plain during the reign of king Argishti.
  111. ^ "Introduction to Tabriz city" (in Persian). University of Tabriz. Archived from the original on 2013-05-17. Retrieved 2013-02-11.
  112. ^ a b Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture: Delhi to Mosque. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2013. Whatever the prehistoric antecedents of Istanbul, the continuous historical development of the site began with the foundation of a Greek colony from Megara in the mid-7th century BC.
  113. ^ Gela Gamkrelidze. RESEARCHES IN IBERIA-COLCHOLOGY. Edited by David Braiind (Prof, of University of Exeter (UK)) // Olar LORDKIPANIDZE ADNTRE OF ARCHAEOLOGY OF GEORGIAN NATIONAL MUSEUM. P. 43 "According to the data on archaeological excavations on the Gabashvili, Dateshidze and Ukimerioni hills in Kutaisi, an urban-type settlement of the 6-5 cent. BC was found to be concentrated"
  114. ^ "Ancient City of Bosra". whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2024-09-13.
  115. ^ Khan, Ahmad Nabi (1983). Multan: History and Architecture. Institute of Islamic History, Culture & Civilization, Islamic University. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2021-11-18.
  116. ^ Alf Hiltebeitel (2009). Rethinking India's Oral and Classical Epics. University of Chicago Press. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-226-34055-5. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2023-05-13.
  117. ^ Nancy Hatch Dupree, An Historical Guide to Afghanistan, 1977, Kabul, Afghanistan
  118. ^ Allchin (1978). The Archaeology of Afghanistan from earliest times to the Timurid period. London; New York : Academic Press. pp. 90–93. ISBN 978-0-12-050440-4.
  119. ^ "History of Balkh, the city of saints -". 12 January 2022. Archived from the original on 22 October 2022. Retrieved 22 October 2022.
  120. ^ Long, Jeffery D. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Hinduism. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780810879607. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2022-06-21.
  121. ^ Syed, Muzaffar Husain (2012). History of Indian Nation : Ancient India. ISBN 9788178441283. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2022-06-21.
  122. ^ Dutt, Romesh C. (1906). History of India, in Nine Volumes: Vol. I - From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century B.C., Volume 1. Cosimo. ISBN 9781605204901. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2022-06-21.
  123. ^ "4,000-year-old crafts village unearthed near Varanasi". The Hindu. 24 February 2020. Archived from the original on 25 February 2020. Retrieved 13 July 2020. Professor Dubey "said the site gains significance because of its proximity to Varanasi, which is said to be 5,000 years old, though modern scholars believe it to be around 3,000 years old."
  124. ^ Sapru, Gayatri (8 April 2016). "The Indian Cities That Are Older Than Time". Culture Trip. Archived from the original on 2021-06-25. Retrieved 2021-06-25.
  125. ^ Fergus, Michael; Jandosova, Janar (2003). Kazakhstan: Coming of Age. Stacey International. ISBN 9781900988612.
  126. ^ Ranov, V. A. (Vadim Aleksandrovich) (1993). Dushanbe : gorod drevniĭ (PDF) (in Russian). Solovʹev, V. S. (Viktor Stepanovich), Masov, R. M. (Rakhim Masovich). Dushanbe: Izd-vo "Donish". pp. 107–108. ISBN 5-8366-0427-4. OCLC 32311792. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-02-09. Retrieved 2023-03-08.
  127. ^ Macy, Laura Williams (2002). Yavan, Oxford Art Online. [Basingstoke, England]: Macmillan. ISBN 1-884446-05-1. OCLC 50959350.
  128. ^ Vladimir Babak, Demian Vaisman, Aryeh Wasserman, Political organization in Central Asia and Azerbaijan: sources and documents, p.374
  129. ^ Trudy Ring; Noelle Watson; Paul Schellinger, eds. (2012). Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Routledge. p. 835. ISBN 9781136639791. Archived from the original on 2020-05-17. Retrieved 2016-03-23.
  130. ^ "Peshawar: Oldest Living City in South Asia". Dawn. 3 July 2010. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
  131. ^ "Zaman-Baba". Great Soviet Encyclopedia.
  132. ^ Dhillon, Harish (2015). Janamsakhis: Ageless Stories, Timeless Values. Hay House, Inc. ISBN 9789384544843. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
  133. ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Sacred City of Anuradhapura". Archived from the original on 23 October 2015. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
  134. ^ "New study connects Tamil Nadu with Indus Valley civilisation". 20 September 2019. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  135. ^ Harman, William. P (1992). The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 30–36. ISBN 978-81-208-0810-2. Archived from the original on 2016-12-29. Retrieved 2017-03-11.
  136. ^ Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura, Ca. 150 BC-100 AD. Concept Publishing Company. p. 2. ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4. Archived from the original on 2017-03-12. Retrieved 2017-03-11.
  137. ^ "The Assam Tribune Online". 2016-01-27. Archived from the original on 27 January 2016. Retrieved 2022-02-23.
  138. ^ "Historical Background | Punjab Portal". www.punjab.gov.pk. Archived from the original on 2022-10-24. Retrieved 2022-10-24.
  139. ^ "历史人文". Yanshi City Government. Archived from the original on 23 January 2020. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  140. ^ "Far East Kingdoms". Early Chinese Cultures. Archived from the original on 22 December 2018. Retrieved 24 January 2020.
  141. ^ "City of the idiom". 2011-10-14. Archived from the original on 2023-04-11. Retrieved 2023-06-04.
  142. ^ "Beijing". UNESCO. 2019-05-17. Archived from the original on 2016-06-23. Retrieved 2015-11-17.
  143. ^ "世界足球起源地--山东临淄以蹴鞠为媒推广齐文化". 中国日报网. 2014-09-17. Archived from the original on 2016-06-26. Retrieved 2018-01-25.
  144. ^ "历史沿革". 荆州市人民政府. 2023-06-04. Archived from the original on 2020-09-27. Retrieved 2023-06-04.
  145. ^ Short, John R. (1992), Human Settlement, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 212
  146. ^ Peter Haggett (ed.), Encyclopedia of World Geography, vol. 20: China and Taiwan, Marshall Cavendish, p. 2844
  147. ^ Gray, John Henry (1875), Walks in the City of Canton, Hong Kong: De Souza & Co., p. 1–2, archived from the original on January 18, 2021, retrieved November 6, 2015
  148. ^ a b An Anglochinese Calendar for the Year 1845, Corresponding to the Year of the Chinese Cycle Æra 4482 or the 42d Year of the 75th Cycle of Sixty, being the 25th Year of the Reign of Ta'ukwa'ng, Vol. II, Hong Kong: Office of the Chinese Repository, 1845, p. 82, archived from the original on June 13, 2020, retrieved August 31, 2017
  149. ^ Gray (1875), p. 1–2
  150. ^ Ricci, Matteo; Trigault, Nicolas (1617). "De Christiana expeditione apud sinas suscepta ab Societate Jesu. Ex P. Matthaei Riccii eiusdem Societatis commentariis Libri V: Ad S.D.N. Paulum V. In Quibus Sinensis Regni mores, leges, atque instituta, & novae illius Ecclesiae difficillima primordia accurate & summa fide describuntur". Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2020-11-12.
  151. ^ Cổ sử Việt Nam, Đào Duy Anh, Nhà xuất bản Khoa học Xã hội 2003
  152. ^ Văn hóa Chăm Pa, Ngô Văn Doanh, Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa Dân tộc 2002
  153. ^ a b J. G. De Casparis (1978). Indonesian Chronology. BRILL Academic. pp. 15–24. ISBN 978-90-04-05752-4. Archived from the original on 2017-03-08. Retrieved 2018-03-10.
  154. ^ a b Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
  155. ^ a b Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of south-east Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
  156. ^ "Angkor National Museum website". Angkornationalmuseum.com. Archived from the original on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
  157. ^ According to a local act number 6 (1989)[not specific enough to verify]
  158. ^ History for Brunei Darussalam: Sharing our Past. Curriculum Development Department, Ministry of Education. 2009. ISBN 978-99917-2-372-3.
  159. ^ "Timeline of history". Archived from the original on 2009-11-23. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
  160. ^ Scott, William Prehispanic Source Materials: For the Study of Philippine History, p. 66
  161. ^ Bullough, Nigel (1995). Mujiyono PH (ed.). Historic East Java: Remains in Stone (Indonesian 50th independence day commemorative ed.). Jakarta: ADLine Communications. p. 19.
  162. ^ Founded during the reign of King Pontarika, per Charles James Forbes Smith-Forbes (1882). Legendary History of Burma and Arakan. The Government Press. p. 20. Archived from the original on 2009-02-06. Retrieved 2019-11-16.; the king's reign was 1028 to 1043 per Harvey, G. E. (1925). History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd. p. 368.
  163. ^ a b Cœdès, George (1968). The Indianized states of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824803681. Archived from the original on 2017-02-21. Retrieved 2018-03-10.
  164. ^ Irwan Rouf & Shenia Ananda (2013-01-01). Rangkuman 100 Cerita Rakyat Indonesia dari Sabang sampai Merauke: Asal Usul Nama Kota Surabaya (in Indonesian). MediaKita. p. 60. ISBN 9786029003826. Archived from the original on 27 May 2016. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
  165. ^ Abdul Rahman, Haji Ismail; Abdullah Zakaria, Ghazali; Zulkanain, Abdul Rahman (2011), A New Date on the Establishment of Melaka Malay Sultanate Discovered (PDF), Institut Kajian Sejarah dan Patriotisme ( Institute of Historical Research and Patriotism ), retrieved 2012-11-04 [permanent dead link‍]
  166. ^ a b "The Aginid - Philstar.com". philstar.com. Archived from the original on 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2018-05-03.
  167. ^ a b "Early Cebu History". Archived from the original on 2018-05-04. Retrieved 2018-05-03.
  168. ^ Ouano-Savellon, Romola (11 August 2018). ""Aginid Bayok Sa Atong Tawarik": Archaic Cebuano and Historicity in a Folk Narrative". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 42 (3/4): 189–220. JSTOR 44512020.
  169. ^ a b Henson, Mariano A (1955). The Province of Pampanga and its towns (A.D. 1300–1955) with the genealogy of the rulers of central Luzon. Manila: Villanueva Books.
  170. ^ Colquhoun, Archibald Ross (1885). Amongst the Shans. New York: Scribner & Welford. p. 121. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
  171. ^ Cœdès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of south-east Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
  172. ^ Aroonrut Wichienkeeo (2001–2012). "Lawa (Lua) : A Study from Palm-Leaf Manuscripts and Stone Inscriptions". COE Center of Excellence. Rajabhat Institute of Chiangmai. Archived from the original on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 15 Aug 2012.
  173. ^ See also the chronicle of Chiang Mai, Zinme Yazawin, in Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, Ancient Chiang Mai Volume 4. Chiang Mai, Cognoscenti Books, 2012. ASIN: B006J541LE
  174. ^ The story is recorded in JMBRAS magazine, October 1935, Volume XIII Part 2, pp. 15–16.
  175. ^ Peace of Angkor Phnom Penh Archived 2007-04-16 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 27, 2007.
  176. ^ History for Malaysia (2010). Melaka from the Top. De Witt, Dennis. ISBN 978-983-43519-2-2.
  177. ^ Chandrashtitya, Tipawan; Matungka, Chiraporn. ประวัติเมืองธนบุรี [History of Thonburi City]. Arts & Cultural Office (in Thai). Dhonburi Rajabhat University. Archived from the original on 13 July 2010. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  178. ^ "Đại Việt Sử ký Toàn thư: Bản kỷ thực lục. Quyển XII. Kỷ Nhà Lê: Thánh Tông Thuần Hoàng Đế". Archived from the original on 2021-10-28. Retrieved 2021-10-28.
  179. ^ Spencer Tucker, "Vietnam", University Press of Kentucky, 1999, ISBN 0-8131-0966-3, p. 22
  180. ^ a b Compton, Nick (2015-02-16). "What is the oldest city in the world?". amp.theguardian.com. Retrieved 2023-10-22.
  181. ^ Райчевски, Георги (2002). Пловдивска енциклопедия. Пловдив: Издателство ИМН. p. 341. ISBN 978-954-491-553-7.
  182. ^ Ботушарова, Л. Стратиграфски проучвания на Небет тепе, ГПАМ, 5, 1963, pp. 66–70.
  183. ^ Детев, П. Разкопки на Небет тепе в Пловдив, ГПАМ, 5, 1963, pp. 27–30
  184. ^ Bolender, Douglas J. (2010-09-17). Eventful Archaeologies: New Approaches to Social Transformation in the Archaeological Record. SUNY Press. pp. 124–129–. ISBN 978-1-4384-3423-0. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
  185. ^ Michael Llewellyn Smith (January 2004). Athens: A Cultural and Literary History. Signal Books. p. xiv. ISBN 978-1-902669-81-6. Archived from the original on 2017-07-03. Retrieved 2016-07-10.
  186. ^ Tung, Anthony (2001). "The City the Gods Besieged". Preserving the World's Great Cities: The Destruction and Renewal of the Historic Metropolis. New York: Three Rivers Press. p. 266. ISBN 0-609-80815-X.
  187. ^ Immerwahr, Sara A. (1971). The Athenian Agora, Vol. XIII: The Neolithic and Bronze Ages. Gleuckstadt, DE: J.J. AUGUSTIN. p. Preface, vii. ISBN 978-0-87661-213-2. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 4 August 2020. The very quantity of material is a striking proof of the habitation of the Agora and the surrounding slopes of the Acropolis, Areopagus and the neighboring hills from at least the fourth millennium B.C.
  188. ^ Harding, pp. 20–22; Gantz, p. 234
  189. ^ Mark Cartwright (2012). "Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 2022-01-27. Retrieved 2022-01-05.
  190. ^ "Greek travel pages". Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  191. ^ a b Galaty, Michael L.; Bejko, Lorenc, eds. (2023). Archaeological Investigations in a Northern Albanian Province: Results of the Projekti Arkeologjik i Shkodrës (PASH): Volume One: Survey and Excavation Results. Memoirs Series. Vol. 64. University of Michigan Press. pp. 69–70, 50, 53. ISBN 9781951538736.
  192. ^ Neritan Ceka (2001). "Straboni – Argjendi ilir". In Nigro (ed.). Ilirët (in Albanian). Toena. p. 80. ISBN 9789992700983. Archived from the original on September 23, 2023. Retrieved April 26, 2020.
  193. ^ De Angelis, Daniela, ed. (2014). "Scutari". Oppo e 3 ricerche su Pomezia. Gangemi. ISBN 9788849228823. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2020-11-15. Scutari fu fondata intorno al V-IV secolo a.C. Dagli scavi archeologici eseguiti al castello di Rozafa, si dedusse che il centro era già abitato dall'età del bronzo
  194. ^ Shpuza, Saimir; Dyczek, Piotr (2015). "Scodra, de la capitale du Royaume Illyrien à la capitale de la province romaine". In Jean-Luc Lamboley; Luan Përzhita; Altin Skenderaj (eds.). L'Illyrie Méridionale et l'Épire dans l'Antiquité – VI (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Diffusion De Boccard. p. 269. ISBN 978-9928-4517-1-2.
  195. ^ Hogan, C Michael (January 23, 2008). "Cydonia". The Modern Antiquarian. Archived from the original on September 8, 2017. Retrieved March 31, 2012. The most powerful centre of western Crete, Cydonia produced Bronze Age pottery and Linear B writings circa 1700 to 1500 BC, and was one of the first cities of Europe to mint coinage. (Pashley, 1837)
  196. ^ a b Eric H. Cline (2 February 2021). 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed: Revised and Updated. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20801-5. OCLC 1193069840. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2021.|page=45
  197. ^ Michael D. Phillips (1995). "Cádiz (Cádiz, Spain)". In Trudy Ring; Noelle Watson; Paul Schellinger (eds.). Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places. London: Routledge. pp. 109–112.
  198. ^ a b Toxey, Anne Parmly (2016). "Recasting Materan Identity: the Warring and Melding of Political Ideologies Carved in Stone". In Micara, Ludovico; Petruccioli, Attilio; Vadini, Ettore (eds.). The Mediterranean Medina: International Seminar. Gangemi Editore. p. 541. ISBN 978-88-492-9013-4.
  199. ^ Leonardo A. Chisena, Matera dalla civita al piano: stratificazione, classi sociali e costume politico, Congedo, 1984, p.7
  200. ^ Daryaee, Touraj (2002). Šahrestānīhā Ī Ērānšahr: A Middle Persian Text on Late Antique Geography, Epic, and History. Costa Mesa, California U.S.A.: Mazda Publishers, Inc. pp. 14, 18. ISBN 1-56859-143-8.
  201. ^ Carlos Gómez Bellard (2003). Ecohistoria del paisaje agrario: La agricultura fenicio-púnica en el Mediterráneo. Universitat de València. p. 213. ISBN 978-84-370-5508-4. Archived from the original on 28 November 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
  202. ^ Ana Margarida Arruda (2002). Los fenicios en Portugal: fenicios y mundo indígena en el centro y sur de Portugal (siglos VIII-VI a.C.). Carrera Edició. pp. 113–115. ISBN 978-84-88236-11-1. Archived from the original on 28 November 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
  203. ^ John Laidlar (1997). Lisbon. Clio Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-85109-268-0.
  204. ^ Peter Whitfield (2005). Cities of the World: A History in Maps. University of California Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-520-24725-3. Archived from the original on 28 November 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
  205. ^ Nathan Laughlin Pilkington (2013). An Archaeological History of Carthaginian Imperialism. Academic Commons, Columbia.edu (Thesis). Columbia University. p. 170. doi:10.7916/D80G3SCF. Archived from the original on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 19 August 2014.
  206. ^ David Wright; Patrick Swift (1 January 1971). Lisbon: a portrait and a guide. Barrie and Jenkins. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-214-65309-4. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
  207. ^ Wachsmann, Shelley; Dunn, Richard K.; Hale, John R.; Hohlfelder, Robert L.; Conyers, Lawrence B.; Ernenwein, Eileen G.; Sheets, Payson; Blot, Maria Luisa Pienheiro; Castro, Filipe; Davis, Dan (September 2009). "The Palaeo-Environmental Contexts of Three Possible Phoenician Anchorages in Portugal" (PDF). International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 38 (2). Blackwell Publishing Ltd.: 221–253. Bibcode:2009IJNAr..38..221W. doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2009.00224.x. S2CID 130964094. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 October 2016.
  208. ^ Malaka y las ciudades fenicias en el occidente mediterráneo. Siglos VI a.C. – I d.C.
  209. ^ Cassar, Carmel (2000). A Concise History of Malta. Msida: Mireva Publications. ISBN 1870579526
  210. ^ Schultz, Celia E.; Ward, Allen M.; Heichelheim, F. M.; Yeo, C. A. (2019) [1962]. A History of the Roman People (7th ed.). Routledge. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-351-75470-5. Archived from the original on 2023-08-28. Retrieved 2023-08-28.
  211. ^ Domenico Spanò Bolani (1857). Storia di Reggio di Calabria ... sino all'anno ... 1797 (in Italian). Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
  212. ^ Britannica.com. "Catania, City in Sicily, Italy". Retrieved 29 September 2023.
  213. ^ Morris, S.P.; Papadopoulos, J.K. (2023). Ancient Methone, 2003-2013: Excavations by Matthaios Bessios, Athena Athanassiadou, and Konstantinos Noulas. Monumenta Archaeologica. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-950446-33-9. Archived from the original on 2023-08-24. Retrieved 2023-08-24.
  214. ^ Evans, Richard (22 March 2016). Ancient Syracuse: From Foundation to Fourth Century Collapse. Routledge. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-317-18136-1. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2023.
  215. ^ Evans, Richard J. (2009). Syracuse in Antiquity: History and Topography. University of South Africa Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-86888-407-0. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2023-08-26.
  216. ^ Messineo, Gaetano; Borgia, E. (2005). Ancient Sicily: Monuments Past & Present. Getty Publications. p. 12. ISBN 978-88-8162-147-7. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2023-08-26.
  217. ^ "Greek Naples". Faculty.ed.umuc.edu. 8 January 2008. Archived from the original on June 11, 2011.
  218. ^ An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis: An Investigation Conducted by The Copenhagen Polis Centre for the Danish National Research Foundation by Mogens Herman Hansen, 2005, page 330,"Epidamnos was founded in either 627 or 625 (Hieron. Chron)"
  219. ^ Sassi, Barbara (2018). "Sulle faglie il mito fondativo: i terremoti a Durrës (Durazzo, Albania) dall'Antichità al Medioevo" (PDF). In Cavalieri, Marco; Boschetti, Cristina (eds.). Multa per aequora. Il polisemico significato della moderna ricerca archeologica. Omaggio a Sara Santoro. Fervet Opus 4, Vol. 2, part VII: Archeologia dei Balcani (in Italian). Presses Universitaires de Louvain, with the support of Centre d'étude des Mondes antiques (CEMA) of the Université catholique de Louvain. pp. 942, 951, 952. ISBN 978-2-87558-692-6. Archived from the original on 2023-03-14. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  220. ^ Carro, Luis (2018). "Sozopol, Costa del Mar Negro". Archived from the original on 2020-09-23. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
  221. ^ "The Historical Background | Crimea Platform". Archived from the original on 2022-10-22. Retrieved 2022-10-22.
  222. ^ Rivet, A. L. F.; Drinkwater, John F. (2016). "Massalia". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3997. ISBN 9780199381135.
  223. ^ Mayle, Peter (2000). Encore Provence. Penguin Books Limited. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-14-193321-4. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2023-08-26.
  224. ^ Bachrach, Bernard S.; Bachrach, David S. (2016). Warfare in Medieval Europe, c. 400 – c. 1453. Routledge. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-315-51263-1. Archived from the original on 2023-08-26. Retrieved 2023-08-26. On the positive side of the ledger, excavations in cities such as Cologne, Metz, Paris, and Marseilles demonstrate not only continued habitation, but even robust building efforts during the fifth century and beyond.
  225. ^ Poulter, A.G. (April 2022). "Tomis". pleiades.stoa.org. Retrieved 30 June 2024.
  226. ^ MacKendrick, Paul (1975). The Dacian Stones Speak. University of North Carolina Press. p. 36. ISBN 9780807849392.
  227. ^ "Romanian cities: the old harbour city of Constanta". romania-insider.com. 3 November 2010.
  228. ^ Permanent Delegation of Ukraine to UNESCO. "Tyras - Bilhorod (Akkerman), on the way from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea". UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
  229. ^ An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis: An Investigation Conducted by The Copenhagen Polis Centre for the Danish National Research Foundation by Mogens Herman Hansen, 2005, page 941
  230. ^ Kryzhytskyi, Serhiy. Iсторична довiдка [Historical reference]. Official website of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi (in Ukrainian).
  231. ^ a b Petropoulos, Ilias. "Mesembria (Antiquity)". Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού, Εύξεινος Πόντος. Archived from the original on 9 October 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2011.
  232. ^ Stanecka, Ewa (2013). "Callatis as a seaport". Studies in Ancient Art and Civilization. 17 (17). Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka: 326–327. doi:10.12797/SAAC.17.2013.17.28.
  233. ^ Maxim, Juliana (2023). "Emblems of Socialism: Romania's Black Sea Resorts, 1950s–60s". In Bozdoğan, Sibel; Pyla, Panayiota; Phokaides, Petros (eds.). Coastal Architectures and Politics of Tourism: Leisurescapes in the Global Sunbelt. Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 9781032147192.
  234. ^ "KALLATIS (Mangalia) SE Romania". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 30 June 2024.
  235. ^ Carro, Luis (2018). "Varna: la capital de la costa del Mar Negro". Senderismoeuropa.com. Archived from the original on 2021-04-11. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
  236. ^ An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis: An Investigation Conducted by The Copenhagen Polis Centre for the Danish National Research Foundation by Mogens Herman Hansen, 2005, page 936
  237. ^ Carro, Luis (2020). "La capital de Bulgaria: Sofía". Archived from the original on 2021-04-11. Retrieved 2021-04-23.
  238. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC by John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N. G. L. Hammond, ISBN 0-521-22717-8, 1992, page 600: "In the place of the vanished Treres and Tilataei we find the Serdi for whom there is no evidence before the first century BC. It has for long being supposed on convincing linguistic and archeological grounds that this tribe was of Celtic origin."
  239. ^ Ghodsee, Kristen (2005). The Red Riviera: Gender, Tourism, and Postsocialism on the Black Sea. Duke University Press. p. 21. ISBN 0822387174. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2021-09-28.
  240. ^ Cabanes, Pierre (2008). "Greek Colonisation in the Adriatic". In Tsetskhladze, Gocha R. (ed.). Greek Colonisation: An Account of Greek Colonies and Other Settlements Overseas. Vol. 2. Brill. pp. 155–186. ISBN 9789047442448.
  241. ^ Sedlar, Jean W. (2013). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500. University of Washington Press. p. 111. ISBN 9780295800646.
  242. ^ Shehi, Eduard (2015). Terra sigillata en Illyrie méridionale et en Chaonie: importations et productions locales (IIe S. AV. J.-C. -IIe S. AP. J.-C.). Col·lecció Instrumenta (in French). Vol. 48. Barcelona: Universitat de Barcelona, Publicacions i Edicions. p. 34. ISBN 978-84-475-4238-3. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  243. ^ Shpuza, Saimir (2014). Dyczek, Piotr (ed.). "Iron Age Fortifications and the Origin of the City in the Territory of Scodra". Novensia. 25. Warszawa: Ośrodek Badań nad Antykiem Europy Południowo-Wschodniej: 106, 116–118. ISBN 978-83-934239-96. ISSN 0860-5777.
  244. ^ a b Women and slaves in Greco-Roman culture: differential equations by Sandra Rae Joshel, Sheila Murnaghan, 1998, page 214, "Philip II founded cities at Beroe, Kabyle, and Philippopolis in 342/1, and Aegean-style urban life began to penetrate Thrace."
  245. ^ a b The cities in Thrace and Dacia in late antiquity: (studies and materials) by Velizar Iv Velkov,1977, page 128, "Founded by Philipp II on the site of an old Thracian settlement, it has existed without interruption from that time."
  246. ^ Late Roman villas in the Danube-Balkan region by Lynda Mulvin, 2002, page 19, "Other roads went through Beroe (founded by Philip II of Macedon)",
  247. ^ Philip of Macedon by Louïza D. Loukopoulou, 1980, page 98, "Upriver in the valley between the Rhodope and Haimos Philip founded Beroe (Stara Zagora) and Philippolis (Plovdiv)."
  248. ^ Bastéa, Eleni; Hastaoglou-Martinidis, Vilma (2020). "Urban change and the persistence of memory in modern Thessaloniki". In Keridis, Dimitris; Kiesling, John Brady (eds.). Thessaloniki: A City in Transition, 1912–2012. Routledge. pp. 260–261. ISBN 978-0-429-51366-4. Archived from the original on 2023-08-28. Retrieved 2023-08-28.
  249. ^ Evangelidis, Vassilis (2022). The Archaeology of Roman Macedonia: Urban and Rural Environments. Oxbow Books. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-78925-802-8. Archived from the original on 2023-08-26. Retrieved 2023-08-26. ... especially in continuously inhabited cities like Thessaloniki or Beroia ...
  250. ^ Fiedler, M.; Lahi, B.; Shehi, E.; Pánczél, S.-P.; Velo, K.; Döhner, Gregor (2021). "Ausgrabungen in der Kleinsiedlung Babunjë bei Apollonia (Albanien) Bericht zu den Kampagnen 2018–2019". Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung (RM). 127: 137. Die Illyrier durchliefen eine dynamische Ent-wicklung mit Gründung eigener Städte wohl ab dem mittleren 4. Jh. v. Chr. wie Dimal und Byllis68. Ob hierzu auch Antipatreia (Berat)69 am östlichen Eingang zur Myzeqe-Ebene nur 40 km von Babunjë entfernt gehörte oder die Stadt erst durch Kassander (neu?) gegründet wurde, ist derzeit offen.
  251. ^ Kiel, Machiel (1990). Ottoman architecture in Albania, 1385-1912. Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture. p. 48. ISBN 978-92-9063-330-3. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  252. ^ "Историја Београдске тврђаве" (in Serbian). June 2016. Archived from the original on 2011-09-05.
  253. ^ Morais, Rui. "Transition from the Pre-Roman World to the Roman World in the Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula: The Example of Bracara Augusta" (PDF). Repositorio UP. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-03-06. Retrieved 2022-03-06.
  254. ^ "Du Paléolithique au Néolithique". Musées de la ville de Strasbourg. Archived from the original on 3 September 2018. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
  255. ^ "Boudica and the Slaughter at Camulodunum". Archived from the original on 2022-10-22. Retrieved 2022-10-22.
  256. ^ Macey, Richard (2007). "Settlers' history rewritten: go back 30,000 years". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
  257. ^ "Aboriginal people and place". Sydney Barani. 2013. Archived from the original on 8 February 2014. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
  258. ^ Attenbrow, Val (2010). Sydney's Aboriginal Past: Investigating the Archaeological and Historical Records. Sydney: UNSW Press. pp. 152–153. ISBN 978-1-74223-116-7. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 11 Nov 2013.
  259. ^ Stockton, Eugene D.; Nanson, Gerald C. (April 2004). "Cranebrook Terrace Revisited". Archaeology in Oceania. 39 (1): 59–60. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.2004.tb00560.x. JSTOR 40387277.
  260. ^ International, Survival. "Aboriginal peoples". www.survivalinternational.org. Retrieved 2024-03-20.
  261. ^ Geoffrey Blainey; A Very Short History of the World; Penguin Books; 2004; ISBN 978-0-14-300559-9
  262. ^ Mulvaney, D J and White, Peter, 1987, Australians to 1788, Fairfax, Syme & Weldon, Sydney
  263. ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica – History of Tasmania". Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2008.
  264. ^ The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia. (ed.) David Horton. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press, 1994 [2 vols] (see: Vol. 2, pp. 1008–10 [with map]; individual tribal entries; and the 'Further Reading' section on pp. 1245–72).
  265. ^ a b Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Levuka Historical Port Town". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2023-11-23.
  266. ^ Sandra Bowdler. "The Pleistocene Pacific". archaeology.arts.uwa.edu.au. University of Western Australia. Archived from the original on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 26 February 2008. Published in 'Human settlement', D. Denoon, ed. (1997). The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–50. ISBN 9780521441957.
  267. ^ Gary Presland, The First Residents of Melbourne's Western Region, (revised edition), Harriland Press, 1997. ISBN 0-646-33150-7. Presland says on page 1: "There is some evidence to show that people were living in the Maribyrnong River valley, near present day Keilor, about 40,000 years ago."
  268. ^ Gary Presland, Aboriginal Melbourne: The Lost Land of the Kulin People, Harriland Press (1985), Second edition 1994, ISBN 0-9577004-2-3. This book describes in some detail the archaeological evidence regarding aboriginal life, culture, food gathering and land management, particularly the period from the flooding of Bass Strait and Port Phillip from about 7–10,000 years ago, up to the European colonisation in the nineteenth century.
  269. ^ Isabel Ellender and Peter Christiansen, People of the Merri Merri. The Wurundjeri in Colonial Days, Merri Creek Management Committee, 2001 ISBN 0-9577728-0-7
  270. ^ "Wellington New Zealand History Information, Historical Places in Wellington NZ". New Zealand Tourism Guide. 10 April 1968. Archived from the original on 23 October 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
  271. ^ Flood, J. M.; David, B.; Magee, J.; English, B. (1987), "Birrigai: a Pleistocene site in the south eastern highlands", Archaeology in Oceania, 22: 9–22, doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.1987.tb00159.x
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://wiki.riteme.site/w/index.php?title=List_of_oldest_continuously_inhabited_cities&oldid=1259364714"