Leucaena leucocephala: Difference between revisions
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''[[Acacia]] glauca'' <small>Willd.</small> |
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'''''Leucaena leucocephala''''' is a species of small [[Mimosoideae|Mimosoid]] [[tree]] that is native to southern [[Mexico]] and northern [[Central America]] ([[Belize]] and [[Guatemala]]).<ref name="GRIN"/><ref name = Hughes>{{cite book | last = Hughes | first = Colin E. | authorlink = Colin E. Hughes | title = Monograph of Leucaena (Leguminosae-Mimosoideae) | series = Systematic botany monographs v. 55 | year = 1998 | isbn = 091286155X }}</ref> Common names include '''White Leadtree''',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=LELE10 |title=PLANTS Profile for ''Leucaena leucocephala'' (white leadtree) |work=PLANTS Database |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |accessdate=2009-09-19}}</ref> '''Jumbay''', and '''White Popinac'''.<ref name=BPI>[http://www.bpi.da.gov.ph/Publications/mp/html/i/ipil-ipil.html Ipil-ipil, ''Leucaena glauca''], BPI.da.gov.ph</ref> The specific name is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words λευκό, meaning "white", and κέφαλος, meaning "head", referring to its [[flower]]s.<ref name="WAC">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/SEA/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=1069 |title=Leucaena leucocephala |work=AgroForestryTree Database |publisher=World Agroforestry Centre |accessdate=2010-01-18}}</ref> It is known as Subabool in India. ''L. leucocephala'' is used for a variety of purposes, such as [[firewood]], [[Fiber crop|fiber]] and [[livestock]] [[fodder]]. |
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<!-- [[Image:leucaenaleucocephalaseed.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Leucaena leucocephala seed.]] --> |
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It has been considered for [[biomass]] production, as its reported yield of foliage corresponds to a dried mass of 2000–20000 kg/ha/year, and that of wood 30–40 m³/ha/year, with up to twice those amounts in favourable climates. It is also efficient in [[nitrogen fixation]], at more than 500 kg/ha/year. It has a very fast growth rate, young trees reach a height of more than 20 ft in 2–3 years. |
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'''''Leucaena leucocephala''''', also known as ''Leucaena glauca'' is a highly branched small tree or shrub, which belongs to the family [[Mimosaceae]]. ''Leucaena'' is an evergreen, deep rooted plant, which may grow to heights of 3–15 (max. 20) m with a bole diameter of 10–50 cm and a bole hight to 5 m. L. leucocephala has an upright angular branching, which forms a narrow open crown. The leaves are bipinnate with 6-9 pairs. The leaflets are 9-16 mm long and 2-4.5 mm wide. The self-fertile flowers are white or cream-white. 100–180 flowers per head are forming a globular shape. The pods are 13-18 mm long, flat and brown containing a number of seeds. |
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During the 1970s and 1980s it was promoted as a "miracle tree" for its multiple uses.<ref name="fao.org">[http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Publicat/Gutt-shel/x5556e06.htm Gutteridge, Ross C., and H. Max Shelton. 1998. ''Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture''. Tropical Grassland Society of Australia, Inc., 2.1 "Leucaena leucocephala - the Most Widely Used Forage Tree Legume"]</ref> It has also been described as a "conflict tree" in that it is both promoted for forage production and spreads like a weed in some places.<ref name="GISB"/> |
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''L. leucocephala'' is used for a variety of purposes, such as firewood, fiber and livestock fodder.<ref name="WAC">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/AFTPDFS/Leucaena_leucocephala.pdf |title=Leucaena leucocephala |work=Agroforestree Database |publisher=World Agroforestry Centre |Retrieved=2010-04-21}}</ref> |
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This species is susceptible to insect infestations. In the 1980s, there was widespread loss in [[Southeast Asia]] due to pest attack by [[Jumping plant louse|psyllids]].<ref>[http://www.odi.org.uk/nrp/odi_alleyfarming.html ODI - Alley Farming]</ref>. In India, this tree was initially promoted for afforestation due to its fast growing nature. However, it is now considered unsuitable for urban plantation because of its tendency to get uprooted in rain and wind. Eight of every ten uprooted trees in [[Pune]] were subabuls.<ref>{{cite news|last=Das|first=Dipannita|title=Activists want Pune Municipal Corporation to allow cutting of subabul trees in city|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/Activists-want-Pune-Municipal-Corporation-to-allow-cutting-of-subabul-trees-in-city/articleshow/8200176.cms|accessdate=9 May 2011|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=8 May 2011|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5yXfaJYL9|archivedate=9 May 2011}}</ref> |
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The [[seed]]s contain [[mimosine]], an [[amino acid]] known to be [[Toxin|toxic]] to non-[[ruminant]] [[vertebrate]]s (Gutteridge and Shelton 1998).<ref name="fao.org"/> It provides an excellent source of high protein cattle fodder.<ref name="purdue">{{cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/leucaena_leucocephala.html|title=Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) deWit.|publisher=hort.purdue.edu|accessdate=8 June 2010}}</ref> |
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==Origin and regions of cultivation== |
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L. leucocephala is probably native to southern Mexico and northern Central America . It is naturalized throughout the West Indies from Bahamas and Cuba to Trinidad and Tobago, and from Texas and Florida to Brazil and Chile. It is also established in Hawaii, Pacific Islands and the Old World tropics.<ref name="CRC">{{cite book|author=James A. Duke and Judith L. duCellier|title=CRC Handbook of Alternative Cash Crops|date=1993|publisher=CRC Press|chapter=LEUCAENA LEUCOCEPHALA |pages=294-296}}</ref> |
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Leucaena can produce 50–80 t/ha/year green matter and about 2–20 t/ha/year dry matter. Pods yield can vary between 4.5–7 kg per tree.<ref name="CRC" /> The tree produces wood yield of about 30-40 m<sup>3</sup>/ha/year.<ref name="GFU">{{cite web |url=http://www.underutilized-species.org/species/species_details.asp?id=318 |title=Leucaena leucocephala |work=GFU Database |publisher=Global facilitation Unit for underutilized species |Retrieved=2011-04-29}}</ref> It is estimated, that an area of 2-5 million ha is cultivated.<ref name="fao">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Publicat/Gutt-shel/x5556e06.htm |title=Leucaena leucocephala - the Most Widely Used Forage Tree Legume |publisher=FAO |Retrieved=2011-04-20}}</ref> |
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==Product and use== |
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Leaf tips can be used as a vegetable, pods and seeds can be used as food. It is possible to use the seeds as a coffee substitute.<ref name="WAC" /> The leaves provide a protein rich fodder, which can be consumed browsed or harvested. Leucaena is as well a good cover and green manure crop and is also of value in land reclamation, erosion control, water conservation, reforestation and soil improvement.<ref name="CRC" /> |
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The wood is also used in the paper production (fibre) and is a good timber. L. leucocephala is able to produce a gum, which is similar to gum Arabic. The tree produces the gum when stressed by insects or disease.<ref name="fao" /> |
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Leucaena is also widely used as fuel or charcoal, because of its very hard and heavy wood. Leucaena wood has 39% the calorific value of fuel oil, charcoal has 72.5%.<ref name="CRC" /> |
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==Nutritive value== |
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Leucaena is a fodder tree with a high quality. The nutritive value of the leaves is very high and comparable with the fodder crop alfalfa. Leaves can have 55-70% digestability and 20-25% crude protein.<ref name="WAC" /> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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! General compositor !! Leucaena leucocephala !! Alfalfa |
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| Total ash (%) || 11 || 16.6 |
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| Total N (%) || 4.2 || 4.3 |
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| Crude protein (%) || 25.9 || 26.9 |
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| Modified-acid-detergent fibre (%) || 20.4 || 21.7 |
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| Calcium (%) || 2.36 || 3.15 |
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| Phosphorus (%) || 0.23 || 0.36 |
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| b -carotene (mg/kg) || 536.0 || 253.0 |
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| Gross energy (kJ/g) || 20.1 || 18.5 |
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| Tannin (mg/g) || 10.15 || 0.13 |
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|}<ref name="fao" /> |
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'''Toxicity:''' Leucaena leaves and pods contain the toxic amino acid mimosine. The content in edible forage is 4-5%, but the seeds and the youngest leaves can contain about 10%. In non-ruminent animals a high intake of the toxic amino acid can cause loss of hair. In ruminats the mimosine is broken down in the rumen to dihidroxypyridine. A content of more than 40% Leucaena in the diet can also cause symptoms of intoxication in ruminents .<ref name="CRC" /> |
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==Soil and climate requirements== |
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L. leucocephala is a tropical plant with no frost tolerance but with a high drought tolerance although the yields are lower in dry environments. Waterlogging can reduce the production or can damage young seedlings, but established plants easily survive a short excess of water. The crop requires temperatures about 25-30°C (day) for optimum growth.<ref name="fao" /> It grows well at altitudes from 0-1500 m and needs mean annual rainfalls from 650-3000 mm.<ref name="WAC" /> |
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Because of its deep root system the tree grows well on different soil types.<ref name="CRC" /> Leucaena thrives best on deep, well drained, neutral to alkaline clay soils <ref name="fao" /> and is not tolerant of soils with low pH and high salinity<ref name="WAC" />. For an optimal growth performance Leucaena requires adequate amounts of phosphorus and calcium <ref name="fao" /> and does not like high alluminium saturation<ref name="WAC" />. |
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==Cultivation== |
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'''Planting:''' For planting seed or ‘bar stem’ seedlings are used. The recommended seeding rates are 1-2 kg/ha. The seeds are best sown early in the growing season 2-3 cm deep in rows of 3-10 m. Rainfall should be reliable. The Leucaena seedlings do not cope well with weed competition therefore weed control is needed.<ref name="fao" /> |
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'''Fertilisation:''' On infertile tropical soils fertilisation at planting, especially with phosphorus and calcium will be required. To extend the performance of the roots Leucaena needs the vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae mainly to access the immobile phosphorus. If phosphorus is low up to 100 kg/ha could be applied. Liming will be required in acid soils (pH < 5.0). A lack of calcium in the soil will lower the nodulation.<ref name="fao" /> |
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==Harvest== |
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Leucaena can be harvested for fodder at any stage. The yields of the green forage are at peak on 10-12 week cycles.<ref name="CRC" /> The tree can be cut or grazed by animals. The crop is highly productive and recovers quickly from defoliation and tolerates several decades of cutting and grazing.<ref name="WAC" /> |
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==Interactions: Pests, diseases, symbionts == |
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'''Nitrogen fixation:''' L. leucocephala is a legume and in the symbiosis with Rhizobia bacteria the tree is able to fix about 500 kg nitrogen per ha annually. The nitrogen fixing nodules are found on the small lateral roots near the soil surface.<ref name="CRC" /> |
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'''Pest and diseases:''' "L. leucocephala is susceptible to the psyllid Heteropsylla cubana, which has caused serious defoliation and mortality in eastern Africa. A Caribbean parasitoid, Psyllaephagus, shows specificity and excellent appetite for H.cubana and hence offers possibilities for biological control. Some varieties are susceptible to gummosis, most likely caused by Fusarium semitectum. Ganoderma lucidum causes root rot in arid and semi-arid regions. Leaf-spot fungus also can cause defoliation under wet conditions. Wild animals avidly consume seedlings."<ref name="WAC" /> |
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==Invasive properties== |
==Invasive properties== |
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''Leucaena leucocephala'' is highly [[Invasive species|invasive]] in the arid parts of [[Taiwan]], the [[Hawaiian Islands]], [[Fiji]], and northern [[Australia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weeds.org.au/cgi-bin/weedident.cgi?tpl=plant.tpl&state=&s=&ibra=all&card=T20 |title=Leucaena ''Leucaena leucocephala'' |work=Weed Identification & Information |publisher=Australian Weeds Strategy |accessdate=2009-09-19}}</ref> It grows quickly, and forms dense thickets which crowd out any native vegetation.<ref |
''Leucaena leucocephala'' is highly [[Invasive species|invasive]] in the arid parts of [[Taiwan]], the [[Hawaiian Islands]], [[Fiji]], and northern [[Australia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weeds.org.au/cgi-bin/weedident.cgi?tpl=plant.tpl&state=&s=&ibra=all&card=T20 |title=Leucaena ''Leucaena leucocephala'' |work=Weed Identification & Information |publisher=Australian Weeds Strategy |accessdate=2009-09-19}}</ref> It grows quickly, and forms dense thickets which crowd out any native vegetation.<ref name="WAC" /> ''L. leucocephala'' is considered one of the 100 worst invasive species by the Invasive Species Specialist Group of the [[IUCN Species Survival Commission]].<ref name="GISB" /> |
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The plant is also found in [[California]], [[Arizona]], [[Texas]] and [[Florida]] and is considered weedy or invasive by some authorities.<ref name="usda">{{cite web|url=http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=LELE10|title=Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit white leadtree|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|accessdate=8 June 2010}}</ref> |
The plant is also found in [[California]], [[Arizona]], [[Texas]] and [[Florida]] and is considered weedy or invasive by some authorities.<ref name="usda">{{cite web|url=http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=LELE10|title=Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit white leadtree|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|accessdate=8 June 2010}}</ref> |
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==References== |
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==Names in other languages== |
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*[[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]: ''koa haole'', meaning "foreign ''[[Acacia koa]]''"<ref name="CFTH">{{cite web |url=http://www2.ctahr.hawaii.edu/forestry/trees/CommonTreesHI/CFT_Leucaena_leucocephala.pdf |format=PDF |title=Koa haole, leucaena |first=Elbert L. |last=Little Jr. |coauthors=Roger G. Skolmen |work=Common Forest Trees of Hawaii |publisher=United States Forest Service |year=1989 |accessdate=2010-01-18}}</ref> |
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*[[India]]: ''Subabul'' <!-- which language? (=Hindi) --> |
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*[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''petai cina'' |
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*[[Javanese language|Javanese]]: ''lamtoro'' or ''lamotorogung'' |
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*[[Lao language|Lao]]: ''kathin'' ({{lang-lo|ກະຖິນ}}) |
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*[[Myanmar]]: ''Bawzagaing'' <!-- which language? --> |
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*[[Spanish language|Spanish]]: Guaje<ref name="GRIN"/> |
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*[[Thai language|Thai]]: ''krathin'' ({{lang-th|กระถิน}}) |
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*[[Filipino language|Tagalog]]: ''ipil-ipil'',<ref name=BPI/> ''santa-elena'', ''santaelena''<ref name=JETE>{{cite-JETE|Ipil-ipil, also known as ''santa-elena'', ''santaelena''}}</ref> |
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*[[Cebuano language|Cebuano]]: ''byatilis'' or ''luyluy''<ref name=WCED>{{cite-WCED}}</ref> |
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*[[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''Ginnem'' or ''ギンネム'' |
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[[User:Thonc|Thonc]] ([[User talk:Thonc|talk]]) 17:07, 18 May 2011 (UTC) |
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Revision as of 17:07, 18 May 2011
| Leucaena leucocephala | |
|---|---|
| |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | |
| (unranked): | |
| (unranked): | |
| (unranked): | |
| Order: | |
| Family: | |
| Subfamily: | |
| Tribe: | |
| Genus: | |
| Species: | L. leucocephala
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| Binomial name | |
| Leucaena leucocephala | |
| Synonyms | |
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Leucaena glauca (L.) Benth.[2] | |
Leucaena leucocephala, also known as Leucaena glauca is a highly branched small tree or shrub, which belongs to the family Mimosaceae. Leucaena is an evergreen, deep rooted plant, which may grow to heights of 3–15 (max. 20) m with a bole diameter of 10–50 cm and a bole hight to 5 m. L. leucocephala has an upright angular branching, which forms a narrow open crown. The leaves are bipinnate with 6-9 pairs. The leaflets are 9-16 mm long and 2-4.5 mm wide. The self-fertile flowers are white or cream-white. 100–180 flowers per head are forming a globular shape. The pods are 13-18 mm long, flat and brown containing a number of seeds.
L. leucocephala is used for a variety of purposes, such as firewood, fiber and livestock fodder.[3]
Origin and regions of cultivation
L. leucocephala is probably native to southern Mexico and northern Central America . It is naturalized throughout the West Indies from Bahamas and Cuba to Trinidad and Tobago, and from Texas and Florida to Brazil and Chile. It is also established in Hawaii, Pacific Islands and the Old World tropics.[4]
Yield
Leucaena can produce 50–80 t/ha/year green matter and about 2–20 t/ha/year dry matter. Pods yield can vary between 4.5–7 kg per tree.[4] The tree produces wood yield of about 30-40 m3/ha/year.[5] It is estimated, that an area of 2-5 million ha is cultivated.[6]
Product and use
Leaf tips can be used as a vegetable, pods and seeds can be used as food. It is possible to use the seeds as a coffee substitute.[3] The leaves provide a protein rich fodder, which can be consumed browsed or harvested. Leucaena is as well a good cover and green manure crop and is also of value in land reclamation, erosion control, water conservation, reforestation and soil improvement.[4] The wood is also used in the paper production (fibre) and is a good timber. L. leucocephala is able to produce a gum, which is similar to gum Arabic. The tree produces the gum when stressed by insects or disease.[6] Leucaena is also widely used as fuel or charcoal, because of its very hard and heavy wood. Leucaena wood has 39% the calorific value of fuel oil, charcoal has 72.5%.[4]
Nutritive value
Leucaena is a fodder tree with a high quality. The nutritive value of the leaves is very high and comparable with the fodder crop alfalfa. Leaves can have 55-70% digestability and 20-25% crude protein.[3]
| General compositor | Leucaena leucocephala | Alfalfa |
|---|---|---|
| Total ash (%) | 11 | 16.6 |
| Total N (%) | 4.2 | 4.3 |
| Crude protein (%) | 25.9 | 26.9 |
| Modified-acid-detergent fibre (%) | 20.4 | 21.7 |
| Calcium (%) | 2.36 | 3.15 |
| Phosphorus (%) | 0.23 | 0.36 |
| b -carotene (mg/kg) | 536.0 | 253.0 |
| Gross energy (kJ/g) | 20.1 | 18.5 |
| Tannin (mg/g) | 10.15 | 0.13 |
Toxicity: Leucaena leaves and pods contain the toxic amino acid mimosine. The content in edible forage is 4-5%, but the seeds and the youngest leaves can contain about 10%. In non-ruminent animals a high intake of the toxic amino acid can cause loss of hair. In ruminats the mimosine is broken down in the rumen to dihidroxypyridine. A content of more than 40% Leucaena in the diet can also cause symptoms of intoxication in ruminents .[4]
Soil and climate requirements
L. leucocephala is a tropical plant with no frost tolerance but with a high drought tolerance although the yields are lower in dry environments. Waterlogging can reduce the production or can damage young seedlings, but established plants easily survive a short excess of water. The crop requires temperatures about 25-30°C (day) for optimum growth.[6] It grows well at altitudes from 0-1500 m and needs mean annual rainfalls from 650-3000 mm.[3]
Because of its deep root system the tree grows well on different soil types.[4] Leucaena thrives best on deep, well drained, neutral to alkaline clay soils [6] and is not tolerant of soils with low pH and high salinity[3]. For an optimal growth performance Leucaena requires adequate amounts of phosphorus and calcium [6] and does not like high alluminium saturation[3].
Cultivation
Planting: For planting seed or ‘bar stem’ seedlings are used. The recommended seeding rates are 1-2 kg/ha. The seeds are best sown early in the growing season 2-3 cm deep in rows of 3-10 m. Rainfall should be reliable. The Leucaena seedlings do not cope well with weed competition therefore weed control is needed.[6]
Fertilisation: On infertile tropical soils fertilisation at planting, especially with phosphorus and calcium will be required. To extend the performance of the roots Leucaena needs the vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae mainly to access the immobile phosphorus. If phosphorus is low up to 100 kg/ha could be applied. Liming will be required in acid soils (pH < 5.0). A lack of calcium in the soil will lower the nodulation.[6]
Harvest
Leucaena can be harvested for fodder at any stage. The yields of the green forage are at peak on 10-12 week cycles.[4] The tree can be cut or grazed by animals. The crop is highly productive and recovers quickly from defoliation and tolerates several decades of cutting and grazing.[3]
Interactions: Pests, diseases, symbionts
Nitrogen fixation: L. leucocephala is a legume and in the symbiosis with Rhizobia bacteria the tree is able to fix about 500 kg nitrogen per ha annually. The nitrogen fixing nodules are found on the small lateral roots near the soil surface.[4]
Pest and diseases: "L. leucocephala is susceptible to the psyllid Heteropsylla cubana, which has caused serious defoliation and mortality in eastern Africa. A Caribbean parasitoid, Psyllaephagus, shows specificity and excellent appetite for H.cubana and hence offers possibilities for biological control. Some varieties are susceptible to gummosis, most likely caused by Fusarium semitectum. Ganoderma lucidum causes root rot in arid and semi-arid regions. Leaf-spot fungus also can cause defoliation under wet conditions. Wild animals avidly consume seedlings."[3]
Invasive properties
Leucaena leucocephala is highly invasive in the arid parts of Taiwan, the Hawaiian Islands, Fiji, and northern Australia.[7] It grows quickly, and forms dense thickets which crowd out any native vegetation.[3] L. leucocephala is considered one of the 100 worst invasive species by the Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission.[2]
The plant is also found in California, Arizona, Texas and Florida and is considered weedy or invasive by some authorities.[8]
References
- ^ "Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 1995-03-24. Retrieved 2010-01-18.
- ^ a b "Leucaena leucocephala (tree)". Global Invasive Species Database. Invasive Species Specialist Group. Retrieved 2010-01-18.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Leucaena leucocephala" (PDF). Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|Retrieved=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d e f g h James A. Duke and Judith L. duCellier (1993). "LEUCAENA LEUCOCEPHALA". CRC Handbook of Alternative Cash Crops. CRC Press. pp. 294–296.
- ^ "Leucaena leucocephala". GFU Database. Global facilitation Unit for underutilized species.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|Retrieved=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d e f g h "Leucaena leucocephala - the Most Widely Used Forage Tree Legume". FAO.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|Retrieved=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ "Leucaena Leucaena leucocephala". Weed Identification & Information. Australian Weeds Strategy. Retrieved 2009-09-19.
- ^ "Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit white leadtree". United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 8 June 2010.
External links
- Handbook of Energy Crops at Purdue University: Leucaena leucocephala
- Economics of Subabul Plantation In Hegde, N.G. and Abhyanker, P.D. (eds.) The Greening of Wastelands.
- Relwani, L.L. & Hegde, N.G. 1986.
- Leucaena leucocephala factsheet
- Pradip Krishen, 'Trees of Delhi a Field Guide',DK publishers, Page 291, 2006